Con ten ts

Preface v

Part One WHA T IS SOCIALPSYCHOLOGY? 1

The Domain of SocialPsychology 3

Some Problems of Interest to SocialPsychology 4Case 1. Questioning the Witnesses 4

Social Inffuences on Memory 5Applying Social Psychology 5

Case 2. Why Did He Do lt? Attributions toOthers and to Oneself 5

GausaIAttributions 5Thinking about Ourselves 6

Case 3. How the United States BecameEnmeshed in Vietnam 6

Thinking and Decision Making 6Steteotypes 7

Case 4. Changes in Stereotypes, Opinions,and A ttitudes 7

Case 5. Cults, Conformity, and Persuasion 8joining and Gonforming to Groups 9Persuasion and Leadership 10

Case 6. Does Familiarity Breed Contempt?The Development of Liking and the Changeof Attitudes 10

Case 7. Criminal Violence and Handguns 10Deiinition, Aim, and Gauses of Aggression II

What Social Psychology Is 12Dehnition and Focus 12Emphasis on Theories 13Theories and How to Evaluate Them 14Theoretical Perspectives 15

Theoretical Perspectives in the History ofSocial Psychology 16

Some Philosophical and SociologicalPrecursors 16Social Psychology Gets Under Way 18Social Psychology from the Late 1920s to WorldWar JI 19Social Psychology after World War JI 20

Summary 21

Research Methods inSocial Psychology 25

Social Psychology as Science 26The Quest for Assurance 26Testing the Validity of Hypotheses 26Relying on Authorities 26Common Sense as a Source of Knowledge 27Distorted Perceptions 28The 1mportance of Replication 29The Hypothesis Test 30

Formulating the Investigation 30Selecting the Problem 30Discovery through Research 32Operationalizing the Concepts 33

Designing the Investigation 33Correlational Research 33Experiments 35Field Experiments and Quasi Experiments 37

Sampling 39The Literary Digest Poli: A Classic Case of

Unrepresentative Sampling 39Achieving Representativeness 39

Some Possible Problems with Experiments 40Generalizing 41Experimental Artifacts 411mplications 43

Some Ethicallssues in ExperimentalResearch 43

Deceptions 43Summary 45

CONTENTS

Part Two SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICALPERSPECTIVES 49

Social Motivation 51Seeking a Desired Payoff 52

Wanting What We Can Get 52Expectancy- Value Analyses 52

Choosing Alternatives 53Examples of Expectancy- Value Analyses 53

Equityand What People Think TheyDeserve 53

Equity in the Economic Area 541nvestments That Count 54

Comparing Outcomes 56Reference Groups as Comparison Standards 56Comparisons, Expecietions, and Fairness 58

The Valued Self 60Wanting a Favorable Standing 60Selt-Presentation 61

Impression Management 61Selt-Consistency: To Thine Own Seit Be

True 62Self-Awareness 62Consequences of Self-Focused Attention 63

Cognitive Dissonance 64Wanting Consistent Cognitions 64Leter Revision: Threat to the Self 64Conditions Facilitating Dissonance 65

egative Reflection on the Self 66Is the Dissonance Reaction only a Self-Presentation? 67The Pervasiveness of Dissonance 68

The Controlling, Effective Self 68Control over Outcomes 68

Control over Unpleasant Events 68Control over Rewsrds 70

Personal Control and Behavior 71Perceived Locus of Rewards 71Self-EHicacy 72

The Desire for Control 72The 1llusion of Control 72

Self-Knowledge 74Social Comparisons 74Similar in What Way? 75

Summary 76

Social Cognition 79

Gategories and Schemas 80The Categorization Process 80Schemas Guiding Understanding andMemory 83Holding on to Schemas: When Belief CreatesReality 86

Gausai Judgments 91Attribution Theory 91Attribution Rules 94Analysis of a Single Incident: Psychologist Ratherthan Statistician 96Attributional Biases: The Individual as ImperfectScientist 96Attributions in Self-perception 99

Limited Rationality 103Sslience, Attention, and Availability in CausalJudgments 103Optimizing and Satisficing 105Judgmental Biases in Probsbiliiy Estimates 106

Summary 109

Unreasoned Behavior 113

Nonthoughtful Influences 114We Know Nat What We Do-Sometimes 114The Effect of Repeated Exposure onAttitudes 114The Formation and Operation ofAssociations 116

A Look at Emotions 120Cognitive Shaping of Emotion Arousal 120

Emotions as Netwoiks 122Affect and Consistency J 24

Routines in Thought and Action 125Thinking Only When Necessary 125Social Scripts 126Scripts and Mindlessness 127Social Rules and Ethnomethodology J 28

Summary 129

Part Three BASIC TOPICS INSOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 133

PERSON PERCEPTION 135

David L. Hamilton

A Gonceptual Framework for UnderstandingPerson Perception 136

The Information Available J 36Cognitive Structures 137Cognitive Processing 137Representations in Memory 137Subsequent Use of Information 138

Schemas in Person Perception 138Influence of Schemas on Attention 138Influence of Schemas on Interpretation J 39Influence of Schemas on What Information IsProcessed and Retained 139Influence of Schemas on Organization ofInformation in Memory 142Influence of Schemas on InferenceProcesses 142Influence of Schemas on Behavior 14 3Influence of Schemas on Person Perception:Summary 145

Impression Formation 145Development of First Impressions: Asch's

Work 145Organizing the Information 145Influence of "Central" Traits J 46Interaction of Information J 46

CONTENTS

Person Memory 147Organization in Memory 147Processing Information about Several Persons:Persons as Organizing Units 148

Information Integration in Judgments ofOthers 149

Anderson 's Approach 149Differential Weighting of Information 150

Attribution Processes in PersonPerception 154

Correspondent Inference Theory 155The Fundamental Attribution Etroi 157Attributions of Actors and Observers 158Effect of Salience on Person Perception 160

Summary 161

Attitudes and Action 165

Importance of Attitudes 166Inconsistencies between Attitudes andBehavior 166Attitudes Do Matter-Sometimes 166

Definition of Attitude 168Types of Definitions 168Attitude as Feeling 168Attitudes and Opinions 168

Operation of Attitudes 169Reasoned Reactions 169

Expected Benefits 169The Fishbein-Ajzen Theory of ReasonedAction 170Activating Intentions 172

Affective Reactions 173Feeling-Driven Behevior 173Cognitive Consistency 173Balance Theory 175Amount of Thought 177Dissonance Theory 177

When Attitudes Predict Behavior 178A Classic Failure 178

Activate the Attitude 178Sufliciently Strong Feelings 178

CONTENTS

Types of Attitudes and Accessibility 180Relevance and Specificity 182

Attitude Relevance 182Measure Attitudes at the Appropriate Level ofSpecificity 183

Summary 183

Persuasion and AttitudeChange

Changed Attitudes Can Change BehaviorRoutes to Attitude Change 188The Role of Thoughts in Attitude Change 189

People Do Nat Always Think: The Importanceof Involvement 189Differences between the Broadcast and the PrintMedia 190Active Thinkers: Cognitive Responses asMediators of Persuasion 193Communicetot's Credibility and CognitiveResponses 194

Feelings and Attitude Change 195Pleasant Feelings Smooth the Way 195Cognitive Dissonance and A ttitude

Change 195Deviating from One's Attitudes 195Attitude-Discrepant Communications 196Nonobvious Results: Persuasiveness of theUnattractive Communicator 197Dissonance and Decisions 197

Involuntary Processes in Attitude Formationand Change 199

Associative Factors in Attitude Development andChange 199More Exposure and the Effects ofRepetition 200

Resistance to Persuasion 201Indications of Resistance 201

Selective Exposure 201To Be Forewarned Is to Be Forearmed 203

Reactance and Threats to One' sFreedom 203Reactance Theory 203Implications: Doa't Push Too Hard 205

Summary 205

187188

Social Influence:Conformity, Compliance,and Obedience 209

Types of Influence 210Conformity 211The Asch Experiments 211

The Original Research 211Leiet Investigations 213

Analyzing Conformity 214Factors Influencing Normative Social

Influence 214Deviation May Be Dangerous 214Power 215

Factors Affecting Informationallnfluence 219Consensus and the Social Definition ofReality 219The Sherif Experiment 220Affecting "Reelity" by Altering the ApparentConsensus 220

Influence of Minority on Majority 224Why Does the Majority Accept New Ideas? 224A Concept of Minority Influence 225

Compliance 227Inducing Compliance 227

The Apparent Support for an Action 227Self-commitment 228Low-Balling 230The Foot-in-the-Dooi Technique 231

Obedience 232Compliance with Authority 232

Succumbing to Power 232Research on Reactions to Legitimate

Authority 234Other 1nvestigations 235

Summary 237

Interpersonal Attraction:Liking and PersonalRelationships 239

The Development of Liking 240Rewards and Liking 241

Liking Those Who Benefit Us 241Qualities of Likable People 242Coopetstion, Competition, and Rewards 243Liking Those Who Like Us 244

Attitude Similarity and Liking 245Correlational Evidence 245Experiments on Attitude Similarity 247The Benelits of Attitude Agreement 248Dissimilarity Can Produce Dislike 248Similarity on Social Characteristics 249

Nonthoughtful Influences 252Mere Exposure 252

Familiarity 252Effects of Social Contact 253

Limitations of Social Contact 256The Complex Effects of RacialDesegregation 256Feciots Limiting the Benefits of SocialContacts 257

Associations with Pleasant Events 258Physical Attractiveness 258

Effects of Physical Attractiveness 259

Personal Relationships 260Close Relationships 260

Characteristics of Close Relationships 260Ftietidships 261Love 263The Role of Feelings in Love 263

The Development of Love 266Proximity and Contact 266The Role of Physical Attractiveness 266A Satisfying Relationship 269

Summary 270

Group Dynamics

Individuais and Group Members 274What a Group Is 274Individual Reactions to Others 276

Social Facilitation 276Social Loafing 278

273

CONTENTS

Groups Are Different from MereAggregations 280

Categorizations into Groups 280Within-Group Influence 280

Ingroup-Outgroup Relations 281Effects of the Ingroup-Outgroup

Distinction 281Automatic Cognitive Processes in GroupRelations 282Favoring the Ingroup over the Outgroup 283

Group Characteristies 285Group Cohesiveness 285

Sources of Cohesiveness 285Consequences of Cohesiveness 286

Group Structure: Differentiation among theMembers 288

Status in the Group 289Communication Channels in the Group 290

Leadership 292Gaining Leadership Status 292Effective Leadership Behavior 294

Leadership Roles 295Effects of Lesdėtship Roles 295Situational Conditions and LeaderEffectiveness 295

Group Performance 297Performance 297Status Bsttiets 298Social Pressures 299

Summary 301

Aggression 305Defining Aggression 307Influences on Unreasoned Aggression 308Instinct Notions of Aggression 308

Two Concepts of an Instinctive Drive towardAggression 308Evaluation of Aggressive Instinct Concepts 309An Alternative Concept of Instincts 309

CONTENTS

Frustration and Aggression 310The Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis 310Definition of Frustration 310The Relation between Frustration andAggression 311Factors Affecting the Likelihood That FrustrationWill Lead to Open Aggression 313

Aversively Generated Aggression 315Frustrations as A versive Events 315Reactions to Aversive Events 315Research on A versively GeneratedAggression 316Other Evidence Regarding the Negative Effectsof Aversive Stimulation 317Attributions, Perceived Intentions, andUnpleasantness 318Some Implications: Some Effects of AversiveEvents on Violent Crimes 319

Involuntary Effects of EnvironmentalStimuli 320

Associations with Aversive Conditions 320Associations with Aggression: The Weapon'sEffect 322

Cognitive Processes in AggressiveBehavior 324How Understanding Affects Aggression 324

Understanding the Arousing Incident 324Consistency with Self-conceptions 325The Benefits of Aggression 326Some Unreasoned Effects of PositiveReinforcements 330

Lessening and Controlling Aggression 331Lessening Aggressive Inclinations 331Control of Aggression 332

Summary 335

Helpfulness and Altruism 339The Importance of the Situation 341

Modern Life and Indifference 341Why Help Is Given 342

The Other's Need 345Interpretation of the Situation 345

Bystander's Influence 345Emotion Arousal and Empathy 349

Arousal as a Spur to Action 349Empathy 349

Social Norms and Person al Ideals 352Social Norms Prescribing Help 352

The Reciprocity Norm 353The Social Responsibi!ity Norm 354

PersonaI Values and Self-Conceptions 358Personalldeals 358Self-Conceptions and Self-Consistency 358Self-Awareness and Self-Concern 358

PersonaI Responsibility 360One's Responsibility to Aid Others 361The Di!fusion of Responsibility 362

Costs and Feelings 363The Costs of Helpfulness 363

Types of Costs 363Reactance as a Cost of Helping 365

Effects of Feelings on Helpfulness 366Guilt-Edged Helpfulness 366Mood and Magnanimity 369

Summary 371

Sex Differences andSimilarities 375

Margaret Matlin

Interpersonal Communication 376Facial Expression 376Eye Contact 377Personal Space 377Touch 378Talking Patterns 378Individual Di!ferences in Communication

Persuasion and Influence 379Influencing Others 379Being Influenced by Others 380

Helping and Altruism 381

AItruism 381Empathy 382

Aggression 383Factors Influencing Sex Di!ferences 384Sex Roles and Aggression 384Origins of Sex Di!ferences in Aggression 385

Work 386Achievement Motivation and Fear ofSuccess 386Leadership 388Characteristics of Workers 389

Social Cognitions about Gender 390Categorization on the Basis of Sex 390Sex Stereotypes 392Evafuations of Males and Females 393Attributions for Males and Females 394

Summary 395

Part Four APPL YING SOCIALPSYCHOLOGY 399

The Environment andSocial Behavior 401Vernon L. Allen

Behavior-Environment Processes 403Personal Space 403Territoriality 406Crowding 407Privacy 411Interrelations among Processes 413

Architecture, Design, and SocialInteraction 413

Interior Design and theMicro-Environment 414Residences 414Institutions 417Architectural Determinism 418

The City 419Cognitive Maps 419ProsocialBehavior 422

CONTENTS

Crime and Vandalism 422Information Over/oad 424

Summary 426

Social Psychology andTrial by Jury 429

Charlan Jeanne Nemeth

Historical Background and Place in theCommunity 430

History of fury TriaIs 430Cross-Section of the Community 431

Jury Selection 431Operation of fury Selection Procedures 432Sex Diiierences 433Other Demographic Variables: Rsce, Age,Politics, Education 434Predictions from Personality and Attitudes 434

The Credibility of the Facts: EyewitnessTestimony 438

The Unreliability of the Eyewiiness 438The Interrogation Process 440Improving Eyewitness Reports 441

The Jury as a Group 442Conformity to Majority Opinion 442Influence of the Minority 442Acting ConFidently in Choice of Seat 443The Influencial Minority: The Case ofChoa 443

Procedural Changes in Our Jury System 444Allowing for SmalIer furies 444Allowing for Unaninimity 445Empirical Research on Nonunanimity 445Community ConFidence 446

Summary 446

Health Psychology: ASocial PsychologicalPerspective

Howard Leventhal

What Is Health Psychology? 450

449

CONTENTS

The Basic Questions in Health Psychology 450Conceptual Issues in Health Psychology 451

Health Behavior 452The Need for Health Behavior Research 452

Changes in Ptevslence and Incidence ofDisease 452

Approaches to Prevention 454Biomedical Approaches to Prevention 454Behsviotsl Approaches to Prevention 454Risk Factors 454Changing Risk Factors 457Responses to Warnings of Danger 458

Large-Scale Interventions 460Community- Wide Interventions: The Stanford 3Community Program 460The School Model 462

Smoking as a Social PsychologicalProcess 463

Why People Smoke 463Designing Interventions for Smokets'Needs 464

IlIness Behavior 465Components of an IIIness Episode 465

Stages of Jllness Behavior 465Jllness Representation and Jllness Behavior 466

Coping and Adaptation to IIIness 468Emotional Response to Jllness and ltsTreatment 468Cognitive Representation of Jllness andCoping 468Automatic Representations of Jllness andlnvoluntetv Reactions 470Long- Term Adaptation to Chronic Jllness 471

Compliance with Medical Regimens 472Beheviorsl Approaches to Compliance 473Cognitive (Self-Regulation) Approaches toCompliance 473

Summary 475

References 477Name Index 522Subject Index 530