DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHYPUNJABI UNIVERSITY PATIALA

PAPER:RESEARCH METHODOLOGY IN GEOGRAPHY

SEMINAR ON: CONCEPT AND BASICS OF RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY; THE RESEARCH PROCESS; PARAMETERS OF GEOGRAPHIC RESEARCH

SUBMITTED TO : DR. BALJIT KAUR(ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

SUBMITTED BY : LAKHVEER SINGH

OCTOBER,2016PUNJABI UNIVERSITY, PATIALA

Learning ObjectivesBy the end of this presentation you will

able to:1-Define and explain the concept of

scientific research, deduction and induction reasoning , theory, hypothesis and empiricism, etc.

2- Steps in conducting a research and research process.

3- parameters in geographic research.

Concepts & Basics of Research Methodology

Definition of ResearchResearch is a scientific way of answering

questions and testing hypothesis.More specifically According to Merriam Webster

Dictionary: “Research is the systematic and objective

analysis and recording of controlled observations that may lead to the development of generalizations, principles, or theories, resulting in prediction and possible control of events”.

Approaches to KnowledgeFive sources of evidence in the pursuit of

truth: 1. Authority 2. Custom and tradition3. Personal experience 4. Deductive reasoning 5. Scientific inquiry

Approaches to ResearchDeductive ReasoningThinking proceeds from general assumption

to specific application GENERAL SPECIFIC Inductive Reasoning Conclusions about events (general) are

based on information generated through many individual and direct observations (specific).

SPECIFIC GENERAL

Deductive vs. Inductive Reasoning• Deductive: –All rivers are perennial. All mountains have

rivers.Therefore, every mountain has perennial

river.• Inductive: – Every mountain has been observed has

perennial river.Therefore, every mountain has perennial

river.

DEDUCTION: INDUCTION:

THEORY OBSERVATION

HYPOTHESIS PATTERN

OBSERVATION TENTATIVE HYPOTHESIS

CONFIRMATION THEORY

Hypothesis– A belief or prediction of the final outcome

of the research – A concrete, specific statement about the

relationships between phenomena – Based on deductive reasoning

Theory– A belief or assumption about how things

relate to each other – A theory establishes a cause-and-effect

relationship between variables with a purpose of explaining and predicting phenomena

– Based on inductive reasoning

hypotheses

In an ideal world… theory

law

Empiricism :• Acquiring information and facts through the

observation of our worldPragmatic observations :Developing theory through experience and

observation.

Research Design and MethodologyIn general, a research design is like a

blueprint for the research.

Research Methodology concerns how the design is implemented, how the research is carried out. 

A few designsCross-Sectional Design

Longitudinal Design

Time Series Design

Panel Design

A Cross-sectional design is used for research that collects data on relevant variables one time only from a variety of people, subjects, or phenomena.

A longitudinal design collects data over long periods of time. Measurements are taken on each variable over two or more distinct time periods. 

A Time Series Design collects data on the same variable at regular intervals in the form of aggregate measures of a population. For example, Indian census.

A Panel Designs collect repeated measurements from the same people or subjects over time.

TYPES OF RESEARCH METHODLOGYResearch Classifications • System #1: – Basic research – Applied research • System #2: – Quantitative research – Qualitative research • System #3: – Experimental research – Non-experimental research

BASIC APPLIED

•Pure Fundamental Research•Discovery Of New Knowledge; Theoretical In Nature•Takes Many Years For Results Of Basic Research To Find Some Practical Utility

•Central Purpose To Solve Immediate Problem•Improved Products And Processes•Interpretation Of Results Is Relies Upon Basic Research

QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE

•Numerical And Observable Data•Traditional And Positivist Approachi. Clearly Stated

Questionsii. Relational

Hypothesesiii. Developed

Research Procedures

iv. Large Samplesv. Tradition And

Statistical Analysis

•Generally Non-numerical Data•Typically Anthropological And Sociological Method•Observation Of Natural Settings•In-depth Description Of Situations•Interpretative And Descriptive

EXPERIMENTAL NON-EXPERIMENTAL

•Cause- And- Effect•Extraneous Variable Controls•Prediction Variables And Outcome Variables

•Causal – Comparative•Descriptive •Correctional•Historical

Action researchAction research is a style of research, rather

than a specific methodology. In action research, the researchers work with the people and for the people, rather than undertake research on them. The focus of action research is on generating solutions to problems identified by the people who are going to use the results of research. Action research is not synonymous with qualitative research. But it typically draws on qualitative methods such as interviews and observations.

Experimental Design1. Pre Experimental 2. Quasi Experimental 3. True Experimental

1. Pre Experimental :Pre-experimental designs are so named because they follow basic experimental steps but fail to include a control group. In other words, a single group is often studied but no comparison between an equivalent non-treatment group is made.

2. Quasi Experimental :Quasi designs fair better than pre-experimental studies in that they employ a means to compare groups. They fall short, however on one very important aspect of the experiment: randomization.

3. True Experimental :The true experiment is often thought of as the only research method that can adequately measure the cause and effect relationship.

Thus, Research Methodology: 1. Quantitative methods 2. Qualitative methods 3. Mixed methods The methodological history can be summarized

as three waves __ The dominance of quantitative methods as

wave..1 The emergence of qualitative methods as wave

….2 The growth of mixed methods as wave

……………..3

Criteria for a good research topic

A good research topic should be feasible (can be done), interesting, novel, ethical and relevant (has an implication). These criteria have been collectively called the

F.I.N.E.R

The Research Process

Purposes of ResearchExploration

gaining some familiarity with a topic, discovering some of its main dimensions, and possibly planning more structured research

Description Descriptive research attempts to describe systematically a

situation, problem, phenomenon, service or programme, or provides information about , say, living condition of a community, or describes attitudes towards an issue.e.g., Census Bureau’s report on number of Indians. Political poll predicting who will win an election Anthropologist’s ethnographic account of a preliterate tribe

Explanation Take it one step further. Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how there is a

relationship between two or more aspects of a situation or phenomenon.

Research ‘Musts’

Problem must be clearly recognized.Determine information already available

and what further information is required, as well as the best approach for obtaining it.

Obtain and assess information objectively to help inform the decision.

Main ‘Six’ Phases of Research1. Problem definition2. Literature review3. Selection of research design, subjects,

and data collection techniques4. Data gathering5. Data processing and analysis6. Implications, Conclusions, and

Recommendations

Problem DefinitionDescribe broader context (background)State the objectives or purposesInform reader about the scope of the

study, including defining any terms, limitations, or restrictionsReduces potential criticisms

State the hypothesis (es)

Demarcation of study areaAfter deciding the problem of research we

should demarcate the research or study area of relevant discipline. for example: punjab.

Unit of AnalysisMajor entity you are analyzing in your studyIt is the type of object that makes up each

data pointIndividualsGeographical unitsPolitical unitsSocial interactions

Unit of Analysis ErrorIn some studies people are studying long

time period, rather than short. When this is done, the unit of study presently is different from the unit of previous (usually).This is sometimes called a unit of analysis

error.

It can result in studies having narrower confidence intervals and receiving more weight than is appropriate.

Literature ReviewGives theoretical rationale of problem being

studied, what research has been done and how it relates to the problemHelpful to divide the literature into sub-topics for

ease of reading

Quality of literature should be assessed

Be sure to include well respected ‘individuals’ in the research area (if they exist)

Selection of Research DesignThe research design indicates the steps

that will need to be take and the sequence they will occur

Each design can rely on one ore more data collection technique

Assess reliability and validityCritical consideration in determining

methodology is the selection of subjects

Data GatheringData collection is the most important work, is research. The

collection of information must be containing on facts which is from the following two types of research.

Primary Data Collection: primary data may be from following.

1. Experiment2. Questionnaire3. Observation4. InterviewSecondary data Collection: it has the following

categories:5. Review of literature6. Officials and non- officials reports 7. Census data8. Library approach9. Technological approach

Data AnalysisWhen data is collected, it is forwarded for

analysis which is the most technical job. Data analysis may be divided into two main categories.

Data Processing: It Is Sub-divided Into Following;

Data Editing, Data Coding, Data Classification, Data Tabulation, Data Presentation, Data Measurement

Data Exposition: Data Exposition Has Following Sub-categories.

Description, Explanation, Narration, Conclusion/Findings, Recommendations/Suggestions

Hypothesis testingResearch data is then forwarded to test the

hypothesis. Do the hypothesis are related to the facts or not? To find the answer the process of testing hypothesis is undertaken which may result in accepting or rejecting the hypothesis.

Generalization and interpretationThe acceptable hypothesis is possible for

research to arrival at the process of generalization or to make and theory. Some types of research has no hypothesis for which research depends upon on theory which is known as interpretation.

Interpreting the ResultsMake sure to consider the audience

Discuss implications for the population of interest and future research

Preparation of reportA research should prepare a report for which he has done

his work. He must keep in his mind the following points:Report design in primary stages:The report should carry a title, brief introduction of the

problem and background followed by acknowledgement. There should be a table of contents, grapes and charts.

Main test of the reportIt should contain objectives, hypothesis, explanations and

methodology of the research. It must be divided into chapters and every chapter explains separate title in which summary of the findings should be enlisted. The last section would be clearly of conclusions to show the main theme of the research study.

Closing the reportAfter the preparation of report, the last step

in business research process contains of bibliography, references, appendices, index and maps or charts for illustration. For this purpose the information should be more clearer.

PARAMETRES OF GEOGRAPHICAL RESEARCH

PARAMETRE Is Combination of Two Greek Words: PARA + METREN which means subsidiary + measures

The term is used to identified a definable, constant or valuable characteristics, a value, a measureable factor that can help in defining a particular system.

Parameters in statistics is an important component of any statistical analysis. For e.g., a parameter is any numerical quantity that characterizes a given population or some aspect of it. This means the parameter tells us something about the whole population.

Research Methods Used By Geographers

Direct Observation: used to study the Earth and the patterns of human activities that take place on its surface

Mapping: cartography; maps allow a visual comparison between places and regions

Interviewing: used to find out what how people think and feel about certain places; also may want to examine the ways in which people's beliefs and attitudes have affected the physical environment

Analyzing Statistics: analyze temperature, rainfall, a region's climate, use computers to organize and present this information, data to find patterns and trends, then the geographers use statistical tests to see whether their ideas are valid.

Using Technology: GIS; computer tech. has transformed the process of mapmaking; most cartographers rely on computer software to make maps

Parameters in geographic research The common parameters or steps which are

followed in any sub branch of geography while conducting research are:

1. Selection and definition of problem based on the study of relevant references of the contemporary environments, people and polity.

2. Defining the significant deferential of the problem and area theme selection of temporal and spatial factor.

3. Hypotheses formulations.

Cont…

4. Testing and verifying hypotheses on the basis of primary and secondary data collected by the researchers.

5. Using cartographic techniques to make research geographic and scientific .

6. Finding out or suggesting the solution of the problem that have been researched.

Statistical Parameters used in geographic research coordinate system: Coordinate systems

enable geographic datasets to use common locations for integration.

A coordinate system is a reference system used to represent the locations of geographic features, imagery, and observations, such as Global Positioning System (GPS) locations, within a common geographic framework.

spatial reference: spatial reference is a series of parameters that define the coordinate system and other spatial properties for each dataset in the geodatabase.

Cont…Geographic coordinate systems : A geographic

coordinate system (GCS) uses a three-dimensional spherical surface to define locations on the earth. A GCS is often incorrectly called a datum, but a datum is only one part of a GCS.

Geographic (datum) transformations: If two datasets are not referenced to the same geographic coordinate system, you may need to perform a geographic (datum) transformation. It is very important to correctly use a geographic transformation.

Map projections: Whether you treat the earth as a sphere or a spheroid, you must transform its three-dimensional surface to create a flat map sheet. This mathematical transformation is commonly referred to as a map projection.

Thank you