concepts in learning theories used in curriculum planning

8/3/2019 Concepts in Learning Theories Used in Curriculum Planning

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CONCEPTS IN LEARNING THEORIESUSED IN CURRICULUM PLANNING

REPORTER: Jan Mae Lee

CLINICAL TEACHING


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CURRICULUM

Refers to the content and processes

by which learners gain knowledgeand understanding, develop skills,

and alter attitudes, appreciation,

and values under the auspices of agiven school or program.


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CONCEPTS OF A CURRICULUM

A defined philosophy or mission statement

An organizing framework

Anticipated outcomes, competencies, and/orobjectives to be achieved

Selected content with specific sequencing of thecontent

Educational activities and experiences to facilitatelearning

Means of evaluation


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*In curriculum planning, members may choose a

single or combinations with specific nursingtheory/model or/and learning theories on

which to build the framework of the

curriculum.


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LEARNING THEORIES

Describe the processes used to

bring about changes in the waysindividuals understand information

and changes the ways they perform

a task or skill.


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BEHAVIORAL

LEARNING THEORIESFocuses on what is directly observable in

learners. A view that assumes a learner is

essentially passive, responding to

environmental stimuli.


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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

A form of associative learning where there is a

demonstration of how stimulus-response

bonds (which some consider as the basicbuilding blocks of learning) are formed.

It involves the association an unconditioned

and a conditioned stimulus in such a way thatthe conditioned stimulus elicits the

unconditioned response.

IVAN PAVLOV


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CONCEPTS

Conditioning The initiation of an involuntary reaction

due to continuous use of a stimulus.

Controlled Stimulus Stimulus initially inadequate to

evoke response in question but will do so if paired withthe unconditioned stimulus.

Uncontrolled Stimulus Stimulus adequate at the

onset of training to produce the response in question.

Controlled Response Learned response to acontrolled stimulus.

Uncontrolled Response Response to an uncontrolled

stimulus.


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CONCEPTS

Stimulus Generalization

Happens once a conditioned response to a stimulus

of a certain kind is established, then the response

will also occur to stimuli which are similar to theoriginal stimulus.

No learning occurs unless there is a generalization

No two stimuli or stimulus situations are exactly alike.

They must be treated as if they were exactly alike inorder to elicit the same response.


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CONCEPTS

Discrimination Eliciting different responses to twodifferent stimuli

Extinction Stimulus that are no longer reinforced

tend to disappear from the learners repertoire of

behavior

Spontaneous Recovery

The return of a conditioned response, following

experimental extinction, after periods ofreinforcement.

Once a conditioned response is established, it never

completely disappears from the behavioral

repertoire of the learner.


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OPERANT CONDITIONING

Another form of associative learning where there is aprocess of operating on the environment. Togetherwith the concepts in classical conditioning the learner

encounters another kind of stimulus, which is thereinforcing stimulus (reinforcer). This special stimulushas the effect of increasing the behavior occurring justbefore the reinforcer.

Described as the behavior is followed by a

consequence, and the nature of the consequencemodifies the organism's tendency to repeat thebehavior in the future. A behavior followed by areinforcing stimulus results in an increased probabilityof that behavior occurring in the future.

B.F. SKINNER


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OPERANT CONDITIONING

Learning process whereby a desirable

behavior is made more likely to occur in thefuture or to occur more frequently because it

is reinforced or strengthened.

B.F. Skinner defined learning as a change inprobability of response.

B.F. SKINNER


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CONCEPTS

Operant Set of behaviors that constitute an

individual doing something.

Reinforcement

The notion that learning takes place because of the

consequences of a behavior.

Any event that strengthens or increases the behavior

it follows.


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CONCEPTS

Kinds of Reinforcement Positive Reinforcement - favorable events or outcomes

that are presented after the behavior. In situations

that reflect positive reinforcement, a response or

behavior is strengthened by the addition ofsomething, such as praise or a direct reward.

Negative Reinforcement - involve the removal of an

unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of a

behavior. In these situations, a response isstrengthened by the removal of something considered

unpleasant.

*in both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior

increases.


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CONCEPTS

Punishment

An action that suppresses or reduces the probability of the

response it follows.

The presentation of an adverse event or outcome.

Kinds of Punishment

Positive Punishment - punishment by application, involves

the presentation of an unfavorable event or outcome in

order to weaken the response it follows.

Negative Punishment - punishment by removal occurswhen a favorable event or outcome is removed after a

behavior occurs.

*in both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior

increases.


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CONCEPTS

Types of Reinforcement

Primary reinforcement instinctive behaviors lead to

satisfaction of basic survival needs such as food,

water, sex, shelter. No learning takes place because

the behaviors emerge spontaneously.

Secondary reinforcement the reinforcer is not

reinforcing by itself, but becomes reinforcing when

paired with a primary reinforcer, such as pairing a

sound or a light with food.

Generalized reinforcement stimuli become

reinforcing through repeated pairing with primary or

secondary reinforcers. Many are culturally reinforced.


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CONCEPTS

Schedules of Reinforcement giving reinforcement on different schedules has different

results for training.

Continuous reinforcement reinforcement is given

every time the animal gives the desired response. Intermittent reinforcement reinforcement is given

only part of the times the animal gives the desired

response.

Ratio reinforcement a pre-determined proportion ofresponses will be reinforced.

Fixed ratio reinforcement reinforcement is given on a

regular ratio, such as every fifth time the desired

behavior is produced.


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CONCEPTS

Schedules of Reinforcement (cont.) Variable (random) fixed reinforcement

reinforcement is given for a predetermined

proportion of responses, but randomly instead of

on a fixed schedule.

Interval reinforcement reinforcement is given

after a predetermined period of time.

Fixed interval reinforcement reinforcement isgiven on a regular schedule.

Variable interval reinforcement reinforcement is

given after random amounts of time have passed.


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CONCEPTS

Acquisition Rate How rapidly an animal can be

trained to a new operant behavior as a function of

reinforcement.

Rate of Response Measure of learning that is very

sensitive to different schedules of reinforcement.

Extinction Rate The rate at which an operant

response disappears following the withdrawal ofreinforcement.


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CONCEPTS

Acquisition Rate How rapidly an animal can be

trained to a new operant behavior as a function of

reinforcement.

Rate of Response Measure of learning that is very

sensitive to different schedules of reinforcement.

Extinction Rate The rate at which an operant

response disappears following the withdrawal ofreinforcement.


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BEHAVIORISM

Coined the term behaviorism

Further extended Pavlovs work and applied it

to human beings.

JOHN B. WATSON


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CONCEPTS

Behaviorism

Assumes that behavior is observable and can be

correlated with other observable events. Thus, there

are events that precede and follow behavior. Its goal is to explain relationships between

antecedent conditions (stimuli), behavior (responses),

and consequences (reward, punishment, or neutral

effect).


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CONCEPTS

Aspects of Behaviorismo Opposes mentalistic concepts

o Uses contiguity to explain learning

o Considers emotion to be just another example of

classical conditioning

o Rejects the notion of individual differences

o Thought complex behaviors came about through

combinations of identifiable reflexeso Believes that all human differences were the result

of learning

o Believes that practice strengthens learning


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CONNECTIVISM

Perceived that learners are empty organisms

who respond to stimuli in a random manner.Rejected the notion that man is simply

another animal that can reason. He believed

intelligence should be defined solely in termsof greater or lesser ability to form

connections.

E.L. THORNDIKE


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CONCEPTS

Law of Effect States that the responses which occurjust prior to a satisfying state of affairs are more likely

to be repeated, and responses just prior to an annoying

state of affairs are more likely not to be repeated.

Multiple Response In any given situation, theorganism will respond in a variety of ways if the first

response does not immediately lead to a more

satisfying state of affairs. Problem solving is through

trial and error.Set or Attitude There are predisposition's to behave

or react in a particular way. These are unique for

species or groups of related species, and may be

culturally determined in humans.


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CONCEPTS

Prepotency of Elements Thorndike observed that a

learner could filter out irrelevant aspects of a

situation and respond only to significant (proponent)

elements in a problem situation.Response by Analogy In a new context, responses

from related or similar contexts may be transferred to

the new context. This is sometimes referred to as the

theory of identical elements.

Associative Shifting It is possible to shift any

response from one stimulus to another.


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CONCEPTS

Law of Readiness A series of responses can be

chained together to satisfy some goal which will

result in annoyance if blocked.

Law of Exercise Connections become strengthened

with practice, and weaken when practice is

discontinued.

Intelligence is a function of the number ofconnections made.


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DRIVE REDUCTION THEORY

Based on Thorndikes work, but included

reinforcement as a major characteristic of

learning.

CLARK L. HULL


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CONCEPTS

Drive Reduction Theory

postulated that behavior occurs in response to

"drives" such as hunger, thirst, sexual interest, feeling

cold, etc. When the goal of the drive is attained (food,water, mating, warmth) the drive is reduced, at least

temporarily. This reduction of drive serves as a

reinforcer for learning. Thus learning involves a

dynamic interplay between survival drives and theirattainment. The bonding of the drive with the goal of

the drive was a type of reinforcement, and his theory

was a reinforcement theory of learning.


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COGNITIVE

LEARNING THEORIESFocuses on the inner mental activities opening theblack box of the human mind is valuable and necessary

for understanding how people learn. Mental processes

such as thinking, memory, knowing, and problem-solving

need to be explored. Knowledge can be seen as schema

or symbolic mental constructions. Learning is defined as

change in a learners schemata.


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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

A four-stage model of how the mind processes

new information encountered.

He posited that children progress through 4

stages and that they all do so in the same

order.

JEAN PIAGET


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CONCEPTS 4 STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Sensorimotor (Birth 2 years old)

The infant builds an understanding of himself or herself and

reality (and how things work) through interactions with the

environment.

Learning takes place via assimilation (the organization of

information and absorbing it into existing schema) and

accommodation (when an object cannot be assimilated and

the schemata have to be modified to include the object.)

Pre-operational (2 4 years old)

The child is not yet able to conceptualize abstractly and

needs concrete physical situations.

Objects are classified in simple ways, especially by important

features.


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CONCEPTS 4 STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (cont.)

Concrete Operational (7 11 years old)

The child begins to think abstractly and

conceptualize, creating logical structures that

explain his or her physical experiences. Formal Operations (11 15 years old)

TheCognition reaches its final form.

The person no longer requires concrete objects tomake rational judgments. He or she is capable of

deductive and hypothetical reasoning. His or her

ability for abstract thinking is very similar to an

adult.


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CONCEPTS

Assimilation The process by which a person takes

material into their mind from the environment, which

may mean changing the evidence of their senses to

make it fit.

Accommodation The difference made to one's mind

or concepts by the process of assimilation. Note that

assimilation and accommodation go together: you

can't have one without the other.Classification The ability to group objects together

on the basis of common features.


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CONCEPTS

Class inclusion The understanding more advancedthan simple classification, that some classes or sets of

objects are also sub-sets of a larger class. (E.g. there

is a class of objects called dogs. There is also a class

called animals. But all dogs are also animals, so theclass of animals includes that of dogs)

Conservation The realisation that objects or sets of

objects stay the same even when they are changed

about or made to look different.

Decentration The ability to move away from one

system of classification to another one as

appropriate.


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CONCEPTS

Egocentrism The belief that you are the centre ofthe universe and everything revolves around you: the

corresponding inability to see the world as someone

else does and adapt to it. Not moral "selfishness",

just an early stage of psychological development.Operation The process of working something out in

your head. Young children (in the sensorimotor and

pre-operational stages) have to act, and try things out

in the real world, to work things out (like count on

fingers) older children and adults can do more in their

heads.


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CONCEPTS

Schema (scheme) The representation in the mind of

a set of perceptions, ideas, and/or actions, which go

together.

Stage A period in a child's development in which he

or she is capable of understanding some things but

not others


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CONDITIONS OF LEARNING

Much of an individuals learning (from sensorimotor

to highly complex intellectual skills) requires different

conditions for learning to be successful.

Classified learning outcomes into five different

categories. Each category involves both internal and

external conditions that contribute to, or interfere

with the learning process.

Believed that there are 8 different types of learning

that proceed sequentially in hierarchical order.

ROBERT M. GAGNE


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CONCEPTS

Learning Outcomes

Intellectual skills

Verbal information

Cognitive strategies

Motor skills

Attitudes


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CONCEPTS

Types of Learning Signal Learning

An involuntary response occurs to a specific stimulus

(Pavlov)

Stimulus response

A voluntary response occurs to a specific stimulus

(Skinner)

Chaining

Two or more stimulus response associations occur

and a sequence of behavior is learned.

Verbal Association

The chaining of stimulus response connections


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CONCEPTS

Types of Learning (cont.) Discrimination Learning

The learner responds to one stimuli but not a similar one

Concept Learning

The learner organizes different stimuli into a class and

then responds to any member of that class in the same

way

Principle or Rule Learning

A chain of two or more concepts

Problem Solving

The combination of two or more principles or rules to

form higher order thinking patterns.

concepts in learning theories used in curriculum planning

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