“concoctions”: intrinsic motivation, creative thinking, frame theory, and structured...

“Concoctions”: Intrinsic Motivation, Creative Thinking, Frame Theory, and Structured

Interactions in the Language Class Stephen A. Sadow

Northeastern University

ABSTRACT “Concoctions” constitutes a style o f small group and pair activities that have proved highly successful in stimulating language interaction in a wide variety o f instructional settings. Unlike many group activities, “Concoctions” are built around tasks which are fanciful and ambiguous. They involve unusual problems to be solved, a limited use o f role play, and humor. Since many factors are at work during any group activity, it is difficult to establish de- finitively what it is about these activities that provokes language use. Fortunately, observations borrowed from motivation and creativity theory, frame theory, training and development, early childhood education, and literary criticism, taken together, suggest the principles that underlie “Concoctions. ” From all these disciplines, the concepts of “intrinsic motivation” and “frame theory” are the most powerful in helping to explain how the activities work. “Intrinsic motivation” means here that students should be able to enjoy an activity for its own sake; “frame theory” suggests that students should be able to recognize, if only on an unconscious level, the structure inherent in the problem. This recognition prompts individual and group reactions to that structure. Along with the theoretical discussion, numerous “Concoctions” are included throughout the text and in an appendix.

Introduction Pair and group activities have become indis- pensable tools for teaching students how to use language and how to develop thinking skills I Proponents of cooperative learning go so far as to suggest that the traditional whole- class approach to teaching should be entirely supplanted by a group-based approach! (Sha- ran and Shaulov 1990, 298).2 Pointing to interaction as central to language learning, Wilga M. Rivers (1982,4) argues that “students achieve facility in using a language when their attention is focused on conveying and receiv- ing authentic messages (that is, messages that contain information of interest to speaker and listener in a situation of importance to both).” There is debate in second language acquisition circles as to whether students actually ac-

Stephen A. Sudow (Ph.D., Harvard University) is Associate Professor of Modern Languages at Northeastern Univer- sity, Boston, MA.

quire language while working in groups (Ellis 1990, 13 and 113; Prabhu 1987, 81-83). How- ever, there is extensive empirical evidence that during certain activities, student interaction intensifies, and language use increases markedly.

Not all activities are equally effective. Some activities clearly “work” better than others. Students speak more (and listen more, and even think and write more). And they have a better time doing so.

Unfortunately, many classroom activities are not especially productive or even interest- ing. For one thing, they may be overly simplis- tic; they underestimate what might interest students and what they might produce. Most stay unrelentingly anchored in an overly sim- plified version of reality, and this proves limit- ing. Students are directed through endless role-play scenes that are supposed to be like real life (even if few students will ever find themselves in similar situations in their real

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life). In what might be called the “Can I get a room with a view of the plaza?” school of activities, students order a meal, buy a train ticket, or ask the price of a pair of boots. Most matrices (incomplete conversations) call for predictable fill-ins. These activities ask students for answers that are adequate responses to the questions posed but are not original or unique; students are not expected to add meaning to what is already there. Even the more sophisticated types of activities, such as the “information gap” and “jigsaw” exercises, rarely require more than the ability to formu- late and answer “yes-no” questions or other types of simple queries.

There are types of activities that require somewhat more of students and point the way to what can be done. Ur (1982) has students explain things to visiting extraterrestrials. Omaggio (1986, 193-217) includes many “oral proficiency” style activities which ask students to play “Biographical Bingo” by filling in a family tree and “Group Picture Story” in which students build a story after seeing a group of unrelated pictures. In activities employing re- alia, students pretend to use timetable or movie schedules to plan “pretend” voyages and nights on the town. Maley and Duff (1982) propose a type of pantomime exercise to precede oral practice, and they suggest a number of imaginative activities in which students invent new machines and find new uses for a sock. After a review of expressive activities, Richard-Amato (1988, 145) concludes:

Story-telling, role play, and drama, through their attention to human experience, can involve students in highly motivating activity. Because students can lose themselves in the characters, plots and situations, they are more apt to receive the benefits of reduced anxiety levels, increased self-confidence and esteem, or simple recognition of emotional states.

In this vein, DiPietro’s widely used “scenarios” (1987), in which students take opposite sides in culturally determined situations, have

proved to be especially versatile. Acting out a complex and realistic situation, students must make up utterances which are both linguisti- cally and culturally appropriate. These “scenarios,” which include preparation, planning, performing, and debriefing, depend on group cohesion and the ability to manage language functions.

Concoctions “Concoctions” work differently. Rather than

stressing crosscultural difficulties as d o DiPi- etro’s scenarios or the mimes and improvisa- tions advocated by Maley and Duff, “Con- coctions” entail unusual problems which are to be solved creatively. The need to respond to these predicaments foments language use. While doing them, students in groups create a new animal, find an immediate use for a mil- lion pounds of potatoes, plan model cities, invent a heroine for a country that lacks one, and write plays with happy endings. In one, students are told:

After weeks of hiking through uninhab- ited, thick woodlands and open prairie, climbing steep mountainsides, boating down wild rivers and across quiet lakes, you have finally reached the long- sought coast. Your explorations have been a great success, and you expect to b e heroes and heroines when you f i - nally return home. But first you must draw a complete map of your travels. Draw your route as accurately as possible, pointing out places that are especially beautiful or especially difficult to cross. Be sure to invent names for all the places you’ve passed through.

The task is loosely tied to reality, recognizable, but at the same time a bit strange. The task may seem unusual, but the conversational procedures used in doing it-turn-tak- ing, repair, topic fluidity-are essentially the same employed in planning a weekend project or crosscountry trip (Kinginger 1993). “Concoctions,” the type of activities presented throughout this paper, have been used in high

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school and college foreign language courses -from Spanish to American Sign Language to Hebrew to Japanese-and in English as a Sec- ond or Foreign Language classes from Japan to Paraguay. Some of them require language skills of advanced students, while others can be introduced as early as the end of the first year of high school or the first semester of college courses.

Why are “Concoctions” effective? What goes into their formation? How can they be replicated? Unfortunately, relevant research in education and applied linguistics is not suf- ficiently conclusive to provide the basis for guidelines for activity creation and selection. It is necessary, therefore, to look at other disciplines for help in understanding how these activities operate. Findings in motivation, creativity theory, artificial intelligence, frame theory, learning theory, and small group behavior can be highly suggestive, providing insight into why some activities work and clues about how to concoct effective ones. In short, the question to b e examined is what kinds of activities are most likely to catch student attention and promote participation.

Intrinsic Motivation and Creative Thinking

In Toward a Theory of Instruction, Jerome Bruner (1966, 114), discussing motivation and curiosity in children, offers a starting point:

Almost all children possess what have come to be known as “intrinsic” motives for learning. An intrinsic motive is one that does not depend upon reward that lies outside the activity it impels. Re- ward inheres in the successful termina- tion of that activity or even in the activity itself.

Curiosity is almost a prototype of the intrinsic motive. Our attention is at- tracted to something that is unclear, unfinished, or uncertain. We sustain our attention until the matter in hand becomes clear, finished, or certain. The achievement of clarity or merely the search for it is what satisfies.

In contrast, discussions of motivation in language learning since Gardner and Lambert (1972) have tended to focus on integratiue motiuafion, interest in and identification with the target culture, and instrumental motiuation, the potential for use of the language in trade or tourism (see Richard-Amato 1988, 366-69).

However, it is often overlooked that intrinsic motiuation for language learning can be cru- cial in initiating and sustaining language study (see Grittner 1977, 2545). Finding enjoyment in doing a task for its own sake is an immediate, urgent reason for learning. Rivers (1983, 1 IS), expanding upon Ausubel (1974), explains that “when we capitalize on the student’s initial motivation, focus it, and direct it into egoenhancing learning experiences, this satisfaction motivates the student to further learning along these lines.” Intrinsic motivation is both a cause and an effect. Using more and more language brings with it an increase in confidence and hence more language.

Contemporary creativity theory supports the view that intrinsic motivation is vital to learning. Psychologist Teresa Amabile’s comments about fomenting creativity in children in Growing Up Creatiue (1989) can be applied, with only minor adjustment, to language learning. She reports:

People will be most creative when they feel motivated primarily by the interest, enjoyment, satisfaction, and challenge of the work itself-and not by external pressures. This is called the Intrinsic Motivation Principle of Creativity. (51)

Amabile goes on to say that being intrinsi- cally motivated has four main aspects: having love for and even an obsession with the task at hand, a sense of dedication to the work over time, a view of the project as combining work and play, and a concentration on the activity itself. This sort of motivation is unique to each individual (51). It may be spurred by the enjoyment of social interaction, the chance to play with new ideas, experience sensory plea- sure or achieve heightened self-esteem.

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Moreover, if individuals have high intrinsic motivation, they are more likely to become emotionally engaged in relevant tasks. (Amabile 1983, 87).

Clearly, classroom activities should be designed that will increase intrinsic motivation. These activities should not be threatening to students, but rather foster feelings of securi- ty and trust in the classroom environment (see Curran 1972 and Stevick 1976). While no activity will interest every student, varied formats can be found that will provoke excited reactions from many. The more students are “inter- ested,” the more they will have to say. The question, then, is how to motivate language students by “interest, enjoyment, satisfaction, and challenge of the work itself.” While love may be too much to ask, a combination of work and play with a concentration on the activity itself can certainly be stimulated.

The teacher can announce:

I have just received a message from the government of Contursia. It seems that during the months of October and November, which is spring there, there are no holidays. Each year the people become bored and restless. The Contursian leaders ask that you, experts in celebrating holidays, invent a new holiday. You should be sure to describe the customs that will be practiced. (Adapted from Sadow 1987, 37.)

E. Paul Torrance established long ago that certain types of activities could raise the level of student interest and stimulate the production of creative ideas. Breaking with authori- tarian classroom practices, Torrance (1970,7) told teachers that good classroom activities should include:

1. Confrontation with ambiguities and uncertainties; 2. Heightened anticipation and expec- tation 3. The familiar made strange or the strange made familiar by analogy; 4. Looking at the same thing from several psychological, sociological, physi-

cal, and emotional viewpoints; 5. Provocative questions requiring the learner to examine information in new ways; 6. Predictions from limited information required; 7. Tasks structured only enough to give clues and direction; 8. Encouragement to take the next step beyond what is known.

Torrance argued that ambiguity and change of perspective affect student participation in both quality and quantity. Students were to be steered toward figuring things out for themselves. Similarly, Edward DiBono (1973) argued for lateral thinking which included the generation of alternatives, structured problem-solving, and thinking by analogy.

Morris 1. Stein’s work on “brainstorming” (1975) provides a model for group process that calls for a high level of individual participation. While the term “brainstorming” has come to stand for any intense participatory planning meeting, it originally stood for a highly organized and goalariented process. Stein drew from the work of Alex Osborn (1963), who believed that individual and group problemsolving skills could be greatly improved (see Sadow 1983, 115-6, on the rele- vance of brainstorming to language learning). In Stein’s view (1975,29-30), there were “rules” for successful brainstorming that included:

1. Criticism is ruled out-group members may not comment on each other’s ideas; 2. Freewheeling is welcomed-participants are to feel free to offer any idea ... the wilder the better; 3. Quantity is wanted ... the more ideas suggested, the greater probability an original one will come up; 4. Combination and improvement are sought ... the intent of this rule is to motivate participants to build on others’ ideas. “Concoctions” meet Torrance’s need for

ambiguity, provide ample opportunity for Stein’s brainstorming, allow for the choices suggested by Perkins, and with Amabile, avoid

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evaluation. They provoke multiple responses. For example, the following quandary can be resolved in myriad ways.

After seemingly interminable negotia- tions, the executives of Smith & Co., makers of clocks, and Jones & Co., makers of electric appliances, have reached an agreement for the merger of the two companies. However, there is a major problem as yet unresolved. The new agreement is in danger because the two groups cannot reach a compromise about a name for the new company; in a similar fashion, they have not been able to settle on a logo or a slogan. Heated discussions have led nowhere.

In desperation, they have decided to communicate with you, well-known commercial artists and highly experi- enced consultants. They request that you find an original and appropriate name-Smith & Jones is not accept- able-that you design an eye-catching emblem, and that you invent a slogan that will reflect the spirit of the new company. (Translated from Sadow 1989,58.)

Here, students, temporarily in the guise of commercial artists, must come up with ideas for three separate problems. For many, this sort of low-intensity roleplay makes the activity less treatening. Since they are not really commercial artists or consultants or archeolo- gists or weather forecasters, they can feel free to behave like them without fearing the con- sequences of their actions in a real situation. In each case, though, they must negotiate within the group to achieve the most accept- able and satisfactory solution.

The intensity of the curiosity that is evoked (see Holt 1969), not the level of language competence nor the attempt to simulate reality, is the key factor in making communicative activities effective. This curiosity can be primed and heightened by the content and structure of the activities themselves. Situ- ations that are incomplete, unstable, and even

unusual provoke reaction. Calling for opfirnal challenge and nooelry, interest researcher Edward Deci (1992, 50) explains:

Activities or ideas that people find inter- esting are usually optimally discrepant from what they know or can do. These activities require that people “stretch” their capacities or expand their cognitive structures. Interest is what people are likely to feel when they encounter such optimally challenging tasks, and those are the tasks people freely seek. Activities should be constructed to “change the minds” of the students doing them; they should lead the learner to think in new and different ways.

“Interestingness,” the ability to grab and hold student attention may be more important than the practice of specific language points. Activities that evoke a sense of excite- ment and fun and the need to actually think both provoke and reward curiosity.

Given the right sort of push, students will en- gage in explorations of all sorts, create imagi- nary beings and worlds for them to inhabit, and solve, if only indirectly, very real social prob lems. The dilemmas posed to them should be “optimally discrepant,” just challenging enough to hold their interest without provoking frustration. Students should deal with problems they can handle with the language they know. But they should be prodded to use that language as ingeniously as they can.

Frame Theory While used in linguistics and literary analy-

sis, harne fheory is most closely associated with research in artificial intelligence. Although this theory remains tentative even after years of development, it provides a powerful way of looking at activities. Computer scientist Marvin Minsky (1986,245) provides a classic statement of the theory:

A harne is a sort of skeleton, s o m e what like an application form with many

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blanks or slots to be filled. We’ll call these blanks its terminals; we use them as connection points to which we can attach other kinds of information. For example, a frame that represents a “chair” might have some terminals to represent a seat, a back, and legs, while a frame to represent a “person” would have some terminals for a body and head and arms and legs. To represent a particular chair or person, we simply fill in the terminals of the corresponding frames with structures that represent, in more detail, particular features of the back, seat, and legs of that particular person or chair ... Default assumptions fill our Frames to represent what’s typical. As soon as you hear a word like “person,” “frog,” or “chair,” you assume the details of some “typical” sort of person, frog, or chair. You do not do this only with language, but with vision, too ... Default assignments are of huge significance because they help us represent our pre- vious experience. We use them for rea- soning, recognizing, generalizing, pre- dicting what may happen next, and knowing what we ought to try when expectations aren’t met. Our frames affect every thought and everything we do. Frames are drawn from past experience and rarely fit new situations perfectly.

According to frame theory, hierarchical mental structures, created through extended experience, make it possible for people to recognize new versions of places, things, rela- tionships, and linguistic forms. A refrigerator is recognized as a refrigerator even if the size, configuration, and power source differ from the familiar. Remembered forms are not only quickly identified, they are generally added to by thoughts and feelings currently present. The refrigerator may bring forth thoughts of furnishing a newly purchased house or of having to make a trip to the dump. Most often frames carry subframes-a salad frame con- tains vegetable frames, for instance. Partial or unfinished frames are inherently unstable;

most people feel a need to finish them by ‘‘filling in the blanks” or “connecting the dots.”

Frames chosen for use in “Concoctions” are familiar, if a bit vague. They do not contain readily identifiable names, places, products, or slogans which would act to direct or limit student thinking. (Calling a country “Fisher- land” tends to focus thinking on fish, fisher- man, and hurricanes). They avoid problems that have been solved over and over again- how to update last year’s car model-for which there actually is one preferred solution-where to build a specific dwelling- and those that are too complex for the prospective student groupdesign an entirely new university.

Sociologist Erving Goffman (1981) looked at the social applications of frames. In his view, social frames are the “schemata of inter- pretation” within which experience becomes meaningful. There are frames for the different aspects of conversational dialogue, such as questions and answers and forms of polite ness. Activities built from “gambits,” short phrases that orient conversational utterances, can be structured around familiar social frames:’ Unlike matrices that control student responses, these provide a format upon which they can develop personalized and interde pendent responses.

In pairs, students complete these inter- changes.

a. I’d like to invite you to- b. I’d like to, but ~ ~~

a. That’s no problem. ~~

b. In that case, ~ ~~ ~ ~~

~~

A slight twist on a common social frame

At the airport, you meet an old and dear friend whom you haven’t seen for years. You have only five minutes before you must board your plane. Bring each other up to date. Then say a teary good-bye.

can lead to unexpected responses:

Frames can be broken, and when they are,

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the results can be humorous, disturbing, and even shocking. Analyzing the literary move- ments of Dada and Surrealism, critic Inez Hedges (1983) shows how artists such as And& Breton, whose bizarre stories, and Luis Buiiuel, whose horrifying juxtaposition of images like eyes and straight razors, jolted the expectations (frames) of their public. Hedges goes on to explain that:

Literary and linguistic conventions, when seen as frames, produce “default assignments” that correspond to the conventional expectations of readers once the particular frame has been identified. Works in which these default assignments are consistently violated demand considerable activity on the part of the perceivers, who will be kept on edge wondering whether to discard the frame initially selected or make modifications on the old frame. (38)

“On the other hand,” she adds, “frame-making is a more specifically cognitive activity, rely- ing on strategies of understanding that the per- ceiver has learned though experience.” (39)

Hedges applies the concepts frame-breaking and frame-making to the analysis of literary genres. Her ideas can help explain the power of those activities that entail breaking or making of frames. Students can be told to compose examples of almost any familiar literary genre from obituaries and cereal boxes to morality plays and movie scripts. Stories can be built (or rebuilt) from one line--“An unexpected letter arrived in Thursday’s mail”-or by rearranging the component parts of a well-known genre like the horror film or the fable. The inclusion of archetypal figures can make an activity even more com- pelling.

The bookstore “The Little Ones” special- izes in children’s literature. One day a rare book appeared in the store. Obviously extremely old, the volume had a very worn leather binding and paper that fell apart if touched careless-

ly. Nobody knew the origin of the book. Even stranger, the book’s text, over the years, had become illegible and the story impossible to decipher. Curiously, there are nine engravings that have not deteriorated at all. They appear to have been the book’s illustrations.

Until now, nobody has been able to figure out the message of these draw- ings. Knowing that all of you are experts in children’s literature, the owner of the bookstore asks that you reconstruct the story’s plot. She hopes that you can include all nine engravings and reestab- lish the connections between them. (Translated from Sadow 1989, 106-7.)

The students’ lifetime experiences provide them with the frames underlying children’s stories. They also will relate to old and rare objects and will appreciate a touch of mystery. The “engraved” illustrations are inten- tionally archetypal in nature: the teacher would likely include a wise old man, a maid- en in distress, an inexperienced young man with a strong arm and a good heart, a river to cross, a castle, and a cave. The groups will have to reconstitute the parts in the making of new frames or, in surrealist fashion, rearrange them in a series of unexpected adventures. In one related activity, students are told of a crime scene and given a set of unrelated clues; they then resolutely try to solve a crime that never happened. In another, students play would-be graduates of a fortunetelling academy. For the final examination, they must interpret sets of ersatz Tarot cards that contain figures such as “the lock and key,” “the mask,” and “the barking dog.”” In all of these, students take recognizable if confusing components and make surprising composites, new responses that have never been made before.

Conclusion With “Concoctions,” students are given

something to build upon. The problem, question, or situation at hand is at once motiva-

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tional and ambiguous. A kernel sentence or paradigm provokes elaborate responses. Curiosity and “optimal challenge” are stimulated. The opportunity for “brainstorming” and consequent divergent thinking is present. Activities are structured so that they both include familiar frames and suggest the breaking of them. Students respond to these problems because they find them fun to d o and because the achieving of their solutions is often immensely satisfying.

Students cannot learn to d o “Concoctions” by trying them once. A class must be gradual- ly prepared and given experience in creative thinking and, if necessaly, in group work. They must become comfortable with each other. With each practice, they will come to be con- fident of their own abilities and more willing to try more challenging material. Autonomy from teacher direction will develop activities that stimulate intrinsic motivation and optimal challenge, are ambiguous, and structured around familiar frames, lead to intense language use and much “new” thinking.

NOTES ‘The literature on group process is vast, span-

ning the fields of social psychology, communication studies, business administration, and linguistics. Particularly useful to those without experience in group work are Cohen (1986) and Brilhart & Galanes (1989).

-Cooperative learning, essentially a set of man- agement techniques for organizing students into task-oriented small groups, has gained popularity in settings as varied as mathematics and multicul- turalism. Backers of cooperative learning report that research suggests that these techniques motivate students, increase academic performance, encourage active learning, and promote literacy, language, and intercultural skills. Several useful works on cooperative learning are: McGroarty (1989), Johnson & Johnson (1989); Sharan & Shaulov (1990); and Hamm & A d a m (1992).

’ An excellent presentation of how “gambits” can be taught is found in Keller & Warner (1977). Wardhaugh (1985) devotes a number of chapters to how gambits are used in conversation.

‘ In The Tarot, Giles (1992, x) writes, “Tarot

images are pictures of things, people, events, ideas, and emotions that shape and populate the imagination. These same things, people, events, ideas, and emotions are recorded in many other works of the creative mind-in fairy tales and dreams, in soap operas and sitcoms, in Greek tragedy, in the Bible, in history books, movies and music videos-for the stock characters and plots, the predictable crises, the continuing conflict of human life.”

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APPENDIX

Instructions for Doing “Concoctions” in Class

Choosing an Activity Teachers can create their own “Concoc-

tions” by starting with an idea, personal obser- vation or a theme from the textbook. For example, they could write a script about restaurants and add a twist-“Create a menu for a new restaurant; every dish should come with a title that will entice diners.” Students become experts in menu-writing for the duration of the activity. Collections of “Concoctions” are found in Sadow 1982, 1987 and 1989 (in Spanish).

The Order of Events A great many “Concoctions” follow a set

order of presentation. First, the teacher says the script in the target language. Comprehe- nsion is checked. While preparation for the activity is not required, relevant vocabulary may be presented before the students pro- ceed to the activity. Then, the class is divided into groups of four to six students. Each group chooses a secretary to record its delib- erations. The groups discuss the issue. Depending on the complexity of the issue, discussion will last from 15 to 45 minutes or more. I f a group finishes early, it can contin- ue with a related task. When all groups are ready or time has run out, the secretaries of the groups report their conclusions to the entire class. Other members of the class ask questions or make comments. If appropriate, follow-up writing assignments may be made. On other occasions, interrelated activities can be done in successive classes.

Dealing with Ewors While these activities, like many interac-

tive formats, stress language production, accuracy issues need not be ignored. The teacher can interrupt group discussion to cor- rect errors that are obviously causing a break- down in communication. Otherwise, errors of grammar and pronunciation that are over- heard by the teacher should be duly noted

and treated after the activity is completed. Also, peer correction techniques can be practiced with the class.

Types of Activity Formats

tions.” In one type, students list ideas. There are several basic types of “Concoc-

The managers of Studentlife, Inc., a company that produces pens, writing paper, erasers, and other things used by students, has decided to enter another type of business. They intend to put together a catalog filled with “perfect gifts for students.” Knowing that students in general have little money to spend, the executives are not planning to send the catalogs to them, but rather to their relatives (including any rich uncles they may have) and to other acquaintances who have the tendency to be generous and who have the money to be so.

However a problem exists. Student- life, Inc. has always sold the same products. Its managers do not know any- thing at all about the taste and prefer- ences of today’s students. Neither are they familiar with the products and ser- vices which interest young people. Therefore, Studentlife Inc. is asking that you, experts in what students like, make up a list of what ought to be included in the catalog. They would like to offer a mix of expensive and inexpensive things. They prefer unusual things. It is important that the pages of the catalog be filled with unforget- table gifts. (Translated from Sadow 1989, 60.)

* * * * * * * * * * A second type of activity depends on the

identification and explanation of an ambiguous entity.

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FOREIGN LANGUAGE A N N A U - S U M M E R 1994

I have with me today a very unusual piece of cloth. It was made according to a secret process by weavers who died long ago. As far as I know, this is the last piece left. The cloth is extremely useful and has many wondrous qual- ities. I’m glad that you are all here today. As experts in cloth manufacture and design, you can help list the possible uses of this cloth and then analyze the religious system symbolized by the repeating patterns in the fabric. (Sadow 1982, 18)

* * * * * * * * * * * *

A third type of activity involves creation and invention according to set preconditions.

I am pleased to announce that this class has been chosen to design a float for The Founders’ Day Parade. The Parade Committee says that you can plan to spend as much as you wish and that you may use any materials that you like. The floats will be judged for creativity and beauty by a group of celebri- ties. You will need to describe your float and create a working sketch. (Sadow 1982,48)

* * * * * * * * * * *

In another variation, advertising and sales- manship lead to exaggeration and the repre sentation of common things in new ways.

I have urgent news. School fees have been increased. To avoid collection problems, the administration has declared that the students must pay the difference immediately. In order to raise money, you must sell to your classmates something that you have with you now. You’ll have to write advertising and then try to sell, sell, sell. (Sadow 1982,62)

* * * * * * * * * * * * The speeches in this activity can be pre-

pared in advance. They can be presented to the entire class or to groups of eight or so. This activity is especially affecriue in that students draw on experiences with their own teachers.

I t was announced yesterday that Joan Truly, teacher in George Washing- ton Elementary School, will be retiring after a career of more than 40 years of teaching. Announcing the retirement, principal Constance MacKay pro- claimed, “The moment has arrived for our dear Miss Truly to leave her profes- sion. It is fitting that we who love her so much celebrate the occasion with a banquet in her honor. I invite all of you who have been her beloved students to participate in the celebration on May 18. I would appreciate it if each one of you could give a two-minute speech in her honor.”

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“concoctions”: intrinsic motivation, creative thinking, frame theory, and structured...

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