Conflicts and Resolutions

1. Conflicts a. Occur when 1 party seeks changes but not agreed by other parties.b. *take only 1 party to declare, other parties are automatically drawn intoc. Dictionary meaning: be in opposition/ to fightd. Believe that our own way is right (one-sided perspective)e. Both parties interests are incompatiblef. Express hostile attitudesg. Take pursue their interests through actions that damage the other

partiesh. Examples of interest:

i. Resources – territory, money, energy sources, foodii. Power – control, decision-makingiii. Identity – cultural, social and political communities to which

people feel tiediv. Status – whether they believe that they are treated with respect

and dignity, traditional and social positions are respectedv. Values – ideology, religion, systems of government

Main vehicle through which change takes place Help us sharpen our focus Help us to define what the important issues are for us Conflicts are both evolutionary and necessary

2. Conflicts in Ancient and Modern Worlda. Ancient

i. Life or death consequences, e.g.: attack from another tribe, stalked by wild animals

ii. Instinct: to survive!!!iii. 3 possible responses (fight, flee, play dead)

b. Moderni. Facing more psychological threats

a. Threat to our self-esteemb. Threat to relationshipc. Threat to our success

ii. 3 responses1. Fighting -

a. take sidesb. identify what they believe is the right side of the

dispute

c. involve own feelingsd. one-sidedness – limit the ability to clearly see the

perspective of the other sidee. believe that they are in the right side, not wrong

side2. Avoiding –

a. Protect themselves from the difficulty of conflict by putting up mental wall

b. Dealing with the conflict from a safe emotional distance

c. Have difficulty in understanding the conflict, or even empathizing

d. Useful to give some time and space to a conflict3. Acquiescing –

a. Gives inb. Drop their demands and let the other party have

what they wantc. *sow the seed of future conflict- they might feel

abused, manipulated and angry

3. Levels of conflicta. Latent conflict

i. Respective parties are not aware of the incompatibilities other than observes

ii. Caused by lack of knowledge, suppressed info, rationalizationiii. Conflicts become manifest when the parties are aware of the

incompatibilities

b. Violent conflict

i. Peaceful conflict- handled according to regulated mechanism, e.g.: National constitutions,

Family and clan structures, Court system, Religious codes, Social mores and customsElectionsDebate

- Such mechanism operate effectively in Sub-Saharan Africa, former republics of the Soviet Union and “zones of peace”

ii. Violent conflict1. Try to dominate or destroy the opposing parties ability to

pursue their own interests

4. Determinants of Violence Conflict and Peace

a. External and Internal Factors

b. Systemic causes (structural)i. Cause objective change in parties’ material circumstancesii. E.g.: population growth, environmental deterioration, resource

scarcity, poverty, ethnicityiii. Pervasive and affect large numbers of peopleiv. Internal factor – ethnic group imbalance (Tutsi/ Hutu – Rwanda,

Sudan Darfur)v. External factor – global and regional isolation, global and

regional organisations have procedures that encourage regular contacts and active disputes mediation between gov. and internal groups. A fundamentalist Islamist regime is largely isolated and highly resistant to outsider attempts to resolve its war against non-Islamic people in Southern Sudan.

c. Proximate causes (political and institutional)i. Problems in the social, political and communications processes

and institutions that mediate the effect of systemic conditions on people’s lives and behavior

ii. Crucial influences – give rise to violent reactions or solve the conflict peacefully

iii. E.g.: government policies, social organizations, militarization, external military aid

iv. Internal factor: ethnical political parties, winning group (election) use state power to dominate others (incl. ethnic political groups/ minority). Minority groups rebel to protect themselves. E.g.: Yugoslav 1990, Burundi

v. External factor: cross-conflict spillover, avoid the outcomes they observed in nearby countries with similar group conflict. E.g.: Rwanda – Burundi, Yugoslav- Slovakia and Czech.

d. Immediate cause ( acts and events)i. Actions and events that trigger the violent actionsii. E.g.: killing of Prussian Price – WWI, government cracks down

on an oppressed group which prompts a rebellioniii. Internal factor: leadership extremism, individual leaders’

behavior can shape the political atmosphere and promote or

discourage conflict. E.g.: Rwanda ethnic leaders ( Coercive) in contrast with the Tanzanian president Julius Nyerere’s (conciliatory).

iv. External factor: absence of third party engagement, early intervention of third party brings positive inducements for peaceful resolution of a conflict. E.g.: Somalia, Sudan are examples of disputes escalating into violence when third parties intervened late.

e. “Ethnic Conflict”i. Ethnicity- identity felt by people as a language group, tribe, clan,

religion, or regionii. Primordial view- ethnic conflict arises when ancient hatreds are

unleashed because controls were removed. iii. Instrumentalism view- use group identity as a tool to mobilise

people in pursuit of specific gains by playing with their emotion (invoking hatred), through propaganda or covert actions.

iv. “ethno-political”- conflicts with ethnics

5. Forms of Governance

a. Concepts of Authorityi. Legitimate power, has the rightii. People accept as justiii. Government- monopoly on legitimate force and violenceiv. 3 sources of authority:

1. Traditional – based on custom, decline as society progresses

2. Rational-legal – based on written rules, bureaucratic authority

3. Charismatic – someone that is believed to be touched by God or possesses outstanding traits. E.g.: Ghandi, Joan of Arc

b. Monarchyi. One ruler ii. A single family rules from generation to generationiii. Legitimized by tradition iv. Dynasty, e.g.: Dynasty Tang, Qing…v. Absolute monarch, rule by divine right, e.g.: Saudi Arabiavi. Constitutional monarchies, traditional leaders serve as symbolic

heads of state with the presence of elected officials. E.g.: Malaysia, Europe

vii. “nobility formally reigns, but elected officials actually rule”

c. Democracyi. A type of political systems that give power to the people as a

whole. E.g.: Dewan Rakyatii. A system of representative democracy, give authority to a leaderiii. Through election processiv. Socialist Approach:

1. Political economy2. Economies meet everyone’s basic needs3. E.g.: Cuba – provide basic medical care without regard to

people ability to pay4. Oppressive government regulation of social life5. E.g.: Cuba/ China – do not allow their people to move

freely across their borderv. Capitalist Approach:

1. Freedom to act in people’s own interests2. Personal liberty3. Individual has the right to select their leaders 4. Inequality distribution of power, wealth

d. Authoritarianismi. A political system that denies popular participation in

government.ii. “What I say is the law”iii. Cares little about the needs of common peopleiv. Make use of force in response to oppositionv. E.g.: Iraq’s Saddam Hussein imprisoned and tortured people

who resisted his rule.vi. Another e.g.: Saudi Arabia, military juntas in Congo and

Ethiopia, Zimbabwe.vii. Heavy-handed government does not always breed popular

oppositions.viii. *soft authoritarianism in Singapore

e. Totalitarianismi. A highly centralized political system that extensively regulates

people’s lives.ii. Gov. gained the ability to rigidly regulate populationiii. E.g.: Vietnamese gov., North Koreaiv. Uses surveillance equipment and powerful computers to collect

and store information about its people/ observev. Seek to bend people will to the governmentvi. Have total concentration of power, allowing no organized

oppositionvii. Try to make citizens fear of them

viii. Demand full loyalty to the gov. ix. Business is owned by gov.

6. Levels of Conflicta. Micro-level

i. Study on small scale structures and processes in societyii. Focuses on individuals and their interactionsiii. E.g.: relationship between adult and children

b. Macro-leveli. Focuses upon social structure, social processes and problems,

and their interrelationshipsii. E.g.: effects of industralisation on older people’s status

c. Three perspectives:i. Interpretive (micro-level)

1. Social world is created in an ongoing manner through social interaction

2. How we relate to each other on a day-to-day basisii. Normative (macro-level)

1. Rules and status exist to provide social control/ order2. Necessary for survival3. E.g.: role theory, age stratification, structural-

functionalismiii. Conflict (macro/ micro level)

1. E.g.: causes of poverty, opportunities distributed via social class, gender…

7. Types of Conflicta. Major conflicts

i. Intrapersonal – within own selfii. Interpersonal – with other people

1. People-focused vs. Issue-focuseda. People-focused is based on emotions and

feelings, personal attackb. Issue-focused is centered on issues and events

2. Personal differencesa. Common conflict as people have unique set of

values, perceptions and expectations3. Informational deficiencies

a. Misinterpreted communicationb. Different conclusions may be drawn from past

experiences4. Role incompatibility

a. Differences between the responsibilities assignemt to an individual and what the individual would rather be doing.

5. Environmental stressa. Stressful environmentb. Uncertainty of future or scarcity or resources

iii. Intranational – within county or border (ethnic cleansing, rebellion)

iv. International – outside the border/ country (WW II)

b. Another types:i. Relationship conflicts

a. Presence of strong negative emotion towards other

b. Miscommunicationc. Stereotypesd. Repetitive negative behaviours

ii. Data conflicta. Lack of informationb. Misinterpretationc. Disagree on which data is relevant

iii. Interest conflicta. Competition over perceived incompatible needs

iv. Structural conflicta. Cause by forces external to the people in dispute.b. E.g.: time, organizational change, limited physical

resources or authority, geographical constraintsv. Value conflict

a. Perceived or actual incompatible belief systemsb. Happen when people attempt to force one set of

values on others

c. Another types of conflict1. Man vs. Man2. Man vs. Nature3. Man vs. Society

a. E.g.: Edmund the bastard in the King Lear4. Man Vs. Technology/ Fantasy

d. Types of Organisational Conflicti. Interpersonal conflictii. Intragroup conflict – within the groupiii. Intergroup conflict – with another group

iv. Interorganizational conflict – e.g.: different businesses are competing against each other

v. Sources of conflict1. Different goals and deadlines2. More than one managers claim authorities3. Group members being dependent 4. Different standard and reward system5. Scarce resources6. Status differences

8. Ways to prevent and avoid conflicta. Effective communicationb. Counselingc. Recognize points of viewd. Non-violencee. Compromisef. Do not hit your listener with too much informationg. Avoid bickering and argumentsh. Let each other express concerns and listen to each otheri. Gain perspective

9. *Water Wars and International Conflict

a. Unevenly distribution of freshwater resources among developed countries

b. Scarcity in water has triggered desperation in countries that already have little access to water

c. Desperation cannot be solved by negotiations. d. Gov./ rebels resort to force to get the water badly enough.e. * who controls water, controls the economy and populationf. Causes:

i. Use of water system by military, political, agricultural, domestic uses

ii. Result of pollution- leftover of war affects the quality of wateriii. Wastes from industry and agriculture not disposed properly,

might affect groundwateriv. Urbanization- increase the demand of water

g. Regions of Conflicts

i. The Middle East

1. Jordan Basin River:

a. Area around Jordan River Basin has arid climate and low precipitation, causing water to be more valuable than ever.

b. Jordan River Basin is shared among Israel, Jordan and others such as Lebanon and Syria)

c. Patterns of water use, overuse and political territorial issues are resulting in disagreement over water distribution.

d. Increase in population – natural and Israeli settlement

e. Without the legitimate water sharing agreement, Syria and Israel have taken over the water supplies.

f. Construction of reservoirs on the Yarmuk River reduces the amount water discharge into Jordan River.

g. Dominations of groundwater supplies by Israeli state and settlers and walling of Palestinian access to water supply at West Bank.

h. Palestinian is charged three times the cost compared to Israeli.

2. The Tigris-Euphrates Basina. River system is shared by several countries and

ethnic groupsb. The rising of populationc. Syria obtains 85% of renewable water supply from

the river.d. The Turks and Kurds have plans to increase their

utilization of both rivers.e. Conflict arises from north to south.f. Dams installed by Turkey have prevented some of

the water from flowing downstream to the warmer and drier countries. E.g.: Haftendorn

g. Dams – for agriculture, hydroelectric, industrialization (Turkey, Syria and Iraq)

h. Turkey – Syria, increased hostility, Turkey plans to utilized it portion of the river have affected the share going to Syria

i. Syria – Iraq, escalated due to the filling of of Lake Assad by Syria, result in reduction of downstream flow in 1970. Iraqi accused Syria tried to hold back water supplies

3. Warfare in Iraqa. 1991 Gulf War- bombing of water treatment

facilities in Iraq by U.S. – water shortage in Iraqb. 4 out of 7 were destroyedc. Mass contamination of Tigris River, triggered many

waterborne diseased. Bombing in 2003 targeted civilians infrastructure,

left Iraqis with little or no access to water in the first week of occupation.

ii. Africa1. Large % of these countries are dependent on the weather

to provide water for agricultural industry.2. Shared areas are Nile River, Volta River, Zambezi River,

and Niger Basin.

3. Causes of conflicts:a. Privatisation of water resources to people

displaced by dams along the rivrsb. Unequal distribution of water supplies among

neighbouring countriesc. Growing demand of waterd. African gov. poor management of resources e. Inadequate conflict resolution mechanism

4. The Nile River Basina. Source of water for Egypt and Sudanb. Nile’s tributaries, lakes and rivers collect and

disperse water in nine African countriesc. Egyptian uses military forces to ensure their

control over the headwaters of Niled. Sudan, Ethiopia, Uganda – constructed river

projects to increase annual water withdrawals – affect Egyptian control over Nile

e. National gov. agreed to share water that flows between their countries – signed a pact (Uganda, Sudan, Egypt)

iii. Asiaa. Political issue – distribution of water resources

throughout Southeast and Central Asiab. Idea of shared water supply has not been easily

understood by nations of this region.c. Growing population

d. Increase in demande. China and India – water shortages pose both a

social and economic threatf. *India, Pakistan, Nepal and Bangladesh –

abundant freshwater resources, but not well distributed to drier regions in dire need of water

g. Consider the factor of immense pollution being dumped in freshwater supply

h. Indus River Basin:i. Between India and Pakistanii. Largest irrigation canalsiii. Building of dams and canals to provide

hydropower and irrigation had dried up the stretches of Indus River

iv. Water projects caused displacement of people and destruction of ecosystem

v. Controversy – accusation of overdrawing made by each province -> lack of water supplies to Pakistan and coastal region

i. Ganges River:i. India and Bangladeshii. Ganges river possesses strong religious

and economic importanceiii. Increasing demands of water in Calcutta iv. Industrializationv. Economic- irrigationvi. Pollutions in the river system, unsanitary

water and increase illness, triggers mass migration

10. Resolution in Processa. Non-aligned Movement (NAM)

i. Group of states not aligned formally or against any major power bloc.

ii. Founded in Belgrade, 1961iii. Purpose: to ensure the national independence, sovereignty,

territorial integrity, and security of non-aligned countries.iv. Against imperialism, colonialism, neo-colonialism, racism, all

forms of foreign aggression, domination, interferencev. Was formed in attempt to thwart the Cold Warvi. Five principles:

1. Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty

2. Mutual non-aggression

3. Mutual interference in domestic affairs4. Equality and mutual benefit5. Peaceful co-existence

vii. *Bandung Conference (1955) – adopted a declaration on promotion of world peace and recognition

viii. Founding fathers of NAM: (The Initiative of Five)1. Sukarno (Ind.)2. Jawaharlal Nehru (India)3. Josip Broz Tito (Yugoslavia)4. Gamal Abdul Nasser (Egypt)5. Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana)

ix. Ideologies:a. Anti-communist (Suharto)b. Anti-apartheid (Nelson Mandela) – extreme

opposition to apartheid regimec. Support for liberation movements in various

locations (Zimbabwe, South Africa )d. Struggle for peace and endeavours for

disarmament (The Brioni meeting – India, Egypt, Yugoslavia)

x. Identified economic underdevelopment, poverty and social injustice as growing threats to peace and security.

xi. Current activities:1. US policy – US attempts to stifle Iran and North Korea’s

nuclear plans and run roughshod over the sovereignty of other nation

2. Puerto Rico – supported the discussion of Puerto Rico self-determination before the UN.

3. Western Sahara – supported the discussion of Western Sahara’s self-determination of Sahrawi before the UN.

4. Sustainable development – international community has not created conditions conducive to development, factors: debt burden, unfair trade practices, lack of democracy

5. Reforms of UN – UN has been utilized by powerful states in ways that violate the movement’s principles, proposed reforms aimed at improving UN decision-making

6. South-south cooperation – collaborated with other organisations of the developing worlds, an effort to increase global awareness about the organization and bolster its political clout

7. Cultural diversity and human rights – universality of human rights and social justice, resist cultural homogenization, protection of cultural diversity, tolerance of the religious, social cultural and historical particularities

b. Neutral Power in WW IIi. Countries that remained neutral during World War IIii. Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland – armed neutrality

(continuously amassed soldiers to defend against invasion)iii. Took no official side during wariv. To avoid being attacked by Axis Powers/ Allied Powersv. *Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland supplied ‘voluntary’ brigades to

Great Britain. (Allied Powers)vi. *Belgium, Norway, Netherlands were neutral before they were

attacked.vii. Portugal (WWII):

1. Sent 10000men to battle the German2. Reason – continue alliance with Great Britain, which

supply troops in times on need/ invaded by foreign power3. Helped Britain without officially removing itself from

declared neutralityviii. Sweden and Switzerland:

1. Sweden unofficially sent volunteers to combat Axis.2. Swiss shot Axis bombers invading their airspace.3. Switzerland maintains neutrality, to protect banking

interest from plunder by Axis4. Switzerland shot down Allied planes to appease the

German.5. Switzerland was accidentally bombed by both Axis and

Allied airplanes.c. Neutral Power

i. Neutral power in a particular war is a sovereign state which declares itself to be neutral towards belligerents.

ii. “Hague Convention of 1907” – rights and duties of neutral poweriii. Permanently neutral power – bound by international treaty to be

neutral towards all future wars, e.g.: Japan, Turkmenistan iv. Neutralism / neutralist policy – is a foreign policy where a state

intends to remain neutral in the future wars.v. Non-alignment is the implementation of neutralism by avoiding

military alliances.vi. Rights and responsibilities of neutral power:

1. Intern belligerent troops who reach its territory2. Doesn’t intern prisoners of war3. Citizens not recruitable by belligerent, may they may go

abroad to enlist4. Belligerent armies’ men and material may not be

transported across neutral territory5. May supply communication facilities but not war materials

6. Belligerents may use neutral’s port maximum 1 day, except repairing the ship

7. A prize ship caught by belligerent in the territorial of neutral must be interned both the ship and its crew by neutral power

vii. European Union (neutral)1. Austria, Finland, Ireland, Malta, Sweden – under dispute2. EU operates Common Foreign and Security Policy

viii. Neutrality to forestall invasion1. Republic of Moldova

a. Has chosen neutrality to avoid Russian security schemes and Russian military presence on its territory.

b. *not neutral- parts of Russian 14th army were present at Bendery.

2. Ireland – supplied some important secret info to the Allies, e.g.: the D-day secretly supplied to Allies but kept from Germany. German pilots crashed landed in Ireland were interned.

3. Sweden and Switzerland (highly militarized) – made concession to Nazi request as well as Allied requests, Sweden involved in intelligence operations, secret military training

4. Spain – “non-alignment”, sent volunteer combat division to aid Nazi

5. Costa Rica – having no army, their neutrality and democratic ability are strengthened.

11.United Nationa. International organization- make the enforcement of international law,

security, economic development, social progress and human rights easier for countries around the world.

b. 192 member countries, HQ: New York Cityc. Winston Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt coined the term “UN”d. Principles:

i. Save future gen. from warii. Reaffirm human rightsiii. Establish equal rights for all personsiv. Promote justice, freedom, social progress

e. Organisations - 5 branches:i. UN General Assembly: chief deliberative, policymaking and

representative organ of UN, standard-setting and codification of international law

1. Provide a unique forum for multilateral discussionii. UN Security Council: most powerful, power to authorize

deployment UN member states militaries, mandate cease-fire, enforce penalties, peace and security

iii. International Court of Justice: responsible for judicial matters of UN

iv. Economic and Social Council: promoting economic and social development and cooperation of member states

v. Secretariat: providing studies, information, and data needed by UN branches for their meeting.

f. Functions: i. Maintain peace and securityii. Does not maintain its own military but peacekeeping forces

which are supplied by member statesiii. Peacekeeping force (Nobel Peace Prize) – sent to ceased

conflict areas to discourage combatants from resuming fighting. iv. Protect human rights and provide humanitarian assistancev. Play an integral part in social and economic developmentvi. Millennium Development Goals – to reduce poverty, child

mortality, disease and epidemics, develop a global partnership in terms of international development by 2015.

g. Achievements:i. Nobel Peace Prize ii. *blue-helmeted peace-keepersiii. Maintaining peace and security – peace-keeping forces and

observes missionsiv. Making peace – negotiating peaceful settlements that have

ended regional conflicts (Iran-Iraq war, withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghan, civil war in Salvador)

v. Promoting democracy (electoral advice, assistance, monitoring of results) – Cambodia, El Salvador, Mozambique, South Africa, East Timor

vi. Promoting development – UN Development Programme (UNDP) implements project for agriculture, industry, education, environment

vii. Promoting human rights – UN Human Rights Commission focused world attention on cases of torture, disappearance, arbitrary detention

viii. Promoting the environment – The “Earth Summit” resulted in treaties on biodiversity and climate change, countries adopted “Agenda 21”

ix. Promoting independence

x. Ending Apartheid in South Africa- imposing measures from an arm embargo to a convention against segregated sporting events, election (April 1994)

xi. Providing humanitarian aid to victim of conflict – UN High Commissioner for Refugees

xii. Promoting women’s rightsxiii. Clearing landmines – in former battlefield in Afghan, Cambodia,

El Salvador, Mozambique, Rwanda, Somaliaxiv. Curbing global warmingxv. Limiting deforestation and promoting sustainable forestry

development – Tropical Forests Action Programmexvi. Reducing Fertility rates – women have greater control of their

livesxvii. Establishing “children as a zone of peace” – UNICEF pioneered

“Days of Tranquility” and “Corridors of Peace” to provide assistance for children caught in armed conflict. (El Salvador, Lebanon, Sudan, former Yugoslavia)

xviii. Improving literacy in developing countryxix. Safeguarding and preserving historic cultural and architectural

sites – Greece, Egypt, Italy, Indonesia, Cambodia, Malaysia- Penang (UNESCO)

h. Role of UN in Korea:i. Korea was under Japanese control was divided after WWIIii. UN failed in effort to unite Korea through nationwide free

elections.iii. Called the withdrawal of North Korean troopsiv. Established UN command under US auspices and repelling the

armed attack on Republic of Korea.v. * issue – Korean action illegal because it was undertaken

without the agreement of all the permanent council membersvi. * establishment of UN command that was a US military

command – use US already established military structure as the base for UN action.

i. Role of Peacekeeping Forces:i. Active in areas where decolonization has led to instability.ii. Go into operation once combatants have been persuaded to

stop fighting, typically by pressure from one/ both superpowers.iii. Withdrawal of the former colonial power left a political vacuum

and a struggle for domination ensued.

iv. The peace imposed is not genuine and problems caused by the war in the first place remained unsolved.

v. “preventive diplomacy” – separate antagonists, providing time and opportunity for negotiations and keep local conflicts from spreading over an entire region.

vi. Carried out in Middle East, Cyprus, Congo, South Africa, Mozambique, Somalia, Cambodia

vii. To provide protection for humanitarian operationsviii. E.g.: Suez war – ended when American and Soviet pressure

persuaded British, French and Israeli gov. to stop their attack on Egypt.

1. Peacekeeper sent to supervise the cease fire2. Endure orderly withdrawal of British, French, and Israeli

forces3. Patrol the Egypt-Israel border

ix. *UN unable to influence Soviet behavior in Hungary (1956) / America’s war in Vietnam/ Soviet aggression in Afghan/ paralysed in Gulf conflict (due to multi-power interests)

j. Role of UN in the Gulf Conflicti. Started by Iraq invasion of Kuwait (1990)ii. Imposed extensive embargo on commercial and financial

dealings with Iraq and Iraqi-occupied Kuwaitiii. Sanctioned the use of military force to ensure compliance with

the embargoiv. Authorized member states to use “all necessary means” to expel

Iraq from Kuwait if Iraq had not already withdrawn by January 1991.

v. After defeating Iraq, UN peacekeeping force moved in to monitor a demilitarized zone along the Iraq-Kuwait border.

k. Role of UN in the case of South African Apartheidi. Crime against humanityii. Security Council established a mandatory arms embargo on

South Africa, iii. Wider economic sanctions by the General Assemblyiv. Provides a world forum to put pressure on countries that

continued to have diplomatic and eco. Relations with South Africa and the nation itself

v. 1991, legal basis for apartheid had been abolishedvi. 1993, new constitutions between black and white

12.* Un weakness:a. Cannot transcend the sovereign power of states. b. Unable to legislate laws that nations must abide by

c. 15 members of Security Council often paralysed by the vecto rights of superpowers.

d. Financial crisise. Financial reform – politicized (use UN as a platform for blatant anti-

Americanism)f. UN failure to solve poorer state’s social and economic developments –

neo-colonialism and economic self-interest by rich states at UN, refusal to grapple fairly with problems in developing regions, e.g.: Middle East, Southern Africa

g. All countries pay lip service to UN charter but there is serious disagreement about the nature if political and social problem face, solutions and role of UN in implementing them.

13.Law of war and peacea. International law of armed conflict is an attempt to constrain conflictb. Armed force may be used for self-defencec. Before the stage of war, peace settlement must be exhausted.d. War criminals – policy makers who wage an illegal war commit a crime

against peace/ planning, preparation, initiation or waging of a war of aggression or a war in violation of international treaties, agreements or assurances

e. * only the loser have been tried, not the victorious partyf. ‘Just’ war – ‘just revolution’ – oppressive gov. may lose its claim to

legitimacy, when oppression becomes intolerable, and violence justified.

g. Principles governing law of war:i. Prohibition of unnecessary injuryii. Distinction between civilians and soldiersiii. Recognition that the demands of humanity should prevail over

the demands of warfareh. Nuclear war/ weapon

i. *dropping of atom bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki – intentions have been questioned

ii. *atom bombs were dropped 1. Not only to finish war against Japan2. To measure the effects of weapons on people and

property3. To signal the extent of American power to the Soviets

iii. *Baruch plan – to internationalise nuclear energy failed – Soviet suspicion of US intentions and refusal to allow verification inspections on Soviet territory

iv. Nuclear umbrella:

1. Fearing of Soviet’s expansion (e.g. Stalin), the west adopted a policy of relying US nuclear superiority to threaten massive retaliation

2. Western unwilling to pay for large conventional forces to match the Soviet ones.

3. *nuclear weapons were seen as cheap alternative4. Nuclear umbrella – “flexible response”, aggression by

Warsaw Pact forces will be first met with NATO conventional forces, if fails, with tactical nuclear weapons; in the last resort, with a long-range US strategic nuclear attack on Soviet sites.

5. *1977, Henry Kissinger said ‘nuclear umbrella’ is a myth. 6. *USA won’t sacrifice American cities to defend non-US

territory.7. *Both the USA and USSR will do their utmost to prevent

nuclear weapons exploding on their territories. (mutual assured destruction)