Connecting Science

1. Theory connects to technology- industry – commerce –

power2. Technology applied to travel

- application of science to travel, collection of data, and health

3. Theories apply in new Worlds

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_cWz9MrHskk

4. and, Britain ascendant

Looking further: geopolitical posturing

commercescientific query

“... farther than any man has been before me, but as far as I think it is possible for a man to go.”

James Cook(1728-79)

the EndeavourThe Endeavour

Three Voyages (1768-80)

• the Admiralty and the Royal Society sponsored jointly a scientific voyage to observe the transit of the planet Venus from Tahiti

• search for the believed to be ‘great southern continent’, Terra Australis Incognita (looked for since the 16C)

• Scientists, artists, and chronometers – to determine longitude

• charted north pacific, killed in Hawaii

Consequences

• study ‘natives’ → uneasy relationships and misunderstanding

broke local customs bought venereal disease, alcohol and

guns

• new standards → extent and accuracy of his surveys natural history astronomy oceanography philology and much else new disciplines of

ethnology/anthropology

• protected crew → cleanliness and ventilation cress, sauerkraut, orange extract exacting science

Making the south pacific white

Why convicts?

Why transportation?

Why Australia?

Transportation

1. Many more men than women2. Property crimes >> personal injury3. Political prisoners4. All trades represented [including

architects]necessary to build a colony

5. Terrible corporal punishment

The ‘real’ Australiawasn’t empty

400+ indigine groups 250 languages

evidence to 40 000 BCE +

1/3 to 9/10 deathsResidential School

history1967 enumeration to

vote

North American Populations

0

1000000

2000000

3000000

4000000

5000000

6000000

7000000

8000000

1500 1800

Native

European

African

The Formation of Multicultural Societies• Gender imbalance

Europeans, Afro-Americans malenot celibaterelationships with native women

Casta paintings Attrib. José de Alcíbar, “De

Español y Negra, Mulato”, ca. 1760-1770, Mexico.

• Mestizo (mixed) societies formed• people of Spanish and native parentage• descendants of Spaniards and African slaves

(“mulattoes”)• descendants of African slaves and natives (“zambos”)

The Social Hierarchy

Race-based hierarchy

• Top: peninsulares

• Criollos (creoles)

• Mestizos, mulattoes, zambos, other combinations of parentage

• Bottom: slaves, conquered peoples

North American Societies

• higher ratio of French, English female migrants than in South America

• social stigma attached to relationships with natives, African slaves

• fur traders have relationships with North American native women

métis

Gabriel Dumont (1836-1906) Red River Rebellion (NW) 1885

The Hacienda

• large estates produce products of European origin• wheat, grapes, meat

• Encomienda system of utilizing native labor force

rampant abuses 1520-1540

replaced by debt patronage

peasants repay loans with cheap labor

Sugar and Slavery in Portuguese Brazil• Sugar mill: engenho

• sugarcane to molasses, or refined to sugar for export

• low profit margins

• unlike Spanish system of forced native labor, Portuguese rely on imported African slaves• natives continually evaded Portuguese forces

• large-scale importing of slaves begins 1580s• working conditions poor: 5-10% die annually• approximately one human life per ton of sugar

Resistances

• Rebellion Taos, New Mexico

• 1680 Pueblo Revolt• 1780 Túpac Amaru rebellion

• half-hearted work

• retreat into mountains and forestsquilambo maroon communities

• Legal appeal to Spanish crown• 1,200 page letter of Guaman Poma de Ayala, 1615

• RevolutionFrancois Dominique Toussaint L'Ouverture (1743-

1803)

Classification: specieshumankind

Carl Linneaus (1707-78)

Homo africanusamericanusasiaticuseuropeansmonstrous

Conclusion

‘Science’ enables increased connections

Starts to be used to make sense of nature of contact

Self and other at home

Self and other away

Always under negotiation

‘Republic of letters’ means revolutionary ideas exchanged into the Atlantic and beyond, and there, race/ethnic difference inscribed on class issues from Europe