ConstellationsA constellation is a group of stars that, when seen from Earth,

form a pattern. The stars in the sky are divided into 88 constellations.

The 12 Constellations of the Zodiac

Aquarius, the water bearer

Aries, the ram Cancer, the crab Capricorn, the goat Gemini, the twins Leo, the lion

Libra, the scales Pisces, the fish Sagittarius, the archer Scorpius, the scorpion Taurus, the bull Virgo, the virgin

Questions:

Constellations 1.____________ is a group of stars that forms a pattern in the night sky.

Ram 2.The constellation Aries is named after what animal?

Balance Scale 3.The constellation Libra represents a ___________?

Twins 4.The constellation Gemini represents ____________?

Aquarius 5.You are this sign of the zodiac, known as ‘The Water Bearer’, if you were born between January 20 & February 19.

Cancer 6.Also the name of a deadly disease, this constellation is known as ‘The Crab’.

Virgo 7.This constellation is also known as ‘The Virgin’, is the second largest constellation next to Hydra.

Pegasus 8.Depicted in several films such as “Hercules”, this constellation is known as ‘The Winged Horse’

Ophiuchus 9.This constellation is said to be the thirteenth constellation in the zodiac family, also known as ‘The Serpent-Bearer’.

Capricorn 10.You are this sign of the zodiac, known as ‘The Goat’ or ‘The Sea-Goat’, if you were born between December 22 & January 19.

Pisces 11.____________ is the Latin word for ‘Fishes’.

Taurus 12.This constellation was based on the myth of The Cretan Bull.

Scorpius 13.This constellation is also as Scorpio. Its name is Latin for Scorpio.

Sagittarius 14.____________ is usually represented as a centaur drawing a bow.

Leo 15.____________ is usually represented as the Nemean Lion killed by the Greek Hero, Heracles.

Aquila 16.This constellation’s name is Latin for ‘Eagle’. It represents the bird who carried Zeus’ thunderbolts.

Trivias:

Sirius, the brightest star in the night sky, can be found in the constellation of Canis Major.

Canopus, the second brightest star, can be found in the constellation of Carina.

Serpens occupies two regions of sky. Ophiuchus, the Serpent-bearer separates Serpens.

Columba, the Dove, is the only surviving constellation named after an object in the Bible. It it the dove that Noah sent out to test whether the waters from the great flood had abated.

Castor & Pollux are the two twin stars of the constellation Gemini.

Lynx, the Lynx and Phoenix, the Phoenix are the only constellations that doesn’t have a Latin name.

The brightest constellation is Crux, the Southern Cross. The constellation with the greatest number of visible stars in it

is Centaurus, the Centaur - with 101 stars. The largest constellation is Hydra, The Water Snake which

extends over 3.158% of the sky.. Constellation Families:

I. The Zodiac: 13 constellations are star groupings that lie along the ecliptic (the plane in which most of our Solar System lies).

II. The Ursa Major Family: 10 constellations circling the northern celestial pole

III. The Perseus Family: 9 constellations depicting figures from the myth of Perseus.

IV. The Hercules Family: 19 constellations depicting figures from the myth of Heracles.

V. The Orion Family: 5 constellationsVI. The Heavenly Waters (aka the Cosmic Waters): 9 constellations

whose names are related to water.VII. The Bayer Group: 11 Southern Hemisphere constellations

depicting animals, named by Johann Bayer in 1603. VIII. The La Caille Family: 13 Southern Hemisphere constellations,

named by Nicolas Louis de Lacaille in 1756.

Name ______________________ Date _________________

 

 Constellations Worksheet

The constellations are totally imaginary things that poets, farmers and astronomers have made up over the past 6,000 years . The real purpose for the constellations is to help us tell which stars are which, nothing more. On a really dark night, you can see about 1000 to 1500 stars. Trying to tell which is which is hard. The constellations help by breaking up the sky into more managable bits. They are used as mnemonics, or memory aids. For example, if you spot three bright stars in a row in the winter evening, you might realize, "Oh! That's part of Orion!" Suddenly, the rest of the constellation falls into place and you can declare: "There's Betelgeuse in Orion's left shoulder and Rigel is his foot." And once you recognize Orion, you can remember that Orion's Hunting Dogs are always nearby. Then you might recognize the two bright stars in the upper and lower left of the photograph as Procyon in Canis Minor and Sirius in Canis Major, respectively. 

Materials:

Paint Non-bendable straws Star template Scissors A pencil

Glue Double-sided tape Butcher paper for

drawings Colored markers or paints

Procedures

1. Cut out seven cardstock stars from the template. Paint your seven stars.

2. Cut the straws into the following lengths: 9” 3.7” 5” 3.4” 4” 4.4” 4.4” Make five ½” cuts in both ends of each straw. Bend the sections back until all the sections are splayed to form bases at either end.

3. Tape a star to the splays on one end of the straw. 4. Using the table below, glue your “straw stars” to the Big Dipper template. Star Length Light Years Alkaid 9” 210 Alioth 3.7” 70 - 14 - Dubhe 5” 105 Megrez 3.4” 65 Merak 4” 80 Mizar 4.4” 88 Phecda (Phad) 4.4” 90 5.

Activity

1.Explain how this activity demonstrates that the stars we see in a constellation are at different distances from Earth. __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________

2. How do modern sky watchers use the stars? _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________

3. How could you use constellations today? _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________

4. How many constellations we have and explain each constellations?

_________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________

Chemical BondingThe atoms of a compound are held together by chemical bonds formed by the interaction of electrons from each atom. According to the octet rule Section 5.7C1, atoms bond together to form molecules in such a way that each atom participating in a chemical bond acquires an electron configuration resembling that of the noble gas nearest it in the periodic table. Thus the outer shell of each bonded atom will contain eight electrons (or two electrons for hydrogen and lithium).

The simplest chemical bond is that formed between two hydrogen atoms. Each hydrogen atom has one electron. As the two atoms approach each other, the nucleus of one atom attracts the electron of the other. Eventually the two orbitals overlap, becoming a single orbital containing two electrons (see Figure 7.1).

FIGURE 7.1 Two hydrogen atoms, each with one electron, combine to form a hydrogen molecule, in which the two electrons are shared between the atoms and serve to give each atom a filled valence shell.

This orbital encompasses space around both nuclei. Although the electrons may be in any part of this orbital, we can predict that they are most likely to be in the space between the nuclei, shielding one nucleus from the other and being attracted by both. In the resulting molecule, both atoms have two electrons and a filled outer (valence) shell. These shared electrons form a bond between the two atoms. This chemical bond is a covalent bond, a pair of electrons shared between two atoms. When this bond forms, energy is released. This release of energy shows that the molecule of hydrogen is more stable than the separate atoms.

Covalent, Polar covalent, and Ionic Bonds 

Because the hydrogen molecule contains two identical atoms, it can be assumed that the bonding electrons in this covalent bond are shared equally by these atoms.

Most chemical bonds are not between like atoms but form between atoms of different elements. These bonds are slightly different from that in a hydrogen molecule. Consider the bond between hydrogen and chlorine: Again both atoms require one more electron to satisfy the octet rule. As the atoms come together, their orbitals overlap and the two atoms share a pair of electrons. However, the hydrogen-chlorine bond differs from the hydrogen-hydrogen bond because the electrons are not shared equally between hydrogen and chlorine but are more strongly attracted to the chlorine. They are more apt to be found close to the chlorine than close to the hydrogen. Because of this unequal sharing, the chlorine atom assumes a slightly negative character and the hydrogen atom a slightly positive character. We say that the bond is polar covalent, meaning that the bond consists of electrons shared between two atoms (therefore covalent) but shared unequally, thus giving the bond a positive and a negative end, a condition described by the term polar. We can also say that the bond is a dipole or has a dipole moment, meaning that the bond has a positive end (the hydrogen) and a negative end (the chlorine). The more negative atom in a bond is often shown with the  symbol and the more positive atom is shown with the  symbol. The bond between hydrogen atoms is nonpolar (has no positive and negative ends) covalent (electrons are shared).

An ionic bond is the extreme case of a polar covalent bond. In an ionic bond, the bonding atoms differ so markedly in their attraction for electrons that one or more electrons are essentially transferred from one atom to the other. The sodium-chlorine bond is an example of an ionic bond. The attraction of the chlorine atom for electrons is so much greater than that of a sodium atom that the 3s electron of sodium is said to be completely transferred from sodium to chlorine.

In summary, then, the three types of bonds are: (1) a covalent bond, in which the electrons are shared equally; (2) a polar covalent bond, in which the electrons are shared unequally; and (3) an ionic bond, in which electrons are transferred from one atom to the other. These bonds are illustrated in Figure 7.2.

FIGURE 7.2 Electrons in nonpolar covalent, polar covalent, and ionic bonds: (a) the electrons are shared equally; (b) the electrons are held closer to the more-negative chlorine atom; (c) one electron has been transferred from sodium to chlorine.

Single, Double, and Triple Bonds 

A covalent bond represents the sharing of electrons between two atoms. Single bonds result from the sharing of a single pair of electrons. The covalent bonds shown in Figure 7.2 are single bonds. Usually, as in the hydrogen molecule, each atom forming the bond contributes one electron to the bond. Sometimes, as in the reaction of ammonia, NH3, with a hydrogen ion, H+, to form the ammonium ion, NH4+, both electrons come from the same atom:

It is common practice to use a dash to represent a pair of electrons. In this text we will use dashes for shared electrons and dots for unshared (lone-pair) electrons. With this notation, the above equation is written:

In the ammonia molecule, the nitrogen shares a pair of electrons with each of the three hydrogens. In each bond, one electron comes from nitrogen and one from hydrogen. The nitrogen still has an unshared pair of electrons. A hydrogen ion has no electrons; the single hydrogen electron was lost when the atom became an ion and gained a positive charge. When the hydrogen ion bonds to the ammonia molecule, both electrons of the bond come from the nitrogen. A bond in which one atom has donated both electrons is often referred to as a coordinate covalent bond. It is most important to realize that the different name refers only to the method of formation. Once the ammonium ion is formed, all hydrogen-nitrogen bonds in the ion are equivalent. Notice, too, that the entire ammonium ion now carries a positive charge, denoted by placing brackets around the ion and writing a superscript +.

In addition to single bonds, there are double bonds and triple bonds. A double bond represents the sharing of four electrons by two atoms. The bond between carbon and oxygen is often a double bond, as in formaldehyde, CH2O.

Here carbon is singly bonded to each of the hydrogens and doubly bonded to oxygen. Of this double bond, two electrons have come from carbon and two from oxygen. The single carbon-hydrogen bonds are nonpolar ( EN = 0.4); the double carbon-oxygen bond is polar covalent ( EN = 1.0). Note that each atom in the diagram of formaldehyde now follows the octet rule. Each hydrogen has two electrons; the carbon and the oxygen have eight electrons each. Notice too that the oxygen has two pairs of unshared electrons. Such an unshared pair is sometimes known as a lone pair. We will see that the negative end of a polar bond often holds unshared electron pairs.

A triple bond is formed when two atoms share six electrons (three pairs). The nitrogen molecule contains a triple bond. Its structure is

Each nitrogen donates three electrons to the bond and retains a lone pair.

Questions and Answers

True 1.True or false: Atoms are electrically neutral; that is they do not have a charge. Negative 2. Electrons have what kind of charge?Valence Electrons 3. What is the name given to the outermost electron(s)?Ion 4. When an electron is added to or removed from an atom, the atom becomes what?Ionization 5. The process of removing or adding electrons is called?Cation 6. Positively charged ions, called ____________, result from loss of electrons.One metallic element7. Metallic solids are solids made entirely of _________.True 8. True or false: Metals give up electrons easily.Mobile 9. Because the electrons in a metallic solid are ________, the metal can be bent into shapes or drawn into wire.Ductility 10. What is it called when a metal can be drawn into wire?Shared 11. When electrons cannot be gained or lost, they are _________.Covalent 12. A _______ bond is a bond where atoms share valence electrons.Molecule 13. The combination of atoms formed in a covalent bond is called a ________.Bonds 14. Covalent molecules vary in strength based on the number of _______ that form between atomsTrue 15. True or false: Covalent bonding can take place between atoms of the same element.

Nonmetals 16. Covalent bonds always form between nonmetals and ____________.Electron 17. A _________ dot diagram is used to represent covalent bonds.

Trivias

Dry ice is the solid form of carbon dioxide, CO2.

Isotopes are atoms of the same element having different mass numbers.

The distribution of electrons in various shells or energy levels in an atom is called the electronic configuration of that atom.

According to Bohr and Bury, the maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in any energy level of an atom is given by the formula 2n2, where ‘n’ represents the number of the energy level.

In order to exist independently by itself an atom must have eight electrons in its outermost shell two electrons if there is only one shell. This is the octet rule.

Atoms try to attain stable configuration (completing their outermost shell) either by losing, gaining or sharing electrons.

The force of attraction that holds atoms together in a molecule is known as a chemical bond.

A bond between an anion and cation is called an ionic bond. Cations give electrons to the anions.

A covalent bond id a bond in which both the reacting atoms are short of electrons. Thus, they attain stable electronic configuration by sharing electrons.

Coordinate bond is a covalent bond in which the shared pair of electrons is contributed by only one of the two atoms.

Volcanoes

Volcanoes are formed when magma from within the Earth's upper mantle works its way to the surface. At the surface, it erupts to form lava flows and ash deposits. Over time as the volcano continues to erupt, it will get bigger and bigger.

A volcano is a rupture on the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface.

Questions:

Enumeration

1. Main Parts of the Volcanoa. _________________b. _________________c. _________________d. _________________e. _________________f. _________________

2. Types of Volcanoes a. _________________b. _________________c. _________________

3. Types of volcanic activitya. _________________b. _________________c. _________________

4. Types of volcanic eruptionsa. _________________b. _________________c. _________________d. _________________e. _________________

Answer Key

1. Main parts of the Volcano Magma Chamber  Main Vent Crater  Pyroclastic Flow  Ash Cloud  Volcanic Bombs 

2. Different Types of Volcanoes Cinder Cones Shield Volcanoes Composite Volcanoes

3. Classification of prediction of volcanic activity Active Volcanoes Dormant Volcanoes Extinct Volcanoes

4. Classification of volcanic eruptions Hawaiian eruptions Strombolian eruptions  Vulcanian eruptions Peleean eruptions Plinian eruptions

10 Interesting Facts About Volcanoes

1. There are three major kinds of volcanoes

Although volcanoes are all made from hot magma reaching the

surface of the Earth and erupting, there are different kinds. Shield

volcanoes have lava flows with low viscosity that flow dozens of

kilometers; this makes them very wide with smoothly sloping flanks.

Stratovolcanoes are made up of different kinds of lava, and

eruptions of ash and rock and grow to enormous heights. Cinder

cone volcanoes are usually smaller, and come from short-lived

eruptions that only make a cone about 400 meters high.

2. Volcanoes erupt because of magma escaping from

beneath the Earth’s crust

About 30 km beneath your feet is the Earth’s mantle. It’s a region of

superhot rock that extends down to the Earth’s core. This region is

so hot that molten rock can squeeze out and form giant bubbles of

liquid rock called magma chambers. This magma is lighter than the

surrounding rock, so it rises up, finding cracks and weakness in the

Earth’s crust. When it finally reaches the surface, it erupts out of the

ground as lava, ash, volcanic gasses and rock. It’s called magma

when it’s under the ground, and lava when it erupts onto the

surface.

3. Volcanoes can be active, dormant or extinct

An active volcano is one that has had an eruption in historical times

(in the last few thousand years). A dormant volcano is one that has

erupted in historical times and has the potential to erupt again, it

just hasn’t erupted recently. An extinct volcano is one that scientists

think probably won’t erupt again. Here’s more information on

the active volcanoes in the world.

4. Volcanoes can grow quickly

Although some volcanoes can take thousands of years to form,

others can grow overnight. For example, the cinder cone volcano

Paricutin appeared in a Mexican cornfield on February 20, 1943.

Within a week it was 5 stories tall, and by the end of a year it had

grown to more than 336 meters tall. It ended its grown in 1952, at a

height of 424 meters. By geology standards, that’s pretty quick.

5. There are 20 volcanoes erupting right now

Somewhere, around the world, there are likely about 20 active

volcanoes erupting as you’re reading this. Some are experiencing

new activity, others are ongoing. Between 50-70 volcanoes erupted

last year, and 160 were active in the last decade. Geologists

estimate that 1,300 erupted in the last 10,000 years. Three quarters

of all eruptions happen underneath the ocean, and most are actively

erupting and no geologist knows about it at all. One of the reasons is

that volcanoes occur at the mid ocean ridges, where the ocean’s

plates are spreading apart. If you add the underwater volcanoes,

you get an estimate that there are a total of about 6,000 volcanoes

that have erupted in the last 10,000 years.

6. Volcanoes are dangerous

But then you knew that. Some of the most deadly volcanoes include

Krakatoa, which erupted in 1883, releasing a tsunami that killed

36,000 people. When Vesuvius exploded in AD 79, it buried the

towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum, killing 16,000 people. Mount

Pelee, on the island of Martinique destroyed a town with 30,000

people in 1902. The most dangerous aspect of volcanoes are the

deadly pyroclastic flows that blast down the side of a volcano during

an eruption. These contain ash, rock and water moving hundreds of

kilometers an hour, and hotter than 1,000 degrees C.

7. Supervolcanoes are really dangerous

Geologists measure volcano eruptions using the Volcano Explosivity

Index, which measures the amount of material released. A “small”

eruption like Mount St. Helens was a 5 out of 8, releasing a cubic

kilometer of material. The largest explosion on record was Toba,

thought to have erupted 73,000 years ago. It released more than

1,000 cubic kilometers of material, and created a caldera 100 km

long and 30 kilometers wide. The explosion plunged the world into a

world wide ice age. Toba was considered an 8 on the VEI.

8. The tallest volcano in the Solar System isn’t on Earth

That’s right, the tallest volcano in the Solar System isn’t on Earth at

all, but on Mars. Olympus Mons, on Mars, is a giant shield volcano

that rises to an elevation of 27 km, and it measures 550 km across.

Scientists think that Olympus Mons was able to get so large because

there aren’t any plate tectonics on Mars. A single hotspot was able

to bubble away for billions of years, building the volcano up bigger

and bigger.

9. The tallest and biggest volcanoes on Earth are side by

side

The tallest volcano on Earth is Hawaii’s Mauna Kea, with an

elevation of 4,207 meters. It’s only a little bigger than the largest

volcano on Earth, Mauna Loa with an elevation of only 4,169 meters.

Both are shield volcanoes that rise up from the bottom of the ocean.

If you could measure Mauna Kea from the base of the ocean to its

peak, you’d get a true height of 10,203 meters (and that’s bigger

than Mount Everest).

10. The most distant point from the center of the Earth is a

volcano

You might think that the peak of Mount Everest is the most distant

point from the center of the Earth, but that’s not true. Instead, it’s

the volcano Chimborazo in Ecuador. That’s because the Earth is

spinning in space and is flattened out. Points at the equator are

further from the center of the Earth than the poles. And Chimborazo

is very close to the Earth’s equator.

MAKE YOUR OWN VOLCANO

Materials

The materials for this volcano experiment are simple and can be found in your very own kitchen! The items you need are the following:

Tablespoon

Baking soda

Vinegar

Flour

Warm water

Plastic bottle

Dishwashing soap

Food dye

Pan

Salt

Cooking oil

Cup

Procedure

You must be excited to perform this volcano experiment. It is like witnessing a real volcano erupt right before your very eyes! But this version is much smaller! It is recommended that you perform this activity outdoors because it could get a little messy. Now, let's get started…

The first thing you have to do is make the volcano itself. Create the volcano by taking the cup and tablespoon for measuring the ingredients and mix together 6 cups of flour, 2 cups of salt, 2 cups of water and 4 tablespoons of cooking oil. Start moulding the mixture into a cone shape once the mixture is smooth and firm. Feel free to add more water into the mixture if the resulting material is not smooth enough. Place the soda bottle in the baking pan before you start forming your volcano. You will be moulding the cone shape around the bottle, allowing the mouth of the bottle to function as the mouth of your volcano.

Now that you are done with your volcano, it is time to add some fun to it! Fill the bottle halfway with warm water and a few drops of food dye, preferably red. Then, put about 6 drops of the dishwashing soap into the mixture, 2 tablespoons of baking soda and lastly,

vinegar.

Discussion

Most probably your first question about the activity is "what makes it behave that way?" It is not just random mixing of substances and voila, you made it erupt. There is actually a deeper explanation to that.

In a nutshell, the primary explanation to the chemical reaction you have just witnessed is that mixing vinegar, which is acid, and baking soda, which is base, results in the formation of carbon dioxide gas, forcing the contents of the bottle out of the volcano.

When an acid and a base are mixed together, they react to neutralize each other resulting in production of salt and also in the process, produce carbon dioxide. In real volcanoes, carbon dioxide is also present when they erupt

Sources:

Chemical Bonding: https://www.chem.wisc.edu/deptfiles/genchem/sstutorial/Text7/Tx71/tx71.html

Constellations:

Trivias:

http://www.funtrivia.com/en/subtopics/Constellation-Knowledge-50362.html

http://cs.astronomy.com/asy/b/astronomy/archive/2008/01/28/enjoy-some-constellation-trivia-part-2.aspx

http://123facts.com/play-quiz/Stars-and-Constellations-3720.html

http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/astronomy/stars/constellations.shtml

Questions:

http://www.legendsofthespiral.com/?page=guides&guideid=331

http://www.braingle.com/trivia/21069/popular-constellations.html

http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/astronomy/stars/constellations.shtml