CONSTITUTIONAL LAWOF

INDIA

Professor Narender KumarDepartment ofLaws

Panjab UniversityChandigarh

PIONEER PUBLICATIONS

CONTENTSPages

Chapter I-Introductlon 1-2Constitution Deflned 1ClassificationofConsütution 1

Chapter II-Historical Background 3-11The Coming of the Brlüsh 3The Government oflndiaAct 1918 5The Government of India Act 1935 6ConstltuentAssembly 8Mountbatten Plan-June 3,1947 9The Indian Iiidependence Act 1947 ' 10Framingoflndia's Constitution 10

Chapter Ill-Salient Features of the Indian Constitution 12-16A Written Constitution 12The Lengthiest, Bulkiest and the most Detailed Consütuüon . 12A Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democractic Republic 13Parliamentary Form of Government 14A Federaüon with Strong Centralising Tendencies 14A Unique Blend of Rigidity and Flexibility 15Adult Suffrage 15Single Citizenship 15Fundamental Rights 15Direcüve Principles of State Policy 16Fundamental Duties 16Independent Judiciary 16Preventive Detenüon 16

Chapter IV-Preamble 17-25Meanlng of Pr eamble 17Object, Purpose and Scope of the Preamble 17Preamble how for useful in interpreting the Constitution 18Preamble, whether a part of the Constitution 19Whether the Preamble can be amerided 20Preamble, whether necessary with the Constitution 20Contents of Preamble 20Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic. Republic 21

Chapter V-The Union and its Territory 26-34India, a Union of States 26Territory of India 26State of India 27Union Territories in India 27Difference in Status of the States and Union Territories 28Special Status of the State of Jammu and Kashmir 28Territories as may be acquired 28Admission or establishment of new states 29Upon such terms and conditions as Parliament thinks fit 30Formation of New States 30Alteration of areas, boundaries or names of State 31Amendments to Original Bill under Article 3 32Alteration of area, boundary or name of a Union Territory 32

„) CONSTITUTIONAL LAW OF INDIA

Laws made under Article 2 and 3 to provide for supplemental,incidental and consequenüal mattersCession of Indian Territory to a Foreign State 33Lease in perpetuity of a part of territory of India 33

Chapter Vl-Citizenship 35'*fCitizen, Ciüzenship rzCitizenship of India at the Commencement of the Constitution 35Citizenship by domicile ^Kinds of Domicile 37Single Domicile in India 37Ciüzenship by Migration 38Migration from Pakistan to India before 19thJuly 1948 38Migration from Pakistan to India on or after 19th July 1948 38Citizenship of Migrants to Pakistan 39Migrants returning back to India 39Migration 39Citizenship by Registration 40No Dual Citizenship 4 1

Continuance of the right of citizenship '41Citizenship after the Commencement of the Constituüon 42Acquisiüon of Citizenship of India 42Citizenship by Birth 42Citizenship by Descent 42Citizenship by Registraüon 43Citizenship by Naturalisation " 44Ciüzenship by Incorporation of Territory 45Termination of Citizenship of India 45Renunciaüon of Citizenship 45Termination of Ciüzenship 46Deprivation of Citizenship 46Commonwealth Ciüzenship 47A Company or Corporation whether a Citizen of India 47

Chapter VH-Fundamental Rights 50-83Concept of Fundamental Rights-Their Origin and Development 50Fundamental Rights in India 51Balance between Individual Rights and Social Control 52Suspecsin or Denial of Fundamental Rights . 53Fundamental Rights are Available Against the State 53Definition of State 54Local Authorities 55Other Authorities 56Other Authorities included in the term State for the purposeof Part III of the Constitution 61Other Authorities not included in the term State for thepurpose of Part III of the Consütution 64State as a shareholder 70Local or Other Authoriües outside India but under the Controlof Government of India 71Whether State includes the Judiciary 71Jusüciability of Fundamental Rights 73Fundamental Rights are Prospecüve in Operation 73Doctrine of Severability 74

CONTENTS l"1

Validation of Void Laws - Doctrine of Eclipse 77Doctrine of Eclipse and Post Constitution Laws 'Post-Conütution Laws added to Ninth ScheduleDoctrine ofWaiver and Fundamental RightsDefinition of the terms Law and Laws in Force

Chapter VIII-Right to Equality 8 4 " 1 4 *Equality before Law & Equal Protecüon of Laws VA

Equality Before LawEqual Protectionof Laws °°Exception to the Rule of Equality 86Tests for Reasonable Classiflcation 8 7

Principles for determining Reasonableness of Classiflcation 88Article 14 Strikes at Arbitrariness-A Dynamic Approach 89Oral Interview Test and Arücle 14 92InstancesofClassiflcaüon 94Rules of Natural Jusüce and Article 14 10°An Action of the State per se Abritrary 101Equality Clause Cannot be Invoked to Perpetuate an Illegal Order 101Basis of Classiflcation 101Geographical Basis 102Historical Considerations 102Nature of Business 102Time as the Basis of Classiflcation 103Classificaüon on the Basis of Nature of Persons 103Classificaüon on the Basis of Nature of Offences 103Classificaüon in favour of State 103Laws applicable to a Single Individual 104Tax Laws and Arücle 14 105Special Courts and Procedural Classificaüon 107Administrative Discreüon 109Prohibition of discriminaüon Against Citizens 110No Discrimination against Citizens 110On the Ground Only of 111No Discrimination as to Use or Access to Public Places • 112Special Provisions for Women and Children 113Special Provisions for Backward Classes 114Scope of Clause (4) of Arücle 15 115Socially and Educationally Backward Classes-Caste maybe the Sole Basis 115Quantum of Special Provisions 117Backward and More Backward Classes 118Equality of Opportunity in Public Employment 119Arücle 16 and Article 15 - Dlstinguished 119Equality of Opportunity - State may law downQualifications or Condiüons 120Matters Relaüng to Employment or Appointment 121No Discriminaüon on the Ground of Religion, Race, Etc. 123Requirement as to Residence in a State 125Reservation of Posts for Backward Classes 125Arücle 16(4) is not an Excepüon to Arücle 16(1) 125Scope of Article 16 (4) 126Jusüce Ram Nandan Committee - Creamy Layer 133Reservation in Promoüon - Seventy Seventh Amendment 1995 133

,V) CONSTITUTIONAL LAW OF INDIA

Filling of vacancies belonging to different categories 134Principles of Reservation do not apply to an Isolated Post 135Offices under a Religious or Denominational Institution 135Equal Pay for Equal Work 1 3 5

Aboliüon of Untouchability 138

Abolition of Titles l 4 0

Chapter IX-Right to Freedom 142-241Six Fundamental Freedoms 1 42Freedoms are not Absolute-Subject to Reasonable Restrictions 142Tests for Restrictions to be imposed on the Freedom 143Reasonableness of Restrictions-Guildelines 143Bürden of Proving Reasonableness of Restriction 145Freedom of Speech and Expression 145Importance of Freedom of Speech and Expression 145Meaning of Freedom of Speech and Expression 146Scope and Content of the Freedom 146Freedom of the Press - Included 146Meaning and Scope of Freedom of the Press 147No Pre-Censorship on Press 147No Pre-Stoppage of Publicaüon of Newspapers Article orMatter of Public Importance 147Freedom of Circulaüon 148Freedom in the Volume of News or Views 148No Excessive Taxes on Press 149No Indlrect Attack on Press 149Freedom in Employment of Editorial Force -But No Immunlty from General Laws 150Commercial Adverüsements - Included 151The Rights to Exhibit Films on Doordarshan 153Right to Reply or Answer the Crlücism Against One's Views 154Arücle 19(1 )(a) Forbids State Monopoly either in Print orElectronic Media. 154Pre-Censorship of Films 155Demonstraüons, Pickeüng, Strikes 156Freedom of Silence - Right not to speak 156Article 19 (l)(a) Recognlses No Geographical Barriers. 157Reasonable Restrictions on Freedom of Speech and Expression 157Security of State 157Friendly Relations With Foreign States 158Public Order 158Anticipatory Acüon to prevent disorders 159Decency or Morality 160Contemptof Court 160Defamaüon 161Incitement to an Offence. 162Sovereignty and Integrity of Indiä 162Sedition 162Freedom of Assembly 162Scope of the Right toAssemble 162Right not absolute 163Restricüon must be regulative and not prohibitive in nature 163No Right to Hold Assembly on Private Property 163

CONTENTS

Freedom to form Associaüons or UnionsScope of the Right to form Association or UnionRight to be a Member VoluntarilyRight subjected to Reasonable RestrictionsRight Not to be a Member of an AssociationNo right to conünue in Government ServiceNo Prior Restraint on the Right to Form AssociationNo Right to Recognition by StateNo Right to Achieve the Objects of AssociationD. & E. Freedom of Movement and ResidenceFreedom of MovementScope of ArticleRight to ResidenceArücle 19 (l)(d) & (e) are comlimentaryObject of Arücle 19(l)(d) & (c)Reasonable RestrictionUnreasonable RestrictionsFreedom of Profession, Occupation, Trade and BusinessProfession, Trade, Business, Occupaüon - DefinedScope of Article 19 (1) (g)Right not to Start or to Close Down a BusinessRight not to hold a Particular Job of One's CholceRight not to carry on any Anti-Social or Dangerous AcüvityRight to carry on Business or Trade in LiquorNo right to carry on anü-social and unscrupulous money-lendingNo right to Impart EducationNo Right to Import GoodsNo right to choose the Place - Street TradingNo Right Against CompeüüonProfessional or Technical or other QualificationsRestricüons on the right to carry on trade or businessReasonable Restricüons in Public InterestRestricüon Must not be Unreasonable or ExessiveRestriction may amount to Total ProhibitionState Trading and State Monopoly in a Trade or BusinessProtection in Respect of conviction for OffenceEx-Post Facto LawsLaw declarlng an Offence subsequent to the Commission of the actLaw enhancing penalty subsequent to the commission of the offenceBeneflcial ex-post facto lawsProcedural Ex-post Facto LawImposiüon of Civil Liabillty retrospectively not barredProtection against double jeopardyDouble Jeopardy and Issue EstoppelProtection against Self-IncriminationPerson accused of an offlceProtection against compulsion to be a witnessTo be a Witness - Funishing EvidenceSearches and SelzuresSection 27 of Evidence Act 1872 and Article 20(3)Compulsion to give Evidence against himselfTape-recording of Statements made by the accused

Vl) CONSTITUTIONAL LAW OF INDIA

Scope of the Protection contained in Arücle 20(3) 196Right to Life and Personal Liberty l 9 6

Scope of the Right to Life - Different Facets of the Right to Life 196Right to live with human dignity 1 9 7

Right to livelihood 1 9 8

Right to live in Unpolluted Environment 2°1Right to Education 2 0 JRight to social security and protection of the family 202Right to health and medical aid 2 0 2

Duty to preserve life - Medico-Legal cases 2 0 3

No Right to die-or to commit Suicide 2 0 4

SentenceofDeath 2 0 5

Right to Personal Liberty 2 0 6

Definition 2 0 6

New Dynamic Dimension 2 ^ 7

Right to Privacy 2 0 7

Right to Privacy and Secüon 9 of Hindu Marriage Act 1955 209Right to Go Abroad 209Arrest of a Judgment-debtor 210Right Against Illegal Detenüon 211Article 21 and Prisoners Rights 211Right to Free Legal Aid - Rights to Appeal 212Right to Speedy Trial 213Right to Ball 215Right to Anücipatory Bail 215Right against hand-cufflng 216Right against Bar Fetters 217No Right to escape from custody 217Right to Write a Book 218Right against Solitary Confinement - Right to Socialise 218Right against Inhuman treatment - Third Degree Methods 219Right against Custodial Violence 220Under-trials not to be kept with convicts 220Dealth by Hanging not Violaüve of Article 21. 221Right against Public Hanging 222Right against delayed execution 222Right to Damages for VIolaüon of Article 21 222Procedure Established by Law 226Article 21 and Emergency 227Inter-Relaüon of Arücles 21,19 and 14 228Protection against arrest and Detenüon 228Object behind Arücle 22 229Who can Claims Arücle 22 229When Arücle 22 does not apply 229Safeguards against arrest or detenüon made under theordinary law relaüng to Commission of Offences 230Right to be informed of the grounds of arrest 230Right to Consult and to be Defended by a Legal Pracütioner 230Right to be Produced before the Nearnest Magistrate 231Right not to be Detained in Custody Beyond 24 hours withoutthe Authority of the Magistrate 232Exceptions to Clause (1) and Clause (2) ofArücle 22 232Safeguards Against Arrest or Detenüon made under a

CONTENTS ( v "

Law providing for Preventive Detention 2 3 2

Prevenüve Detention "33Legislation on Prevenüve Detenüon , 2 3 3

ConsUtutional Safeguards 2 3 4

No Detention beyond three months wiüiout revlew by Advisory Board 234Advisory Board ^Constitution of Üie Advisory Board 23 5

Procedure before the Advisory Board 2 3 6

Right to the Detenu to be informed of the Grounds of Detenüon 236The Amended National Security Act 1984 23 7

Right to the Detenu to Make a Representation against theOrder of DetentionConsideraüon of the Representation 239No right to Disclosure of Certain Facts 240No Detenüon Beyond the Maximum Period Prescribed Under aLaw Made by Parliament under Clause 7 (a) 241

Preventive Detenüon Without Reference to Advisory Board 241

Chapter X-Right Against Exploitation 242-246Traffic in Human Beings 242Begar 242Similar Form of Forced Labour 244Compulsory Service for Public Purposes 245 .Employment of Children 246

Chapter XI-Right to Freedom of Religion 247-264India a Secular State 247Freedom of Religion 248Definition - Religion 248Freedom of conscience & the right to perfess, pracüse propagate religion 249Freedom of Conscience 249Right to Profess Religion 249Right to Practise Religion 250Practices which constitute integral&essenüal part of religion practise 250Right to Propagaüon of Religion 251Restricüon on the Freedom of Religion 252Freedom of Religion subjected to public Order, morality and health 252Regulation of economic, or other secular acüvities 253Social Weifare and Reforms 254Throwing open of Hindu Religion Institution 255Explanaüon I to Arücle 25 256Explanation II to Arücle 25 256Freedom of Religion of Religions Denomlnations 256Religious Denomination - Definition 257Right to Establish and Maintaln Insütutions 258Right to Manage Matters of Religion 259(c) & (d) Right to Own and Administer Property 260Freedom from Payment of Taxes for Promotion of any parücular Religion 261Prohibition of Religious Instrucüons in Educational Instituüons 263

Chapter Xll-Cultural and Educational Rights 265-280Right to conserve language. Script or culture 265Right of Citizen to admission to Educational Institution 267WJien Article 29 (2) does not apply 267Arücle 29 (2) and Ist Amendment 1951 268

VII I ) CONSTITUTIONAL LAW OF INDIA

Article29(2)andl5(l) "*Right of Minorities to Establish&Administer Educaüonal Instituüons 2b3Minority 2 6 9

Linguistic Minority *Religious Minority

h ERelig yRight to Establlsh Educational Instituüons * "Right to Administer Educaüonal Instituüons 272No Right to Recognition or Affiliation 27

f M i i t EdNo Right to Recognition or AffiliationAcquisition of Property of Minority Educational Institutions 280No Discriminaüon in Granüng Aid to Educaüonal Insütuüons 280

5Chapter XHI-Saving of Certain Laws ORISaving of Laws for Acquisition of Estate Etc. 281Acquisition ofEstate ^Taking over the Management of Property 282AmalgamaüonofCorporations 2 8 2

Modifikation of Rights of Mine Owners 283Validation of Certain Acts and Regulaüons 283Saving of Laws Giving Effect to Certain Direcüve Principles 284

Chapter XIV-Right to Constitutional Remedies 286-297Right to move the Supreme Court for the Enforcementof Fundamental Rights 286Appropriate Proceedings 286Rule of Locus Stand! - Interest Liügaüon 287Abuseof Public Interest Litigation / 288Writs, Directions or Orders 288Writ of Mandamus 289Writs of Prohibition 289Writs of Cerüorari 289Writ ofHabeas Corpus 289Writ of Quo Warrauto 289Peitition Under Arücle 32 and Res Judicata 292Peüüon under Article 32 and Laches or Delay 292Extstence of Alternative Remedy 292Powers of the Supreme Court and Any Other Court 293Suspension of the Right conferred by Article 32 293ProclamationofEmergency and Fundamental Rights 293Members of Armed Forces and Fundamental Rights 294Restricüons on Fundamental Rights During the Operation of Martial Law 295Martial Law 295Martial Law and Emergency - Distinguished 296Legislaüon to Glve effect to Provisions of Part-HI 297

Chapter XV-Directive Principles of State Policy 298-313Objects and Purpose behind the Directive Principles 298Nature of Directive Principles 298Sanction behind the Directive Principles 300Directive Principles and Fundamental Rights - Dintinguished 300Supremacy of Directive Principles over Fundamental Rights 302Enforcement of Directive Principles 302Promotion of Soclal Order 303Certain Principles of Policy to be followed by the State 303Equal justice and free legal aid 305

CONTENTS (IX

VillagePanchayats 306Right to Work, to Education and to Public Assistance 306Just and Human conditions of work 307Livlng Wages for workers 307Participation of workers in management of industry 308Common CMl Code 3 0 9

Free and Compulsory Education for Children 309Promotion of Education and Economic Interest of Weaker Secüons 310Duty to Raise the level of Nutrition and the Standard of Livlng 311Organisation of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry 311Protecüon and Improvement of Environment and Wild Life 311Protection of Monuments 312Separation of Judiciary from Executive 312Promotion of International Peace and Security 313

Chapter XVI-Fundamental Duties 314-316Object and Importance of the Fundamental Duties 314Enforcement of Fundamental Duües 314

Chapter XVII-Union Executive -317-349The President of India 317The President - The Head of Union Executive " 317Executive Power - Defined 317Executive may Act without a Law 318Extent of Union's Executive Power 318Election of the President 318Electoral College 318Manner of Election 319System of Elecüon 320Proportional Representaüon by Means of the Single Transferable Vote 320Incomplete Electoral College and Constltutionality of theElection of the President 322Term of Offlee of President 324Eligibility of Re-Election 324Conditions of President's Office 325Oath of Affirmation by the President 325Procedure for Impeachment of the President - Removal of the President 325Privileges of the President 326Doubts and Disputes in respect of the Elecüon of the President 326Powers of the President 327Powers in relaüon of the Executive 327Powers in relation to the Legislature 328Ordinance Maklng Power 329Power to Grant Pardons 331Powers in relaüon to Emergency 333Powers in Relaüon to Armed Forces 333Diplomatie Powers 334Position of the President 334Constitutional Provisions 334Opinion of the Constitutional Stalwarts 335Safeguards against an Activlst President 335Worklng of the consütution - Controversies 336Judicial Pronouncements 337Conclusion 338

X) CONSTITUTIONAL LAW OF INDIA

The Vice-President of India 339Qualificaüpn for the Office of Vice-President 339Elecüon of the Vice-President 339Time for holding Election 34°Term of Office of the Vice-President, Resignation or Removal 340Removal of Vice-President 340Oathof Office 340Conditions of Office 340The Prime Minister of India 341Appointment of the Prime Minister 341Deputy Prime Minister 343Council of Ministers 343When should the person invited to form the Government provehis majority in the Lok Sabha ' 343Dissolution of Lok Sabha 344Dismissal of Ministry 345Collective Responsibility 346Individual Responsibility of Ministers 347Duües of Prime Minister towards the President 347The Attorney-General for India 348Appointed of Attorney-General 348Duües of the Attorney-General 348

Chapter XVIII-Central Legislature - Union Parliament 350-373Bicameral Legislature 350Merits of a Bicameral Legislature 350Demerits of a Bicameral Legislature 350Parliament not a Sovereign Body 351Composition of the Rajya Sabha 351The Upper House under other Constituüons - Disünguished 351Composiüon of the Lok Sabha 352Allocation of Lok Sabha Seats among the State 352Readjustment of Seats after Each Census 353Duraüon of Houses of Parliament 353Duraüon of Rajya Sabha 353Duraüon of Lok Sabha 353Qualification for Membership of Parliament 353Disqualifications for Membership 354Vacaüon of Seats - No Simultaneous Membership of more than One House 355Resignation by a Member of his Seat 356Absentation of a Member from the House's Meetings 357Decision on quesüons as to Disqualificaüon of Members 357Penalty for Sitüng and Voüng as a Member in a House 358Officers of Parliament 358Rajya Sabha-The Chairman and Deputy Chairman 358Deputy Chairmanto act as the Chairman 358Lok Sabha - The Speaker and the Dupty Speaker 359Salaries and Allowances of the Officers of Parlament 360Secretariat of Parliament 360Sessions of Parliament 361Summoning of Session 361Prorogaüon of the House 361Prorogaüon and Adjournment - Disünguished 361

CONTENTS (*'

Dissolution of the House 362Right of the President to Address the House 362Special Address , 362Functionsof the Parliament . 3 6 3

Conductof Business 363Oath or Affirmation by Members 363Voting in Houses 3 6 3

Quorum for the meeting absence 3 6 3

Of Quorum 363Legislative Procedure • 364Ordinary Bill 3 6 5

Money Bill 365Special Procedure in respect of Money Bills 366Financial Bill 366A Bill InvoMng Expenditure from Consolidated Fund of India 367Deadlock in the Houses of Parliament on a Bill 367Procedure to Resolve the Deadlock in the two Houses on a Bill 367Assent to Bills 368Procedure in Financial Matters 368Annual Financial Statement 368Expenditure Charged upon the Consolidated Fund of India 369Demands for Grants 369Appropriation Bill 370Votes on Account 370Votes of Credit 370Excepüonal Grants 370Supplementary, addiüonal or excess grants 371Effect of Adjournment, Prorogaüon and Dissolution of the Houseon a Bill pending therein ' . 371Rules of Procedure 372Rules Regulating Procedure in Financial Matters 372Irregularity of Procedure - Not Jusüciable 372Language to be used in Parliament 373

Chapter XTX-The Union Judiciary - The Supreme Court 374-400Consütutionofthe Supreme Court 374Appointment of Judges 374Appointmentof the Chief Justice of India 376Qualifications for Appointment as a Judge 376Tenure of Offlee 377Removal of Judges 377Salaries and Allowances 379Seat of the Supreme Court 379Acüng Chief Justice 379Ad-hoc Judges" 380Attendence of Retired Judges 380Jurisdlction of the Supreme Court 380As a Court of Record 380Writ Jurisdiction 382Original Jurisdiction 382Exclusion of Original Jurisdicüon of the Supreme Court 383Appellate Jurisdicüon in Consütuüonal Matters 384Appeal Against the Declsion of a Single Judge 385

XII) CONSTITUTIONAL LAW OF INDIA

Appellate Jurisdiction in Civil Matters 385No Condition of Monetary Value 386No Appeal Lies Against the Decislon of a Single Judge 386Appellate JurisdicUon in Criminal Matters 386Appeal Without a Certiflcate , 387Enlargement of Criminal Appellate Jurisdicüon 387Appeal with a Certificate 388Certificate for Appeal to the Supreme Court 388Appeal by Special Leave 3 8 8

Distinction between Article 136 and Article 132 to 134 389Scope of Article 136 389Tribunals 390Excepüon to Clause (1) of Article 136 390Federal Court's Jurisdiction 390Review Jurisdiction 391Advisory Jurisdiction 391What quesüons may be referred to under Article 143 (1) 392Is the Supreme Court Bound to Express its Opinion 392Reference Under Clause (2) of Article 143 393Binding Nature of Advisory Opinion 393Advisory Opinion and Binding on the President 394Doctrine of Stare Decision 394Law Declared by the Supreme Court 394Supreme Court Not Bound by Its Earller Decisions 395Anoilliary Power of Supreme Court 395Enforcement of Decrees or Orders of the Supreme Court 395Ruleof the Court 396Officers and Servants of the Supreme Court 396Independence of Judiciary 397Appointment of Judges 397Tenure of Office 397Salaries and Allowances of the Judges 398Appbintment of Staff. 398Expenditure of the Courts. 398Prohibition on Practice after Retirement 398Restricüon of Discusslon in Legislature 398Power to Punish for Contempt 399Comptroller and Auditor-General of India 399Appointment and Condiüons of Service 399Duües and Powers of the Comptroller & Auditor-General 400Audit Reports 400

Chapter XX-The State Executive 401-410The Governor 401Appointment of the Governor 401Qualifications 401Condiüons of Governor's Office 401Term of Office 402Removal of the Governor 402Powers of the Governor 402In Relation to the Executive 402In Relation to the Legislature 403Ordinance-Making Power 404

CONTENTS (*»'

Power to Grant Pardons etc. 4 0 5

Position of the Governor 405Discreüon of the Governor 406The Council of Ministers 4 ° 8

Appointment of the Chief Minister 408Dissmissal of the Council of Ministers 409Dissolution of the Legislative Assembly 409

The Advocate-General for the State 4°9

Chapter XXI-The State Legislature 411-432Consütuüon of the State Legislature 411Creation and Aboliüon of the Legislative Council 411Composiüonof the Houses 411Legislative Assembly 411Legislative Council 412Duration of Houses of State Legislature 413Legislative Assembly 413Legislative Council 413QuaÜfication for Membership of the State Legislature 413Disqualifications for Membership of the State Legislature 414Decision on Quesüon as to Disqulifications of Members 414Penalty for SItting and voüng without being qualified 414Vacationof Seats 415Sessions of the State Legislature 415Summoning of Sessions and Prorogation of the Houses 415Dissolution of the Houses 415Dissolution of Legislative Assembly by the President 415Officers of the State Legislature 416The Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the Legislative Assembly 416Chairman and Deputy Chairman of Legislative Council 416Salaries and Allowances of the Speaker etc. 418Secretariat of State Legislature 418Legislative Procedure 418Ordinary Bill 418Money Bill 418Special Procedure for Passing a Money Bill 419Financial Bill 420Bill Involving Expenditure from Consolidated Fund of the State 420Assent to Bills 421Bills reserved for Consideration of the President 421Restrictions on Powers of Legislative Council 421Procedure in Financial Matters -• 423Effect of Dissoluüon, Adjornment and Prorogaüon of aHouse on a Pending Bill 423Conduct of Business 423Oath and Affirmation by Members 423Voting in Houses 424Quorum for Meetings 424Procedure Generally 424Rules of Procedure 424Rules of Procedure in Financial Matters 424Language to be used in the Legislature 425Restriction on Discussion in the Legislature 425

Xiv) CONSTITUTIONAL LAW OF INDIA

Irregularity of Procedure in the Legislature 425Privileges of the Legislature 425Freedom of Speech 426Freedom of Publication of Proceedings 427Other Privileges 427Freedom from Arrest 428Right to Exclude Strangers 428Right to Prohibit the Publication of Proceedings 429Right to Regulate Interhal Pröceedings 429Right to Punish for Contempt of the House 429Privileges and Fundamental Rights 430 .Privileges and the Courts 430

Chapter XXH-The State Judiciary 433-455The High Courts 4 3 3

Constitution of High Courts 433Qualifications 433Appointment of Judges 434Additional and Acüng Judges 435Acüng Chief Jusüce 435Acüng Judges 435Transfer of a Judge from pne High Court to Another 436Terms of Office 437Removal of a Judge of High Court 437

-v Oath or Affirmation 438 •Bar on Pracüce 438Salaries and Allowances 438Jurisdiction of the High Courts 439As a Court of Record 439Pre-Consütution Jurisdiction 439Writ Jurisdicüon 440Territorial Extent of Writ Jurisdicüon 441Relief Against an Interim Order-Interim Relief 441Rule of Locus Stand! 441Writs-A Discretionary Remedy 442Principles for the Exercise of Writ Jurisdiction 442Alternative Remedy 442Laches or Delay 442Res Judicata 443Writs 443Habeas Corpus 443Mandamus . 444Quo Warranto 445Prohibition 446Centiorari 447Judicial and Quasi-Judicial Authorities 447Want or Excess of Jurisdiction 448Error of Law Apparent on the Face of the Record 448Error of Fact 449Violaüon of Principles of Natural Justice 449No man should be a Judge in his own cause (Rule against Bias) 449Audi Alteram Partem (Rule of Fair Hearing) 449Certiorari Against Administrative Authorities 450

CONTENTS (XV

Supervtsory Jurisdiction 450High Court, Power of Superintendence 450Transfer of Certain Cases to High Court 451Control over Subordinate Courts - 452Subordinate Judiciary 453Appointment of District Judges 453Validationof Appointments and Judgments 454Recruitment of Persons other than District Judges 454Application of Chapter VI to Certain Class of Magistrates 455

Chapter XXIII-The Union Territories and Tribal Areas 456-462Administration of Union Territories 456Creaüon of Legislature or Council of Ministers 456Power of Administrator to Promulgate Ordinances 456Power of President to make Regulaüons for certain Union Territories 457Special Provisions with Respect to Delhi 457Creaüon of Legislative Assembly for NCT 458Creation of Council of Ministers for NCT 458Appointment of Chief-Minister & other Ministers 459Ordinance-making Power 459Failure of Consütutional Machinery in NCT 459High Courts for Union Territories 460The Scheduled and Tribal Areas 460Scheduled Trlbes and Scheduled Areas 460Administration of Scheduled & Tribal Areas 460Formation of Autonomous State Comprising Assam Tribal Areas 461Administration of Tribal Areas in Assam 461

Chapter XXTV-The Panchayats and The Municipalities 463-476. Definitions 463

Constitution of Panchayats 463Composition of Panchayats .463Reservation of States 464Reservation for Backward Classes 465 :

Duration of Panchayats 465Disqualiflcaüons for Membership 466Powers, Authority and ResponsibiliUes of Panchayats 466Powers to Impose Taxes by the Panchayats 466Finance Commission 467Auditof Accountsof Panchayats 467Elecüonsof the Panchayats 467Application of Part IX to Union Territories 468Exclusion of Application of Part IX to Certain Areas 468Continuance of Existing Laws and Panchayats 469Bar to Interference by Courts 469The Municipaliües 469Definitions 469qpnstituüon of Municipalities 470Composiüon of Municipaliües " 470Consütuüon and Composiüon of Wards Committees 471Reservation of Seats 471Duration of Municipaliües 472Time for holding Elecüons 472

X V I ) CONSTITUTIONAL LAW OF INDIA

Disqualifikation for MembershipPowers. Authority and Responsibilities of MunicipaliüesPower to Impose Taxes etc.Finance CommissionAudit of Accounts of MunicipaliüesElecüons to the MunicipaliüesApplication of Part IX-A to Union TerritoriesExclusionof Application of Part IX-Ato certain Areas • 4 7 4

Committee for District Planning 47Committee for Metropoliüan PlanningConünuanceofExistingLawsBar to Interference by Courts 4 7 b

Chapter XXV-Relations between the Union and the States 477-511Introducüon 4 7 7

Indian Federal System 4 7 7

Legislative Relaüons 4 7 8

Territorial Jurisdicüon 4 7 8

Doctrine of Territorial Nexus 4 7 8

Parliamentary Law Havlng Exü-a-Territorial Operation 479Distribution of Subject-Matter ofLegislaüon 480Each Entry to be Interpreted Broadly ^ 0Doctrine of Pith and Substance 480Doctrine of Colourable Legislation 482Doctrine of Incidental and Ancilliary Powers 484Repugnancy between a Union Law and a State Law 484Tests of Repugnancy 485Exception 485A Subsequent Union Law - 486State Law complementary to Union Law 487Predominance of the Union Power-Non-Obstante Clause 488Residuary Powers of Legislation 489Legislaüon for Union Territories 489Parliament's Power to Legislate with Respect to Matterscontained in the State List 439Power of Parliament to legislate in the National Interest 489Power of Parliament to Legislate during Operation of aProclamation of Emergency 490Parliamenfs Power to Legislate with the Consent of the State 491Legislaüon for giving effect to International Agreements 491Parliamenfs Power to Legislate Under Article 356 492Centre's Control over State Legislaüon 492Requirements as to recommendaüons and previous sanctions ofthe President or the Governor 493Administrative Relations 493Distribution of Executive Power 493Centre - State Co-ordination 494Inter-Government Delegation of Powers 494Delegation by the Centre 494By Agreement 4 9 4

By Legislation 4 9 5

Entrustment of State's Powers to the Centre 496Centre's Dlrections to the State 496

CONTENTS (XVH

All India Services 497Inter-State Council 497Establishment of Inter-State Council 498Duües of the Inter-State Council 498Procedure of the Council 498Disputes Relaüng to Water 499Public Acts, Records and Judiclal Proceedings 499Jurisdicüon over Territories Outslde India 499Financial Relations 499Consolidated Fund of India and the States 500Public Accounts of India and the State 500Difference between the Consolidate Fund and the Public Account 500Contingency Fund 500Custody etc. of Consolidated Funds. Contingency Funds of Moneyscredlted to the Public Accounts 501Custody of Moneys Received by Public Servants and Courts 501Distribution of Taxing Power 501Restrictions on the States Power to Levy Taxes 502State's Power to Levy Taxes on Professions and Trades 502State's Power to Levy Sales Taxes 502No State can tax a sale or purchase taklng place outslde the State 502No State can tax a sale or purchase taking place in the courseof Import and export 503No State can take a sale or purchase taklng place in the Course ofinter-State Trade and Commerce 503Taxes on Sale or purchase of Goods of Special Importance 503Taxes on the sale or purchase of goods in the course of inter-State trade orcommerce specified in sub-Clause(b),(c) or(d) of Clause(29-A) of Article 366 503Inter-Government Tax Immunlty - Doctrine of Immunlty of Instrumentallty 504No Taxation Except by Authorlty of Law 505Tax and Fee 506No Bar Against Double Taxation 507Distribution of Revenue between the Union & the States 507Assignment of Union Revenue to the States 507Duües levied by the Union but Collected and Appropriated by the States 507Taxes Levied and Collected by the Union but Assigned to the States 507Compulsory Sharing of Taxes 508Taxes Levied and Collected by the Union and Distributed betweenthe Union and the State 508Permisslve Sharing of Taxes 508Taxes whlch are Levied and Collected by the Union and maybe distributed between the Union & the States 508Grant-In-Ald 509Finance Commission 509Duües of the Finance Commission 510Borrowing Powers 511

Chapter XXVI-Liability of the State Under Contracts and for Torts 512-517Liability under contracts 512Object 512Effect of Non-Compliance 512No Personal Liability 513Liability for Torts 513

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW OF INDIA

Extent of LiabilityChapter XXVH-Right to Property

Repealed Fundamental Right to PropertyConsütutional Right to Property

Chapter XXVni-Freedom of Trade, Commerce and Intercourse 521-536Trade, Commerce and Intercourse 5 2 1

Doctrine of res extra commercium 5 2 2

Meaning of Freedom of Trade, Commerce and Intercourse 522Object behind Arücle 301 522Scope of Arücle 301 Freedom 5 2 3

Direct and Immediate Restricüons 5 2 4

Regulatory Measures or Compensatory Taxes 524Regulation-Resti-icüonDistinguished • 525Restricüons on Freedom of Trade under Parliamentary Law 526Limitation upon Power of Parliament under Article 302 527Parliamentary Legislaüon for Meeting Scarcity of Goods 529Restricüon on Freedom of Trade and Commerce under a State Law 529State's Power to Impose Tax on Imported Goods 529State's Power to Impose Restrictions on Trade and Commerce 531Saving of Existing Laws 535Saving of .Laws providing for State Monopoly . 535Authority for Carrying out the Purposes of Article 301 -304 536

Chapter XXTX-Services under the Union and the States 537-577Recruitment & Condiüons of Service of Persons Servlng the Union or a State 537No duty to legislate or make rules 537Scope of Article 309 538Restraints on Power conferred by Arücle 309 539Power Conferred by Arücle 309 not fettered by Service Contract 540Tenure of Office - Doctrine of Pleasure 540The Common Law "Doctrine of Pleasure" 540Justification for the Rule of Pleasure 541Doctrine of Pleasure in India 541Implications of the "doctrine of pleasure" under Article 310( 1) 541Limitations on the Doctrine of Pleasure 542Delegation of Pleasure by the President or the Governor 543Constitutional Safeguards for Civil Servants 543Why may Claim these safeguards ' 543Civil Post 544Why cannot claim these safeguards 545Safeguards 545

• No removal or dissmissal by an authority subordinateto the appointing authority 545Appoinüng Authority 545Subordinate Authority 546Removal or Dismissal by Authority Equal in Rank or Superior toAppoinüng Author ity _ . 546No Delegation of Power to Remove 547Object of Article 311(1) 547No Dismissal, Removal or Reducüon in Rank Except after Inquiry 547Dismissal or Removal or Reducüon in Rank 547Higher rank or post held in Officiating Capacity 548

CONTENTS (XIX

Motive behind the Reversion Immaterial 549Higher Rank or Post held without complying with Requisite Requirements 550Wimholding of Increments fs not Reducüon in Rank 550Reversion from a Prologned and Conünuous ad hoc Officiation 550No Reduction in Rank of a Direct Recruit 550Application of Arücle 311(2) to Dismissal & Removal 551Temporary or Permanent Servants No Disüncüon 551When Termination of Service is by Way of Punishment 551Who has a Right to Hold his Post or Rank 551Permanent Post 551Qu'asi-permanent Service 551Fixed Tenure Service 552Persons Havlng No Right to hold their Posts or Rank 552Discharge of a Probaüoner 552Aboliüon of Post 553Temporary Government Servant 554Permanent Government Servant 555Quasi-Permanent Service 556Termination of a Person appointed for a Fixed Perlod 556Compulsory Retirement 556Suspension and Punishment under Arücle 311 559Reürement on Superannuation 559Conünuance in Service after Superannuation 559Resignation and Article 311(2) 560Removal from Service for not passing Departments! Examination-Not Illegal 560Reasonable Opportunity of Being Heard 560CommunicaüonofCharges 561Holding of Inquiry into the charges 561Exclusion of Inquiry & Opportunity of being Heard: Excepüons to Article 311(2) 562Excepüon I : Convicüon on a Criminal Charge 562Exception I I : Where Inquiry is not Reasonably Practicable 564Exception III: Holding of Inquiry not Expedient in theInterest of Security of State 566Finality Clause - Article 311(3) 569Opportunity of Hearing at Punishing Stage 569All-India Services 571Object for creating All-India Services 571Public Service Commissions » 572Constitution of Public Service Commission 573Qualiflcations for Appointment 573Tenure of Office 573Removal from Office 573Removal for Misbehaviour 574Suspension 575Functions of Public Service Commissions 575Exclusion of Consultaüon with the Public Service Commission 576Reports of Public Service Commission 576Role of Public Service Commission 577

Chapter XXX-Tribunals 578-579Establishment of Administrative Tribunals for Service Matters " 578Tribunals for other matters 579

XX) CONSTITUTIONAL LAW OF INDIA

Chapter XXXI-ElectionsElecüon CommissionConstitution of the Election Commission 580Chief Election Commissioner vis-a-vis other Elecüon Commlssioner 580Multi-member Election Commission 581Independence of Election Commission 58*Staff of the Election Commission 5 8 2

Functions of the Election Commission 582One General Electoral Roll for every Constituency 583System of Adult Suffrage 564

Enactment of laws with respect to Elections 584Sattlementof Elecüon Disputes 585

Chapter XXXII-Special Provisions relating to Scheduled Castes, ScheduledTribes, Backward Classes and other Minorities 586-594

Notification by President - Final and Concluslve 586Cohversion of Scheduled Castes 587Migration of Scheduled castes to other States 587Scheduled Tribes 587Migration of Scheduled Tribes to other States 588Acqulsiüon of Scheduled Tribe Status Through Marriage 588Reservation of Seats for Scheduled Castes and Schedules Tribesin the Lok Sabha and the Legislative Assemblies of the States 589Claims of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes to Services and Posts 589National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes 590Constitution of the Commission 590Duües of the Commission 590Administration of Scheduled Area and the Weifare of the Scheduled Tribes 591Anglo-Indlans 591Backward Classes Commission 592Duües of the Backward Classes Commission 592

Chapter XXXHI-Offlcial Language 595-602Official Language of the Union 595Form of Numerais . 596ContinueduseofEnglish Language 596Use of Hindi Durlng the Period of Transiüon 596Official Language of the States 596.Language spoken by a minority 596Language for Inter-Governmental Communication 597Language to be used in the Supreme Court and in the High Courts 597Language for Authoritative Texts 597Development of Hindi Language 598Appointment of Language Commission 599Dutyof the Language Commission 599Parliamentary Committee to screen Commission's Recommendations 600Language for making Representation for Redress of Grievances 601Faciliües for Instrucüons in Mother-tongue at Primary Stage 601Special Officer for Lingulstic Minoriües ' . 602

Chapter XXXTV-Emergency Provisions 603-633National Emergency 604Proklamation of Emergency 604

CONTENTS (XXI

Who can proclaim Emergency 604Grounds for Proclamaüon of Emergency 604War 605External Aggression 605Publicaüon of Proclamaüon 605Dlfferent Proclamaüon on different grounds 605Saüsfaction of the President - Its Judiclal Review 605Territorial extent of Proclamaüon of Emergency 606Duration of Proclamation of Emergency 606Duraüon of Proclamaüon of Emergency without Approval 606Duraüon of Proclamaüon of Emergency with Approval 607Procedure for Approval of Proclamation 608Revocaüon of Proclamaüon of Emergency 608Special Sitting of Lok Sabha for Revoking Emergency 608Consequences of Proclamaüon of Emergency 609Extension of Executive Power of the Union 609Legislative Power of Parliament extends to State Matters 609Alteration in Distribution of Revenue 610Extension in Duration of Houses of People&Leglslaüve Assemblies of States 610Suspension of Fundamental Freedoms of Arücle 19 611Suspension of other Fundamental Rights 612Disünction between Arücle 358 and Arücle 359 614Scope of Arücle 359 614Arücle 359 and Emergency of 1975 616State Emergency 618Centre's Duty to Protect States 618Centre's Duty to Protect States 618Fallure of Consütutional Machlnery in States - President's Rule In States 619Grounds for Proclamation under Arücle 356 619Duration of Proclamaüon issued under Article 356 619Conünuance of a Proclamation issued under Arücle 356( 1) Beyond 1 Year 620Procedure for Approval of Proclamation 621Duration of Proclamaüon issued under Arücle 356 (1) on May 11, 1987with respect to the State of Punjab 621Consequences of Issuance of Proclamaüon under Arücle 356 (1) 622Arücle 356 in Action 624Guidelines for Invocation of Articel 356 629Financial Emergency 631Dureation of Financial Emergency 631Effects of Financial Emergency 632

Chapter XXXV-Amendment of the Constitution 634-649Informal mehtod of Amendment 634Formal method of Amendment 635Formal method of Amendment Indian Constitution 635Amendmetn by simple majority 635Amendment by Parliament 635Amendments at the Instance of the States 635Amendments by State Legislatures 635Amendments by Special majority 635Amendment by Special majourity plus raüfication by states 636Scope of the amending power of the parliament 636

XXII) CONSTITUTIONAL LAW OF INDIA

Amendment of Fundamental Rights 637Doctrine of Prospective Overruling 640The Constitution (24th Amendment) Act, 1971 641The Constitution (25th Amendment) Act, 1971 641Fundamental Rights case 642The Twenty-fourth Amendment Act, 1971 : Its Constitutionality 642Basic Structure of the Constituüon 643The Twenty-fifty Amendment Act, 1971 : Its Constitutionality 644Afte/math Kes'avananda Bharati case 645Application of the Doctrine of basic structure * 645Forty-second» Amendment, 1976 and Dooctrine of Basic structure 646Arücle 31-B after Kesavananda Bharati case 647Distinction between Integral part of the Constitution and thebaslc structure of the consütution 648

Chapter XXXVI-Special provisions regarding certain states 650-659The State of JAmmu & Kashmlr 650Operation of Article 370-The Consütuüon (Application to Jammu &Kashmir) Order, 1950 651Cessatlonof Operation of Arücle 370 652Maharashtra & Gujarat 652State of Nagaland 653State of Assam 654The State of Manipur 655The State of Andhra Pradesh 655The State of Sikkim 656The State of Mlzoram 656The State of Aunachal Pradesh 657The State of Goa 657

Chapter XXXVTI-Transitional Provisions 658-659Temporary Power of Parliament to make Laws with respect to State Matters 658Continuance in Force of Existing Laws 658Law declared by the Prlvy Council or Federal Court 658Power of the President to Adapt Laws 658

Chapter XXXVTII-Miscellaneous Topics 660-662Successlon to property. Rights and Obligations Arücles 660Property Accruing by Escheat or Lapse or as Bona Vacanüa 660Escheat 660Lapse 660BonaVacantia 660Things ofvaluewithin Territorial Waters 661Power oto Carry on Trade 661Bar to Interference by Courts in Disputes Arising out of certain Teaües,Agreement etc. 661Recognition Granted to Rulers & Prlvy Purses Abolished 661Special Provisions as to Major Ports and Aerodromes 661Short ÜÜeof the Constituüon 662Commencement of the Constitution 662Authoriative Text of the Consütuüon 662Repeals . 662

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