Chapter 2

Consumer Behaviour: Concepts and Theories

CHAPTER 2

1. INTRODUCTION

2. CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR MODELS

2.1 THE ECONOMIC MODEL

2.2 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL

2.3 THE PSYCHO ANALYTIC MODEL

2.4 THE GESTALT MODEL

2.5 THECOGNITIVETHEORY

2.6 SOCIALOGICAL MODEL

3. DECISION PROCESS MODELS

3.1 NICOSIA MODEL

3.2 HOWARD-SHETH MODEL

3.3 ENGEL KOLLAT AND BLACKWELL MODEL

Chapter 2

1. INTRODUCTION

This chapter deals with various traditional and modern

consumer behaviour models. They explain as how a consumer

behaves prior to, while and after purchasing a product. This

theoretical knowledge served as a useful background in studying

consumers' motivational factors and their purchase patterns.

BUYER, CUSTOMER AND CONSUMER

The term "buyer" or "customer" is used to signify the entity

actually engaged in the act of exchanging goods and /or services for

money. He may or may not be the ultimate user of these things,

depending upon whether the goods are bought for his own

consumption or for reselling or reprocessing and selling. At times he

may even be only the purchasing agent for the transaction. The

term "buyer" is therefore, a much wider term than the term

"consumer" which signifies only the ultimate user of the goods and

services.

The implication of this distinction is that the purchase action is

just one point in the entire buyer-behaviour process, which is

inextricably linked to the consumption of the product, both by the

buyer and the other members of the group for whom he acts as a

purchasing agent. Though consumer research usually focuses on

the buyer behaviour and the motivation of the buyer a careful and

more realistic analysis necessarily includes the influences of the

Chapter 2 3 3

total consuming unit (the family or any other group) on the

purchasing agent.

2. CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR MODELS

Marketers are frequently bewildered by the variables that

influence consumers due to the lack of a clear understanding of the

different situation-specific variables. Some of these variables like

personality and attitudes are internal to the consumer, whereas

others such as the economic climate and reference groups are

external. I n some cases, the marketers identify the variables but

the exact nature and strength of their causation may not be clear to

them. Under such circumstances, a relevant study on consumer

behaviour is felt useful. Many such models of consumer behaviour

have been developed to overcome such difficulties over a period of

time, notable of them are briefly presented below.

MODEL

A model can be defined as a simplified representation of

reality, incorporating only those significant aspects of reality that

interest the model-builder. While modeling, consumer's aspects not

relevant should be excluded.

APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR

Consumer-behaviour as body of knowledge is an applied field

and an interdisciplinary borrowing from the subjects such as

Chapter 2 34

Psychology, Sociology, Economic, Social Anthropology, etc. to

furnish a body of knowledge about the consumer. Over the last two

decades, several theories of consumer behaviour have been

formulated, tested, substantiated or validated, which have changed

our concept of the consumer and his behaviour. A brief description

of the basic approaches to the study of consumer behaviour is

furnished below:

2.1 THE ECONOMIC MODEL

Classical economists including the famous Alfred ~ a r ~ h ~ l l '

looked upon the customer largely as the rational creature who

consciously bases his buying behaviour primarily on economic

considerations. Economists, in general ignore the question of how

human needs are formed and changed or how this change is

reflected in subsequent behaviour. They postulate that the

consumer follows the principles of utility maximization in order to

maximize his satisfaction. Given a set of needs, tastes and income

data, the economic model seeks to predict how the consumer will

allocate his money over available set of products with given prices.

Philip ~o t l e r * , "in his explanation of the model, says that

because of the principles of diminishing marginal utility, the

consumer will not allocate all his income to one product. Additional

units consumed will give him diminishing satisfaction.

The economic model suggests useful behavioral hypothesis:

(a) Lower the price of the product, higher will be its sales.

Chapter 2 3 5

(b) b w e r the price of its substitutes, lower will be the sales of

this product.

(c) Higher the income, higher will be the sales of this product,

provided it is not an inferior good.

(d) Higher the promotional expenditure, higher will be the sales.

These hypotheses may hold well partially, at least where the

industrial buyer is concerned. But in the case of consumer goods

and services, people are not as well informed about prices and

availability of substitutes as the economists would have believed. I n

addition, many of us are influenced by emotional and sometimes

non-rational motives for buying which are well divorced from the

principles of economic rationality.

There is, however, a central core of truth to the Marshallian

model, which makes it a useful point of reference in any study of

consumer behaviour. Gabor and g ranger), referring to the general

public on the basis of their survey-study, suggest that a very

substantial portion of them behave in a way, which conforms to the

basic postulates of demand theory. Eva Mueller, in her study of

purchase decisions, discovered that only 25 percent of the

consumers purchasing large household appliances did so with

"substantial degree of deliberationu4 while there is a tendency on

the part of the marketers to discuss the model as being simplistic,

economists argue that the more trained is the buyer; the more

Chapter 2

important the purchase, closer would be the approximation of the

buying behaviour according to the utility maximization model.

2.2 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL: (The Pavlovian Learning Model)

This learning model was first developed by a group of classical

~sycholog is t~ , Pavlov being one of the propounders. This model

suggests that human behaviour is based on some central concepts5

- the drives, stimuli, cues, responses and reinforcements which

determine the human needs and need-satisfying behaviour.

Individually, a drive is a strong internal stimulus, which compels

action. Stimuli are inputs, which are capable of arousing drives or

motives. The way a person responds to a given stimulus would

depend upon the configuration of cues. Cues are signs or signals

which act as stimulus to a particular drive.

The way an individual reacts to the stimuli is known as his

response. I f the response to a given stimulus is 'rewarding', it

reinforces the possibility of similar response when faced with the

same stimulus or cue. Applied to marketing, if on an informational

cue like advertising, the buyer purchases a product (response), the

favourable experience with the product increases the probability

that the responses would be repeated the next time the need

stimulus arises (reinforcement).

The model provides useful insights in the behaviour of the

consumer by showing that human needs are a result of the

interplay of drives, stimuli, responses, etc. The marketers utilize

this knowledge to build up the demand of a product by associating it

with strong drives and providing positive reinforcement. They could

use these concepts to create a market for a new product by

associating it with similar cues as that of the competitor and hope

to shift buyer loyalties or to create a differentiated image for their

own product by associating it with dissimilar strong drives.

The above model, however, does not deal adequately with

phenomenon such as perception, the sub-conscious and

interpersonal influence, which are found to be important

determinants of behaviour.

2.3 THE PSYCHO-ANALYTIC MODEL

This model tries to overcome a major limitation of the above

stimulus-response model by incorporating certain intervening

variables like perception, the family and social environment. The

model suggests that human needs operate at various levels of

consciousness. The motivational wellsprings embedded in these

different levels, are not obvious to the casual observer, nor does the

individual himself understands them fully. They can only be

analyzed by vigorous specialised probing. The founder of the

psychoanalytic school of thought, Sigmund Freud, pioneered the

procedure of vigorous observation and analysis to understand the

Chapter 2 3 8

personality complexities and was able to provide some insights into

individual personality differences and resultant behaviour6.

Freud maintained that libido (sex) is one of the most powerful

instincts and the motives for many acts can be attributed to the

sexual urge manifesting itself in obvious fashions unconsciously.

Later researchers like ~ d l e r ~ postulated that other repressed

desires, like the urge for power, also act as powerful motivators of

behaviour. Like the urges mentioned by Freud, these also manifest

themselves in diverse behaviour patterns.

According to psychoanalytic theory the behaviour of the

individual is never simplistic. The motivations thlat underlie it are

not apparent to the casual observer of overt behaviour or even to

the person himself.

Based on the above stated Freudian school of thought, a new

field of research in buyer-behaviour called motivation research

emerged in the fifties. The researchers, starting from the Freudian

premises that the human behaviour is a result of both his conscious

and subconscious mind, try to probe the latter by using projective

techniques in order to be able to furnish reasons underlying overt

behaviour. This field provided a useful broadening of the research

methodology of the Freudian school and utilized the concepts

thereof to study human behaviour.

The most important marketing implication of the model is that

since buyer's needs operate at several levels of consciousness, he is

concerned not only with the functional aspect of the product, the

symbolic aspect may also hold substantial meaning for him and

motivates him to a buying decision. He may, therefore, respond to a

stimulus, both his conscious and subconscious, since his behaviour

is the product of both. This has important implications for the

advertising function and the product planning function.

Two more contributions from the field of psychology are

notable; the first, the Gestalt model which has provided useful

insights into, and a new angle to human perception, and the

second, the cognitive theory which has provided valid explanations

to many hither to unexplained aspects of buyer-behaviour.

2.4 THE GESTALT MODEL

This model lays special emphasis on man and his

environment, On the basis of controlled experiments it has offered

quite a conclusive proof that individual perceives and interprets the

stimuli confronting them, in relation to the organisation of their own

individual experiences. The term "gestalt" means "from a

configuration" anld the gestalt theory deals specifically with the

physical perception of stimuli.

Enlarging upon and modifying the gestalt approach, ~ewin '

has postulated that man lives in complex psychological field

Chapter 2 40

composed of many influences. I f a realistic theory of motivation is

to be formed, he averred all these influences must be

comprehended. By this contention, human activity is basically goal-

directed and individual behaviour of any sort is directed towards a

stable organisation of his psychological field through his/her

attempts to reduce tension, reconcile conflicts and make sense of

the worid in which he lives. This model, as noted earlier, is a step

forward in the study of perception and interpretation of individual

stimuli and may have implications for the marketer in planning his

marketing strategy, particularly brand strategy.

2.5 THE COGNITIVE THEORY

The Cognitive Theory, more pertinent to the understanding of

buyer behaviour, or the Theory of Cognitive Dissonance which is

very pertinent to the understanding of human behaviour, has

provided highly useful and rational explanation of the buyer-

behaviour. It explains, to a certain extent, the tendency towards

consistent brand patronage.

Leon ~ e s t i n g e r ~ , the profounder of the Theory of Cognitive

Dissonance, hypothesized thus:

1. The existence of dissonance (a state of imbalance in the

cognitive structure) is psychologically uncomfortable

and will lead the person to reduce dissonance and

achieve consonance (i.e, balance).

2. Whenever dissonance exists, the person, in addition to

trying to reduce it will also actively try to avoid

situations and information, which add to dissonance.

Applied to day-to-day marketing situations, the theory

interprets buying behaviour as follows: when several alternatives

confront the buyer in his choice decision, he is likely to experience

some anxiety, which becomes more insistent once a commitment to

purchase one of them has been made. As advertisements and word

of mouth information highlighting the qualities of the rejected

alternatives are perceived and received, he may experience some

doubts about the rationality of his decision. The product itself may

not live up to his expectation and thus adding to the already

existing anxiety it will give rise to what is called post-purchase

dissonance.

According to Festinger, the buyer in this situation will try to

reassure himself by seeking information to support his choice; and

also by avoiding sources of information which would reduce his

buying confidence. He may, in addition, collect information which

projects the rejected alternatives in the disadvantageous light.

Being selective in his perception, therefore, the buyer may select

the information supporting or favourable to his choice and avoid or & 2

distort unpleasant information. 4, .-. < - . " J 1 7 k o ,

Chapter 2 42

The marketing implication of this theory lies in the fact that

since dissonance and reassurance motivate buyer action, the effort

to dispel dissonance should be embedded in the product-package, in

its advertising and word-of-mouth publicity as also in its after-sales

services. The advertising and promotion function should be enlarged

to include the "reassurance" aspect to lead support to the buyer's

choice-decision.

2.4 SOCIOLOGICAL MODEL

The sociological model postulates that man's needs and

behaviour are largely dependent upon and shaped by the social

groups and forces. People tend to take the cue for their needs and

wants and how to fulfill them from culture, sub-cultures, social class

reference groups and family.

The social theorist, Thorstein veblenlo of century

suggested that individuals are members of various social groups

and they tend, under normal circumstances, "to confirm the largely

unwritten but nevertheless powerful behavioural standards or norms

of these social groups". Sometimes they emulate the behavioural

norms of higher status groups to which they aspire to belong. I n

subsequent years, several social researchers confirmed this and

reiterated that the purchase by individuals of various kinds of goods

and services is likely to be strongly influenced by group norms of

Chapter 2 4 3

the groups to which they belong or aspire to belong. The major

sources of influence on individual behaviour are the family, the

cultures, and the sub-cultures that surround the individual, the

reference group or social class to which he belongs or aspires to

belong.

3. DECISION PROCESS MODELS/CONTEMPORARY MODELS

With the development of the study of consumer behaviuor as

a distinct discipline, newer approaches were offered to describe and

explain as to what influence consumer behaviour. They were distinct

from the previous models by their concentration on the decision

process engaged by the consumers while deliberating about

products and services. I n contrast with the economic models, they

placed emphasis on the mental activity that occurs before, during

and after, purchases are made. Moreover, the contemporary models

borrowed extensively from materials developed in the behavioural

sciences. A number of contemporary models have been developed,

differing in terms of sophistication, precision, domain and scope.

The literature of related behavioural sciences has yielded

comparatively a few models of behaviour and purchase decision-

making. Each of the related disciplines throws light on specific

aspects of consumer and his behaviour in the consuming situation,

but a total profile of his consuming behaviour does not emerge.

Chapter 2 44

To be able to utilize the useful insights provided by the various

contributing disciplines and to arrive at an integrated framework of

buyer-behaviour, later day researchers have tended to focus their

attention on the process by which the consumer actually arrives at a

purchase decision. I n marketing literature, a few models, based on

the decision-process, have appeared. Each of them, in its own way,

provides a valuable frame of reference and gives useful aid in

understanding the way in which the buyer reaches a purchase

decision, his post-purchase evaluation and resultant behaviour.

Some of the important models are discussed below.

3.1 NICOSIA MODEL

Fransesco ~ i c o s i a ~ ~ , one of the prominent motivation

researchers, put forward this model of buyer behaviour in 1966. The

model tries to establish the linkages between a firm and its

consumer - how the activities of the firm influence the consumer

and result in his decision to buy. The messages from the firm first

influence the predisposition of the consumer towards the product.

Depending on the situation, he develops a certain attitude towards

the product. It may lead to a search for the product or an

evaluation of the product. I f these steps have a positive impact on

him, it may result in a decision to buy. This is the sum and

substance of the 'activity explanation' in the Nicosia model. The

Nicosia model groups these activities into four basic fields as shown

in Fig 2.1.

Fig. 2.1

Field one: Firm's and consumers attributes CL!l+FIEI,I? -l'\\'C>

SCiiBFiELD ONE CONSUMER'S ,+\-TTUIRCTES

AJTRIBU-T'ES (F~SPECIt \ l~ l~ \~ F'Kt:t>ISPOSl'l~lOh'S)

FIELD FOUR: FEEDBACK

7 SEARCH

EVALUATION

T

FIELD TWO SEARCH FOR AND EVAL-U4TION OF hlEANS - END(S) RFI_ATION(S) (PREACTION FIELD)

Nicosia Arlodel A Dzugratnaric Represc7r7ration

Field one has two sub-fields - the firm's attributes and the

consumer's attributes. An advertising message from the firm

reaches the consumer's attributes. Depending on the way the

message is received by the consumer, a certain attribute may

develop, and this becomes the input for Field Two. Field Two is the

area of search and evaluation of the advertised product and other

alternatives. I f this process results in a motivation to buy, it

becomes the input for Field Three. Field Three consists of the act of

purchase. And Field Four consists of the use of the purchased item.

There is an output from Field Four - feedback of sales results to the

firm.

3.2 HOWARD-SHETH MODEL

Howard-Sheth model, which has been developed by an Indian

Jagdish Sheth in collaboration with ~ o w a r d ' ~ , explains the

behaviuor of an individual consumer. There are separate models for

group consumer behaviour and organisational buying behaviour.

The model explaining the individual consumer behaviour is

explained below.

The model is essentially an attempt to explain brand choice

behaviour over time and pertinent to our field. Focusing on repeated

buying, the model relies on four major components: (1) Stimulus

inputs, (2) hypothetical constructs, (3) response outputs and (4)

exogenous variables.

Fig. 2.2

INPIITS

STIhlULCS DISPLAY

PERCEPTUAI. I I- AKNfNCv (.'ON<; I R I ' < ' I \ CONSTRUCTS

1 1 SIGNIFICATIVE 1

a. QUALITY OVERT II'TEKTIOP; PI'KCIlASF: 4 - 7 I I

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I e. AVAIL.4RIldITY I P

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b. PRICE b' I I AMBlGUITY I

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h.lOTIVES C tdOIC.f-: BKrIND I I BRAND 4

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r------~----7 CVhtPKEH : COh4PREHE: *-f

v I I ENSlON v 'I NSION I

SOCIAL, a . FAMILY ATTENTION PEKCEFTU,~ZL.

A b. REFERENCE

GROiJPS c. SOCIAL CLASS A I TtiNTION - '

Sr27'1SI-ACTION

S ~ m p l ~ f i e d Ilescrtpt~on ot thc I-loward-Sheth Model Source - John A Howard. Jagdlsh Sherh, The I h e o n of Buyer Beha\ lour (John l\'ilc\ 196q)

Chupter 2

The variables are briefly described below:

Input variables - they consist of informational cues about the

attributes of a product or brand, (i.e, quality, price, distinctiveness,

service, availability). These informational cues may be significative

in that they may emanate from the product itself or they may be

symbolic in that they come from impersonal source like advertising

or promotional activities by the firm. These two sources are

commercial in that they represent the effort of the firm to build and

project these values in the product. A third set of informational cues

may come from the buyer's social environment, comprising of his

family, reference groups, social class, culture, etc. This source is not

only non-commercial but also non-controllable by the firm.

Hypothetical constructs - these constructs have been

classified into two: (1) the perceptual constructs and (2) the

learning constructs. The former deal with the way individual

perceives and responds to the information from the input variables.

All the information that is received may not merit 'attention' and the

intake is subject to perception (stimulus ambiguity). This ambiguity

may lead to an overt search for information about the product.

Finally, the information that is received may be, distorted

(Perceptional bias) according to the buyer's own frame of reference

and predisposition. The learning constructs deal with the stages

from the buyer motives to his satisfaction in a buying situation.

Chapter 2 49

The purchase intention is an outcome of the interplay of buyer

motives, choice criteria, brand comprehension, resultant brand

attitude and the confidence associated with the purchase decision.

AS a feedback component of learning, the model includes

another learning construct - satisfaction which refers to the post-

purchase evaluation and resultant reinforcing of brand

comprehension, attitudes, etc. (shown by broken lines in the

Fig. 2.2).

The output variables consist of a set of possible hierarchical

responses from attention to purchase. The purchase act is the

actual, overt act of buying and is the sequential result of the

a~ttention (buyer's total response to informational intake), the brand

comprehension (a statement of buyer-knowledge in the product

class), brand attitude (referring to the evaluation of satisfying

potential of the brand) and the buyer intension.

Exogenous variables - the variables which are not defined but

are taken as constant. These influence all or some of the constructs

explained above and through them the output. Some of the

exogenous variables are: importance of the purchase, time at the

disposal, personality traits, financial status, etc.

The essential working-relationships of the model are as

follows:

Chapter 2 5 0

A stimulus one of the three categories outlined, impinges

upon one or more of the five senses. The amount of attention that i t

invokes depends probably upon the stimulus ambiguity, which

motivates a search for further information. Subject to the

perceptual bias brought about by the interaction of attitudes and

retained motives, the information is received. This informational

input may alter the existing configuration of motives and choice

criteria and thereby modify or disturb the brand attitude, brand

comprehension, purchase intension and /or action. Whether the

buying decision is actually made or not depends upon the interplay

of comprehension of the brand attributes, strength of attitudes

towards the brand, confidence in the purchase decision and

intension (which in turn are affected by the various exogenous

variables like the importance of purchase, influence of culture and

family financial status, etc.). I f the brand purchase is made, the

resultant satisfaction in him strengthens brand comprehension and

reinforces the confidence associated with similar buying situations in

future.

Like all the important conceptual developments, this Theory of

Buyer Behaviour has its firm supporters and is, at the same time,

beset with certain limitations. I ts impact on subsequent marketing

can be adjudged from the amount of research i t has stimulated;

most scholars agree that the study of Consumer Behaviour was

advanced and given an impetus by Howard-Sheth model. The major

advantage and strength of the theory lies in the precision with

which a large number of variables have been linked in the working

relationships to cover many aspects of the purchase decision and

the effective utilization of contribution from the behavioural

sciences. But the model does not make sharp distinctions between

exogenous and other variables. Some of the variables are not well

defined and are difficult to measure and the model has limited

generality. I t is quite complex and difficult to understand for those

who are new to the field.

I n spite of all these limitations, the model, because of its

comprehensive coverage of almost all aspects of the purchase

decision and operational explanation of the underlying stimuli and

response, has given a useful frame of reference for the study of the

buying decision over time.

3.3 ENGEL, KOLLAT AND BLACKWELL MODEL

Engel, Kollat and lackw well'^ first published their text

"Consumer Behaviour" in the year 1966; a later version in 1968.

This model finds its place in this text. I n order to incorporate the

later developments in the field of behavioural sciences and their

own works in this field, a final more sophisticated version was

published in the 1973 edition of their text 'Consumer Behaviour".

They have applied term "multi-dimensional" to the model to refer to

the fact that "many processes intervene and mediate between

exposure to stimuli and final outcome of behaviour". Consequently

many factors affect the outcome, "making the composite behaviour

picture a multifaceted one". A brief description of the model is given

below: (Fig. 2.3)

Fig 2.3

bngt'l Kollat Blackwall Model A Dlagramat~c Kcpresenaat~on Source - J I Engel, D T Kollat and R D Hlackwall - Consumer Behav~our, Dey Den press 1973

STIMU1,I INFORMATION A INCOME -

& EXPERIENCE I' CIJL.,TIJRE

['t IY SIC'AL

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PROBLEM

I - - - . . - * - - - - - - I - - - - - - " _ _ _ _ _ _ _ , _ _ IDENT1FlCA'~ION

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DECISION

: EXTERNAL I ! INi:ORMAI'ION I I FEF.I)IlAC'E; : I - - - - - - - - - _ _ - - r - -

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I I I I I I I I

PURCHASING PROCESSES

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I I I I I I I OU'fCOM ES I I I I I I

y FLIR'THER

BE1 IAVIOlJR t '

POSTPURC'HASE

EVAL,lJATION

Four basic components go into this decision process:

(3) The Central Contrul Unit: I t is the individual's own

command centre, including both memory and basic

facilities for thinking and directing behaviour. Those that

directly influence buyer-behaviour are information and

experience, evaluation criteria and attitudes, each of which

is affected by the individual's personality. Together, these

factors interact to form a sort of filter through which all the

incoming information from exposure to various stimuli is

processed.

Consumer Information Processing Component: The

incoming stimuli are processed through the filter and are

processed in four sequential, distinct phases of exposure,

attention, comprehension and retention. The processes

within the central control unit interact with this incoming

stimulus to shape the final outcome. Arrows in Fig. 2.3

show the impinging influence of central control unit on

information processing. Broken arrows show the feedback.

(c) The Consumer Decision Process: I n this model the

consumer decision process is shown to consist of five

stages:

(1) Problem Recognition

( 2 ) Internal search and alternative evaluation

Chapter 2

(3) External search and alternative evaluation

(4) The purchasing process

(5) The decision outcomes

Problem recognition could occur because of the awareness of

an external stimulus or through need activation or through a

process of autistic thinking. Once the problem is recognized, the

individual begins a search for preferable alternatives to solve the

problem at hand, both externally and internally. The internal search

is largely unconscious and is a wei~ht ing process of the consumer's

attitude towards the brand in question. External search takes place

when the problem is not non-routine; internal search being

insufficient to identify preferable alternatives. All these sequential

stages may not necessarily lead to purchase. External influence like

income, culture, conflicting family desires, etc. may serve as

constraints (shown as 'Holds' in the Fig. 2.3).

Decision outcomes: I n case the stimulus culminates in

purchase decision there are two outcomes of purchase:

(1) Post-Purchase evaluation: On account of user benefits

being derived from the product and information now

supplied about the product, people tend to evaluate

their purchase decision and consequently the product.

Any difference between the perceived and the actual

attributes, if unfavourable, could lead to post-purchase

dissonance. I f satisfaction is the outcome of the

purchase, it could lead to reinforcement of the existing

attitudes towards the brand and increase the probability

of future purchase.

PI Future behaviour: Since behaviour is sequential, one

purchase act could have implication on future purchase

behaviour. I n fact, the purchase decisions in the past

become inputs for decision making in future.

The preceding discussion on the various models of consumer

behaviour gives us a useful framework within which certain aspects

of consumer-behaviour can be studied, for they furnish concrete

guidelines to our understanding of the consumer as an individual, as

a social person, a rational economic person and so on. The earlier

models (Economic, Psychological and Social) on consumer

behaviour have tried to enlarge upon single specific facets of the

consumer personality, while the later decision models have gone

further to incorporate the findings of all related behavioral sciences

to furnish an interdisciplinary and consequently a multi dimensional,

more complex approach to the study of consumer behaviour.

The present study has made use of sensual aspects of

consumer behaviour which are analysed here to elaborate upon the

consumer's reaction to the stimuli of certain variables and

purchasing processes and also to rationalize the statement of likely

behaviour under different situations made by the sample

respondents.

REFERENCES

1. Alfred Marshall: "Principles of Economics", 8'" ed.

Macmillan, London 1996.

2. Philip Kotler- "Marketing Management-Analysis,

Planning and Control", prentice hall, 1976 (I11

edition).

3. A. Gaber and C.W.J. Ganger- "Price Sensitivity of The

Consumer", Journal of Advertising Research, Vo1.4,

1964.

4. Eva Muller - "A Study of The Purchase Decision-A

Simple Survey", in Consumer Behaviour in "The

Dynamics of Consumer Reaction" ed. Lincoln Clark

(New York, N.Y Univ Press 1954).

5. Pavlov- "Conditioned Reflexes", Dover New York

Explained in John Dollard and N.E.Miller "Personality

and Psychotherapy" New York, Mc Graw-Hill Book Co.

6. The description furnished here is based on the

explanation of Freudian thought in Calvin Hall "A

Pr imer of Freudian Psychology" New York 1954.

7 . Alfred Alder - "The Science of Living ", New York,

Greenberg, 1929.

8. Kurt Lewin - "Principle of Topological Psycology"

quoted in Engel, Kollat and Blackwell- Consumer

Behaviour, op. cit.

9. Leon Festinger - "A Theory of Cognitive

Dissonance" Stanford Unicecity press, 1957.

10. Thorstien Veblen - op. cit.

1 I Fransesco Nicosia - "Consumer Decision Process":

Marketing and Advertisement Implications (Englewood

Cliffs N.J. Pretice Hall, 1966).

12. John A. Howard, Jagdish N. Sheth - "The Theory of

Buyer Behaviour" (New ork: Wiley, 1969).

13. James F. Engle, D.T.Kollat and R.D. Blackwell:

Consumer Behaviour- Op. Cit