consumer psychology final one
TRANSCRIPT
08827088
Consumer Psychology - MK342Steven QuinnCritically evaluate, with relevant examples, the ways in which consumer choice is influenced by our psychological need to create and maintain our Self Concept.
2012May 19th
Consumer Psychology - MK342
PREFACE 3
ABSTRACT 4
HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION 5
CONSUMER NEEDS, MOTIVATION AND DECISIONS 6
TYPES OF NEEDS 9
THE SELF-CONCEPT 10
PERSONALITY 12
BRANDS 15
ETHICAL CONSUMERS 17
SOCIAL IDENTITY 18
EMOTIONAL DESIGN 19
CONCLUSION 23
BIBLIOGRAPHY 23
Steven Quinn – 08827088 - 18/05/2012MK342 - Consumer Psychology
Critically evaluate, with relevant examples, the ways in which consumer choice is influenced by our psychological need to create and maintain our
Self Concept.
2
Preface
The mathematician and philosopher René Descartes wrote in his
philosophical and autobiographical treatise ‘Discourse on Method’ (1637), ‘je
pense donc je suis’, meaning I think, therefore I am. This statement arose out
of the ‘inextricable darkness’ of the problems that he raised through his
scepticism of the nature of reality. Descartes acknowledges that his senses
deceive him, ‘I must exist if I can think’ is to Descartes logically
unchallengable and so his formulation, ‘ je pense donc je suis’, is how he
resolves the problem of scepticism, saving his ‘self’ there by with this
affirmation of his own existence. Subsequently he asks’ what is this self?
Simon Blackburn, professor of philosophy at Cambridge University, argues
that Descartes was “forced to recognize that knowledge of his self is not
based on knowledge of his embodied existence” (Blackwell, 1999). On the
contrary, Descartes writes, “At last I have discovered it – thought; this alone is
inseparable from me. I am, I exist – that is certain” (Blackwell, 1999).
Fundamentally consciousness is existence and one must infer that conscious
thought gives rise to the concept of one’s self. In consumer society, however,
the vast majority of people are not questioning the nature of reality in relation
to the self but the nature of the products they buy in relation to their individual
self-concepts. It would therefore not be inappropriate to suggest that perhaps
today the affirmation should be reformulated as, ‘I buy therefore I am’.
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Abstract
The objective of this essay is to critically evaluate the ways in which human
need to create and maintain their self-concept influences the choices that they
make as a consumer. It will describe the make up of the self-image and
evaluate needs and motives that influence the decisions consumers make.
Comments will be made on the ways in which we are psychologically
susceptible to advertising and brands through inherent symbols. All of this will
be evaluated using different theories and relevant examples will be used to
provide understanding. In some respects marketers exploit our psychological
needs in order to sell us consumer goods. Through advertising they persuade
consumers that choosing a certain product is the best way to satisfy their
needs. Nevertheless, ultimately make decisions ourselves in purchasing
products that in one way or another reinforce our self-concept. We project our
identity through the products we buy. Our self-concept and our culture are
intrinsically linked and this is partly why not all cultures are the same. Western
culture is defined by individuality but many eastern cultures obtain their sense
of identity through collective identity, a sense of being part of a wider
community. Some tribes in Africa even create their sense of identity through
collectively playing certain rhythms on hand drums. In order to illustrate how
our consumer society and our consumer choices have come to be
manipulated. I will begin with a brief historical contextual introduction.
Historical Introduction
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In post war America a number of people began to use Freud’s ideas
concerning human personality to influence and manipulate the masses in their
political and consumer choices and opinions. Edward Bernays, the man who
designed the advertising campaign that persuaded the public of the United
States that they should be concerned with the war in Europe between 1914
and 1918, sold the Freudian theories both to the American public and to
corporate America. Bernays was responsible for establishing what we now
call Public Relations, formerly known as propaganda, and he transformed the
way in which products were advertised, sold and consumed. He showed
American companies how mass-produced goods could be linked to people’s
emotional, irrational desires and satisfy their inner selfish desires, making
them happy and thus docile. It was the beginning of the all-consuming self
that has come to dominate modern western culture. For the first time products
could become powerful emotional symbols of how you wanted to be seen by
others.
A classic example of Bernays’ manipulation of consumer choices through the
psychological need to project our identity was his contribution in breaking the
taboo of women smoking. Previously unacceptable, he made it socially
acceptable for women to smoke. He did this by portraying cigarettes for
women as a symbol of emancipation and equality with men. Bernays
contacted psychoanalyst A.A.Brill who described the cigarette as a phallic
symbol. The woman who smoked demonstrated a self-concept with positive
attributes of strength and independency, like her male counterpart. Bernays
did this not for women’s so called ‘emancipation’ but for corporate profit. He
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paid a group of women to smoke Lucky Strikes whilst marching the streets at
the Easter Sunday parade of 1929. The campaign was labeled with the
slogan ‘Torches of freedom’; anyone who opposed this would theoretically be
opposing freedom, and what would that say about your values (self-concept),
if you opposed freedom? (The Century of the Self, 2002).
Consumer Needs, Motivation and Decisions
In order to understand consumer choices we need to understand the human
needs that under pin them. Purchases derive ultimately from a need, want or
desire and there are cognitive processes that influence the decision. Needs
drive motivation, which in turn drives a person to make a decision.
Fundamentally, “motivation occurs when a need is aroused that the consumer
wishes to satisfy” (Michael Soloman, Gary Bammossy, Soren Askegard,
Margaret K. Hogg, 2010). For example, if a person is hungry he has a need to
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eat, therefore that individual will become motivated and exercise goal-
orientated behavior, the goal in this case being to obtain food. Obtaining the
food then relieves the person’s hunger and thus the need is fulfilled. “Once a
need has been activated, a state of tension exists that drives the consumer to
attempt to reduce or eliminate the need” (Michael Soloman, Gary Bammossy,
Soren Askegard, Margaret K. Hogg, 2010). In the case of the hungry person,
a hamburger for example could relieve this tension, provided that that
individual was not a vegetarian, as such a person would require different food
to satisfy the same basic need. There are different ways to satisfy the same
needs and the consumer’s choice on which means to use to fulfill these needs
are influenced by life experiences, culture, religion, ethnic or national
background, all of which are means by which people define and maintain their
self-concept. Therefore a person’s self-concept directs the choice they make
when fulfilling a need, even one as basic as eating food. For example many
Buddhists do not eat meat, due to values that they hold on animal cruelty, and
thus people of this culture or religion would be influenced in their decision-
making when it comes to buying food, hence they would not buy a hamburger
but instead make the decision to buy a vegetarian meal. This is also an
example of ethical consumption.
“The need for tension reduction has been proposed as a basic mechanism
governing human behavior” (Michael Soloman, Gary Bammossy, Soren
Askegard, Margaret K. Hogg, 2010). The aim therefore in marketing must be
to satisfy the needs of consumers through offering “products and services that
will provide the desired benefits and permit the consumer to reduce this
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tension” (Michael Soloman, Gary Bammossy, Soren Askegard, Margaret K.
Hogg, 2010) and return to the balanced state of homeostasis. The driving
force of biological needs that create tension and motivate people to make
choices is the focus of drive theory. This theory however does “not explain
some facets of human behavior that run counter to its predictions” (Michael
Soloman, Gary Bammossy, Soren Askegard, Margaret K. Hogg, 2010). For
example if you are going out for dinner you may decide to put off lunch or
simply snack even though the tension of hunger persists. This is a cognitive
decision making process that perhaps bypasses to some extent the biological
need to eat, at least for a while. This is where expectancy theory, which
explains motivation through cognitive factors instead of solely through
biological ones, can be used to understand the influences and motivations
behind consumer choices. “Expectancy theory suggests that behavior is
largely pulled by expectations of achieving desirable outcomes – positive
incentives – rather than pushed from within” (Michael Soloman, Gary
Bammossy, Soren Askegard, Margaret K. Hogg, 2010). In the case of
resisting eating before dinner for example, this can be explained through the
cognitive process of expecting dinner to be far more gratifying if you wait and
endure the tension of hunger for longer, making the consequences of
enduring hunger, at least in this situation, more positive. Expectancy theory
then, can therefore give an insight into the cognitive decision making
processes that drive motivations that are not biologically driven but
psychologically driven. The term driven here is used more loosely than in
drive theory to refer to both the physical and cognitive driving factors.
Motivations are goal-orientated, have direction, strength and often there can
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be a number pathways to reaching a goal. If motivation, which comes from a
need, drives a person towards a decision then to understand how consumer
choices are influenced by a psychological need to create and maintain the
self-concept one must analyse psychogenic needs.
Types of Needs
Human needs can be understood by considering two types, biogenic needs
and psychogenic needs. Biogenic needs are innate physiological needs that
are considered primary needs, as they are necessary to maintain biological
life. These are needs such as food, water, air, clothing (in the case of
humans), shelter and sex. Psychogenic needs however are acquired needs
that we “learn in response to our culture or environment. These may include
needs for self-esteem, prestige, affection, power and learning” (Leon
Shiffman, Leslie Lazar Kanuk, Havard Hansen, 2008) and are considered
secondary needs. Therefore as one’s self-concept derives from culture and
environment, creating and maintaining the self-concept is the fulfillment of
psychogenic needs. For example, a male English consumer will develop
different psychogenic needs to a male Scandinavian consumer. The English
consumer will be influenced by culture to products that present individuality
whereas a Scandinavian will choose products that connect him with his social
group. However, distinguishing needs from wants in this context is difficult.
For example, if the need to purchase a product originates from a biogenic
need the decision is still influenced by psychogenic needs. If a consumer buys
a house the biogenic need is shelter, but if the consumer chooses to buy a big
house to impress friends and relatives the purchase was influenced by
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psychogenic needs to enhance self-image. Did the consumer need a big
house or want it? From a biogenic perspective the size of the house was not
of importance, but it could be argued that as we have a psychological need to
maintain our concept of self then spending on products that appear to be
wants could actually be needs, psychological needs. However, the distinction
is hazy at best, everyone needs to have a sense of identity, but the degree to
which a product purchase is needed to provided identity is questionable.
The Self-Concept
The self-concept is a term that refers to the values or beliefs that people hold
about their personal attributes and how these qualities are evaluated. These
beliefs can be positive or negative whilst some values and attributes are held
in higher regard than others. “Each individual has an image of himself or
herself as a certain kind of person, with certain traits, skills, habits,
possessions, relationships and ways of behaving” (Michael Soloman, Gary
Bammossy, Soren Askegard, Margaret K. Hogg, 2010). Individuals will
therefore be influenced to buy the products that fit their self-image. For
example a person who considers his or her image to be that of a skateboarder
will buy products and brands relating to skateboarding or possibly, to extreme
sports. This means that products and their related brands can have a
symbolic value for individuals as “consumers attempt to preserve or enhance
their self images by selecting products and brands with ‘images’ or
‘personalities’ that they believe are congruent with their own self-images and
avoiding products that are not” (Leon Shiffman, Leslie Lazar Kanuk, Havard
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Hansen, 2008). Many women believe that the “brands they select reflect their
personalities” (’Sex appeal’, brandweek, 20 April 1998, 26).
Self-image is about how an individual sees himself or herself and how others
see them. Consumer behaviour literature identifies and divides this into four
main kinds of self-image, actual self-image (how you see yourself), ideal
self-image (how you would like to see yourself), social self-image (how
others see you), and ideal social self-image (how you want others to see
you). All of these types of self-images influence consumer choices when it
comes to purchasing a product. For example, the actual self may influence
when it comes to purchasing household products, but for socially enhancing
products such as clothing it is the social self that influences what clothes they
will buy as people will see what you are wearing but not necessarily see your
house.
Self-esteem refers to the positivity of a person’s self-concept and how high it
is, and this is often related to acceptability by others. People with low self-
esteem, for example, will tend to avoid being embarrassed, experiencing or
risking failure or rejection. For example, it was found that consumers with low
self esteem preferred portion sizes when snacking because they ‘felt they
lacked self control’ (Emily Yoffe, ‘You are what you buy’, Newsweek (4 June
1990) and so they would be influenced by this lack of self esteem and
purchase the relevant snack size items.
On the other hand people with high self-esteem exude a lot of confidence and
“self esteem advertising attempts to change product attitudes by stimulating
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positive feelings about the self” (Jeffry F, Durgee, ‘Self-esteem advertising’,
journal of advertising 14 (1986) 4:21).
Each person assesses himself or herself comparatively throughout his or her
life. This self-assessment/comparison often leads to dissatisfaction or a
distorted view of one’s self, especially when it comes to appearance
attributes. It is estimated that “72 per cent of men and 85 per cent of women
are unhappy with at least one aspect of their appearance” (Lisa M.Keefe 200).
Self-image and possessions affect how highly someone values himself or
herself as a person. There is a perception that consumer insecurity is a
widespread phenomenon and so marketing and advertising companies exploit
people’s low self-esteem to facilitate the sale of products.
Personality
A person’s self-image, or the way in which someone perceives himself or
herself, is closely linked with that person’s personality. Personality plays a big
role in the choices people makes. A product that suits one personality might
not suit another. There are three main theories that play a prominent role in
the study of the relationship between consumer behavior and personality.
These are ‘Freudian theory’, ‘neo-Freudian theory’ and ‘trait theory’.
Freud’s theories were highly controversial, describing the self as a “system of
competing forces riddled with conflict” (Michael Soloman, Gary Bammossy,
Soren Askegard, Margaret K. Hogg, 2010).
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In Freudian theory there are three main forces id: super ego and ego. The id
is entirely orientated towards immediate self-gratification, it is the party animal
side of the mind operating to maximise pleasure and avoid pain. It is selfish,
irrational and illogical. The superego equates to conscience and to it “that the
individual satisfies needs in a socially acceptable fashion” (Leon Shiffman,
Leslie Lazar Kanuk, Havard Hansen, 2008). It counters the id and conforms to
social norms. The ego sits between the two to balance them. It is as if
everyone has a devil and an angel in their minds, almost Dr. Jekyll and Mr.
Hyde with a third entity attempting to balance the whole system. According to
Freudian theory “human drives are largely unconscious… consumers are
primarily unaware of their true reasons for buying what they buy”. If it was true
that there was this balancing act going on in people’s minds then perhaps,
from a Freudian perspective, it could be argued that a person could potentially
be tempted into buying into a product or service by the need to gratify the id
but also that choice would be made on grounds social acceptability because
of the superego.
Neo-Freudian theorists believe that “social relationships are fundamental to
the formation and development of personality”. Neo-Freudian Harry Stack
Sullivan emphasised that “people attempt to establish significant and
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rewarding relationships with others”. Horney established three classifications
of personality, complaint (individuals who move towards others), aggressive
(individuals who move against others) and detached (individuals who move
away from others). For example a complaint person would be influenced to
buy a product that reinforces the feeling of being part of a social group.
Brands
Brands are designed to have a personality. This is possible because
consumers personify brands by giving them human like traits or
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characteristics. For example, consumers tend to see Volvo as “representing
safety, Nike as the athlete in all of us and BMW as performance driven (Martin
1998). A brands personality can either be functional (Volvo provides safety) or
symbolic (Nike the athlete in all of us)” (Bhat and Reddy 1998). People can
relate to the personality of a brand and so they choose to buy products
associated with that brand as it reflects some element of themselves that they
wish to project. The fact that a brand has a personality has profound
psychological implications since in some respects people connect to brands in
the same the way that they connect to another person. “Consumers use
emotions and experiences evoked by brands to render an evaluative
judgment” (Brakus, Schmitt, & Zarantonello, 2009). This is the same process
that humans use to evaluate each other.
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Ethical Consumers
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Evidence of ethical purchasing appears in every society. The phrase “Ethical
Consumer” is used in the broadest sense and such consumers may have
religious, spiritual, political, environmental, social or other motives for
choosing one product over another. But there is one thing they all have in
common and that is that they are all concerned with “the effects their
purchasing choice has not only on themselves but also on the external world
around them” (SAGE Publications, 2005). Therefore, the values they hold as
part of their self-concept have an impact on the decisions that they make
when purchasing consumer goods. For example, an ethical consumer will
boycott a company such as Primark, where the production of that company’s
clothing range has been linked in the media to child labour. This is because
there are moral and ethical issues surrounding the conditions the employees
have been working under and the low wages they receive. The ethical
consumer does not wish to support such a company, as this would be
contrary to their values. On the other hand many consumers choose to shop
in the Bodyshop because the perception is that the company only sells
products that are environmentally friendly. This type of consumption has been
described as ‘ethical purchase behaviour’ or ‘ethical consumption’ (Smith
1990b). However, they do still consider price and quality and obviously would
not choose to spend large amounts of money or buy bad quality products just
to be ethical. It simply means that they add extra ethical criteria to their
decision making process.
Social Identity
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Social Identity Theory is "the individual's knowledge that he/she belongs to
certain social groups, together with some emotional and value significance to
him or her of group membership" (Tajfel, 1972:31a). This theory analyses the
ways individuals classify themselves and others into groups. Psychologically
this is the classic ‘us and them’ duality (either one of us or one of them). This
also gives the individual a sense of belonging and consequently many
products are designed to promote a feeling of social identity; the symbols they
contain give a feeling of inclusion for each member of the group. One
example of a product like this is a football shirt. The badge of the club is the
symbol by which all members unite and pledge loyalty to the club and to the
group.
(Henri Tajfel 1986 (b) proposed that stereotyping (i.e. putting people into
groups and categories) is based on a normal cognitive process: the tendency
to group things together. In doing so we tend to exaggerate firstly the
differences between groups and simultaneously the similarities of the people
within groups of similar interests. Brands will often exploit these stereotypes
and use them to promote the importance of being part of the group and by
exaggerating them further consumers feel the need to buy into the brand in
order to make themselves feel a more integral part of their chosen social
group.
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Steven Quinn – 08827088 - 18/05/2012MK342 - Consumer Psychology
Emotional DesignUntil relatively recently emotion was an ill-explored part of human
psychology and some people dismissed it as merely remnant from our
animalistic past. Freudian theory considered emotions to be a problem that
had to be repressed and controlled, to be overcome by logical, rational
thought. However modern assessments have turned this view on its head.
Science has found more evolutionarily advanced organisms to be more
emotional than primitive ones. Emotions play a vital role in our everyday
lives helping us to assess situations rapidly so that the reflective level can
pass judgment on them and influence decisions. This is especially true when
it comes to human beings, decisions in purchasing consumer products.
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Designer Donald Norman illustrates in his book the three different levels
of mental processing: ‘visceral, behavioural and reflective’. The three
levels in part reflect the biological origins of the brain and the system is
tightly coupled to an organisms muscles. Each level plays a particular
role in the functioning of people and these are the three levels by which
we psychologically interpret, interact or connect with the products we
buy. Each level requires a different style of design and some products
are designed so that they are weighted more to one level of perception
depending on its purpose. A product can, however, be interpreted at all
three levels. The ways in which we interpret a product are integral to the
decision we make as to whether or not we will purchase it. In his book
Norman suggests ways in which designers can design these aspects
appropriately into products so that the design fits the purpose of the
product and this will influence the consumer’s decision. By getting the
design of these aspects right or wrong, the designer will influence a
consumer to either love or hate the product. Ultimately if a product is to
be successful then the design and/or manufacture must be relevant to
what the consumer feels about himself or herself. The visceral level of
interpretation it the most basic, it is to do with the way we interpret a
product’s appearances. This level is fast, making rapid judgments of what
is good or bad, safe or dangerous, it sends appropriate signals to the
muscles (the motor system) and alerts the rest of brain. This is the start
of affective processing, it is biologically determined but it can be inhibited
or enhanced through control signals from the two levels above.
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Animals such as lizards operate primarily at the visceral level where
their world is a fixed routine responding, at the most basic level, to their
environment through signals sent to the muscles at this level. Dogs and
other mammals, however, have a higher level of cognition, the
behavioural level, where they can analyse a situation and adapt their
behaviour accordingly. In humans this is the site of most behaviour.
This level is very valuable as it is where well-learned routine operations
can be done seemingly without thought. For example a pianist can let
his or her fingers play the notes that have been learned and still reflect
upon the next phrase of a piece or the overall structure of the song.
Another example would be when a person performs any task that they
have learned whilst holding a meaningful conversation at the same
time. This is because the behavioural level is not conscious and
therefore we can utilise the reflective level whilst doing something at the
behavioural level. In terms of the power a product has to be desired at
the behavioural level it must be pleasurable, easy and effective to use
so that the task desired could be performed with ease. To be desirable
at this level the product must be self-explanatory, anthropometric and
purely functional, and here form follows function indefinitely. For
example, aeroplanes would not be purchased if the pilot’s cockpit was
designed to be good-looking, covered in fancy aesthetics to be
interpreted at the visceral level. The controls must do nothing but the
task at hand, the design must excel at the behavioural level as
potentially people’s lives are at stake.
Finally reflective
elements consider the rationalisation and intellectualisation of a
product. This area evokes the meaning of things, the message a
person wishes to send out to others. Watches are a classic example
of this. For example when people choose to wear clothes or
accessories that match the rest of an outfit they are sending out the
message that they are classy, fashionable, desirable and thus they
are concerned with their reflective self-image. At the reflective level
this is why a product is purchased, to illuminate a particular aspect of
a person’s self-image. People may or may not like to admit this but to
some degree everyone worries about how they present themselves in
society and how other people interpret them based on the decisions
they made. These are reflective decisions. Even people who claim
that they do not care how they are perceived by others, the kind who
refrain from being fashionable or buying products before the old one
is unusable are still making a statement about themselves and what
they deem to be important by doing so. Again these are the properties
of reflective processing.
Norman argues that there is a strong emotional component in how
products are designed and put to use and that this may be more critical the
success of a product than its practical elements. This means that by
designing in an emotional attachment to a product you can sway consumer
choices towards your product, thereby selling more units. ‘A favourite
object is a symbol, setting up a positive frame of mind, a reminder of
pleasant memories, or sometimes an expression of one’s self’
2004). As our self-image is made up of our interactions with other people
and our relationships, so a person can have an emotional attachment with
a product that has become linked to another person, a loved one, friend or
family member, through the form of a gift or just a reminder of the other
person. Although when we buy a gift it is intended for someone else
nevertheless it may well be that the choice of gift also serves to express a
part of our own unique selves.
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Conclusion
It is clear that different and disparate factors, personal, social and ethical and
more influence a consumer’s decision when it comes to purchasing a product.
Whilst needs can be utilitarian, it is equally the case that self-image and
personal identity play a major part in influencing the type of product
purchased.
References
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Leon Shiffman, Leslie Lazar Kanuk, Havard Hansen, 2008. Consumer Behaviour a European outlook. New Jersey: Pearson Education Limited.
Schmitt, B., 2012. The consumer psychology of brands. Journal of Consumer Psychology, pp.7-17.
Norman, D., 2004. Emotional Design. New York: Basic Books.
Jeffry F, Durgee, ‘Self-esteem advertising’, journal of advertising 14 (1986) 4:21
Leon Shiffman, Leslie Lazar Kanuk, Havard Hansen, 2008. Consumer Behaviour a European outlook. New Jersey: Pearson Education Limited.
Tajfel, H., 1981. Human Groups and social categoriesstudies in social psychology. First edition ed. Cambridge University press.
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Lisa M. Keefe, ‘You’re so Vain’, Marketing News (28 February 2000)
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Self-esteem in context: a case study of the motivational processes underlying social identity construction by township youth
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