contemporary challenges of restoring the threatened important ... - journal of zoology · 2015. 12....
TRANSCRIPT
The Journal of Zoology Studies
Vol. 2 No. 4 2015 Journalofzoology.com
Page 21
The Journal of Zoology Studies 2015; 2(4): 21-29
ISSN 2348-5914
JOZS 2015; 2(4): 21-29
JOZS © 2015
Received: 26-11-2015
Accepted: 20-12-2015
Getachew Mulualem
Department of Biology, College of
Natural & Computational Sciences,
Dire Dawa University, Ethiopia
Shimles Ayalew
Department of Biology, College of
Natural & Computational Sciences,
Dire Dawa University, Ethiopia
Weldemariam Tesfahunegny
Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute,
Animal Biodiversity Directorate,
P.O.Box 30726, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia
Corresponding Author:
Getachew Mulualem
Department of Biology, College of
Natural & Computational Sciences,
Dire Dawa University, P.O. Box
1362, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia
Contemporary challenges of restoring the threatened important
bird area of Lake Haramaya, Eastern Ethiopia
Author: Getachew Mulualem, Shimles Ayalew, Weldemariam Tesfahunegny
Abstract
The study was carried out at the margin of the threatened lake Haramaya neighboring
inhabitants from March to June 2015. The objective of the study was to assess the current
challenges of restoring the threatened important bird area of Lake Haramaya. Community based
cross sectional study design was employed. The subject of the study was confined to households
proximal to the lake in settlement, agricultural and other activities. The total population in the
town was 6556 households. Considering only 50 m distance of the settlements to the proximity
of the lake shore 10% (60 households) were taken. The subjects of the study was proportionally
allotted to each three locality Tuji-Gebissa, n1= 16, Ifa-Bate, n2= 13 and 02 n3= 31) found
around the lake based on thier proximity to the shore lines. The individuals from each site were
purposely selected using judgmental sampling. Questionnaire that contains both open and closed
ended questions regarding the current challenges of restoring the threatened important bird area
of Lake Haramaya was used to collect data. Besides, observation checklist was also used to
observe the overall threat factors operating in the site. The lake is highly threatened important
bird area as a result of various threat factors. Majority (66.6 %) of the local villagers reported
that, the land use of the lake is more preferred for agricultural expansion. On the other hand,
33.3% of the villagers reported that, the shore line is preferred for better settlement. Majority
(100%) of the local villagers were releasing both solid and liquid types of waste towards the
shoreline of the lake. 50% of the local villagers without toilet use agricultural fields proximal to
the lake whereas (50%) use open shoreline of the lake. The lake is an important bird area listed
by Ethiopian Wildlife conservation authority but human settlement around the lake shore is a
threat factor threatening the overall ecology within the watershed. Generally, the lake needs a
great concern of conservation by all stakeholders and inhabitants to manage human settlement,
waste disposal, agricultural practice, pumped irrigation, uncontrolled fishing and cutting of
wetland grass.
Keywords: Waste, Haramaya, catchment, land use, Lake Shore
1. Introduction
Ecological and threat monitoring’ refers to the systematic method of collecting information
about some ecological variable or threat to the environment [9]
. The in situ conservation of
viable wildlife populations in natural ecosystems is widely recognized as a fundamental
requirement for the maintenance of biodiversity [6]
. Impeding biodiversity loss is considered a
comprehensive global environmental challenge [5, 12]
. Habitat loss and over-exploitation of
wildlife, and other forest resources, are universally recognized as the foremost causes of
biodiversity loss [3, 2]
, the situation is most severe in the tropical regions [14]
.
The Journal of Zoology Studies
Vol. 2 No. 4 2015 Journalofzoology.com
Page 22
Human population growth, particularly in developing
countries, has intense effects on consumption patterns
of land and wild resources, and is an indirect driver of
biodiversity loss [11, 16]
. The role played by humans,
around the globe, in the extinction or reduction of
many species of plants and animals is commonly
recognized [10]
. The fight against biodiversity loss has
become a priority for both governments and nature
conservation organizations worldwide [13]
, and various
approaches to tackle the drivers of biodiversity loss
have emerged in the past few decades [19]
.
Ethiopia has so far established several protected areas
which include 21 national parks, 4 sanctuaries, 8
wildlife reserves, 20 controlled hunting areas, six open
hunting areas, six community conservation areas and
58 national forest priority areas [20]
. In Ethiopia,
protected areas cover 19% of the country. They play
key roles in economic, ecological and social structure
of the community. Similarly, they have significant
roles in conservation, recreation, eco-tourism and
employment. Direct and indirect annual economic
values of some protected areas are estimated at 1.5
billion USD [8]
.
Ethiopia is a signatory party of the Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD) thereby, has been
undertaking efforts in biodiversity conservation [8]
.
Similarly, Ethiopia has developed a national
biodiversity strategy and action plan with the
objectives of conserving representative examples of
remaining ecosystems through a network of effectively
managed protected areas under sustainable use and
management by 2020 [8]
. However, a significant
biodiversity conservation challenge was evident in
several protected areas [1]
. Increasing population, rapid
socio-economic development and urbanization,
industrial development, and intensification of irrigated
production have led to freshwater shortages in many
parts of the world [18]
. Water resources of basins over
the world remain almost constant while the demand for
water continues to increase because of increasing
population and as a result of economic development. In
view of the increasing water demand for various
purposes and its limited availability, a greater emphasis
is being laid for a planned and optimal utilization of
available water resources [18]
.
Lake Haramaya is located in Eastern part of Ethiopia in
Haramaya district [17]
. The area surrounding the lake
has undergone significant change in land use and land
cover over the last half century that eventually resulted
in its complete loss [17]
. During the 1960s, the area was
covered with thick vegetation, predominantly bushes
and climbers. Presently the area is almost completely
used for agricultural production, primarily plantation of
Catha edulis,Triticum aestivum, Zea mays, Sorghum
bicolor and vegetables [17]
.
Water has always been abstracted primarily to grow
chat, previously directly from the lake and later from
underground (Ella) [18]
. Erosion from the lake’s
catchment principally caused by intense rainfall, steep
topography, and poor vegetation cover coupled with
cultivation of steep lands has also significantly affected
the lake ecosystem [7]
. However, a review of previous
literature and interview with the local community
suggests that the lake started to decrease around the
end of 1980s [17]
. Brook, 2002, indicated that, the
surface area of the lake during the year 1986-1987 was
about 4.72Km2 while an independent study by Meklit,
2005, using remote sensing methods shows that, the
surface area of the lake in 1996 is only about 2.7 Km2.
Sparse data on the surface area measurements of the
lake in the subsequent years depicts rapid decrease in
the lake’s surface area and the lake virtually
disappeared around year 2005. Thus, it is apparent that
the devolution of Lake Alemaya is a relatively recent
phenomenon [17]
.
Human activities in the area of the Lake were the major
causes for vanishing of the lake and had a potential to
affect lake ecosystems [17]
. The anthropogenic factors
are deforestation, expansion of agriculture and water
abstraction for irrigation [17]
. Water from the ground
and surface of the lake has been excessively pumped
by the local farmers to irrigate their vegetables and
crops. In the current years, area around the lake has
been totally converted to agriculture [17]
.
Poor land use and regulatory management practices are
attracting human settlement to the shore of the lake for
residential area and agricultural activities. Besides,
wastes that are stored in road side canals by people of
the town have been joining the lake driven by canal
flood during rain. Generally, the waste management
practice of the local people residing in the edge of the
lake is poorly considered. Besides, the lake is one of
the important bird destinations of Ethiopia. The bird
species found in the lake includes Fulica cristat,
Phoenicopterus ruber, Phoenicopterus minor,
Porphyrio porphyrio,Podiceps nigricollis, Pelecanus
onocrotalus, Alopochen aegyptiacus, Anas clypeata,
Himantopus himantopus,Recurvirostra
avosetta,Limosa limosa,Calidris minuta/temminckii,
Philomachus pugnax,Corvus edithae
(http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/sitefactsheet.php?id
=6251). But, is highly threatened site to support the
birds of conservation importance. Hence, this study
was intended to assess the current challenges of
restoring the threatened important bird area of Lake
Haramaya, Eastern Ethiopia.
The Journal of Zoology Studies
Vol. 2 No. 4 2015 Journalofzoology.com
Page 23
1.1 Study Area
Lake Haramaya is located in the Eastern high lands of
Ethiopia, which is administratively situated in the
Haramaya Woreda of Eastern Hararghe Zone, Oromia
regional State. It is found on the Northern upper part of
the Wabi-shebele river basin. It lies between 90’ 03”-
90’12” N latitude and 41⁰58’14”- 42⁰05’26” E
longitude [18]
. The watershed is situated on the main
road from Addis Ababa to Harar at a distance of
500km from Addis Ababa, and 14km North West of
Harar town. The watershed covers almost an area of
50km². It encompasses a small part of the town, The
University Campus, Bate town, three peasant
associations (Damota, Ifa-Bate, and Tuji-Gebissa)
fully, and another two Ifa-Oromia (around 90%) and
Guba-Selama (around 10%) partially [18]
. According to
Centeral Statistical Agency in 2005, Haramaya has
estimated total population of 15,317 of whom 7,796 are
men and 7,521 are women.
The1994 national census reported this town had total
population of 8,560 of whom 4,228 were males and
4,332 were females. So, it is the largest of three towns.
Based on the agro-climatic classification, Haramaya
Woreda has Woina Dega (wet and cool, 70%) and
Kolla (dry and hot, 30%) areas. The annual rainfull
distribution record indicates that the area receives a
bimodal rainfull type with the mean annual
precipitation of 751mm.
The maximum and minimum mean annual
temperatures for the area are 23.8 ⁰C and 9.6 ⁰C
respectively. The livelihood of the community in lake
Haramaya catchment is mainly based on mixed
farming, that is, cropping and livestock production [7]
.
Chat (Chat edulis) inters cropped with sorghum, maize
and haricot bean is the dominant cropping system in
the watershed. There is also a sizable pump irrigated
vegetable production especially around what used to be
the lake shore [18]
. The area surrounding of the lake has
undergone significant change in land use and land
cover over the last half century that eventually result in
complete loss. During the 1960s, the area is used to be
covered with thick vegetation, predominantly bushes
and climbers. Now a day the area almost completely
used for agricultural production and human settlement [17]
.
Fig 1: Lake Haramaya Watershed (Tena Alamirew, 2011)
2. Methods
The study population was shoreline households at the
margin of lake Haramaya. The subject of the study was
confined to three kebeles (i.e Tuji-Gebissa, Ifa-Bate
and 02) proximal to the lake in settlement, agricultural
and other activities. The total population in the town
The Journal of Zoology Studies
Vol. 2 No. 4 2015 Journalofzoology.com
Page 24
was 6556 households. Considering only 50 m distance
of the settlements to the proximity of the lake shore
10% (60 households) of the total population were
taken. The sample size was proportionally allotted to
each three locality (Tuji-Gebissa N= 1373 n1= 16, Ifa-
Bate N2= 1782 n2= 13 and 02 N3= 3401 n3= 31)
found around the lake based on thier proximity to the
shore lines. The individuals from each site were
purposely selected using judgmental sampling.
Community based cross sectional study design was
used to assess the conservation threats posed by the
villagers. The proportional allocation formula:
hN be the population size in the h
th stratum
Questionnaire that contains both open and closed
ended questions regarding the current challenges of
restoring the threatened important bird area of Lake
Haramaya was used to collect data. Besides,
observation checklist was also used to observe the
overall threat factors operating in the site. The local
villagers living along the shoreline of the lake were
asked about the land use and lake shore settlement
practices, livelihood dependency, type of waste
generated from shoreline households, toilet use and
waste management practices, agricultural practice at
the shoreline and current threats of the lake. The data
collected from lake shore inhabitants of the study area
was analyzed and interpreted using percentage
representation and graphs.
3. Result and Discussion
3.1 Land use and lake shore settlement practices of
the local villagers
Majority (66.6 %) of the local villagers reported that,
the land use of the lake is more preferred for
agricultural expansion. On the other hand, 33.3% of the
villagers reported that, the shore line is preferred for
better settlement. Majority (53.4%) of the inhabitant
responded human settlement along the shoreline of the
lake have its own effect on the lake while 46.6% of the
respondents perceived that, human settlement at the
margin of the lake does not have any effect on the lake
ecosystem. The result of the present study is consistent
with previous study done by Olana, 2014 which
shown, the area surrounding of the lake has undergone
a significant change in land use and land cover for the
last half century. Caleb, 2005 pointed that, the decline
in the lake water level is attributed to rapid increase in
demand for lake water of the catchment areas for
human settlement and associated activities. Eshetu
et.al. 2014 has also shown, cultivated land covers
78.3% of the land use of the catchment from the six
lands use types found in the study area. The livelihood
of the community living in the shoreline of lake
Haramaya is mainly based on mixed farming, that is
cropping and livestock production [7]
.
A) B)
Fig 2: A) Lake shore settlement practices B) Land use of the local villagers (Photo by Frehiwot Abebe, 2015)
3.2 Livelihood dependency in shore settlement of
Lake Haramaya
There is a socioeconomic dependency in the lake water
by shoreline inhabitants to enhance their livelihood.
26.7% of the lake shore villagers pointed the lake water
were used for irrigation purpose while 32.8%
responded that, the lake water were used as a primary
source of income by washing cloth in the open fields.
The Journal of Zoology Studies
Vol. 2 No. 4 2015 Journalofzoology.com
Page 25
25.9% of the villagers responded the lake were used as
a potential source of drinking water for livestock and
14.6 % the emerging unsustainable subsistence fishing
practices. Most of the local villagers (73.3%) perceived
that, the lake has considerable influence in their
livelihood. In our observation we found that, the lake’s
has influence in the livelihood of the lake shore
villagers being primary source of income and
subsistence fishing practices.
The finding of the present study is consistent with a
study done by Caleb, 2005 were the rapid growth of
population and the associated human settlements has
led to increased demand of environmental resources
particularly water and land around the lake. Tena, 2011
has also experiencing the lake water were substantially
used for agricultural practice through irrigation. There
are tubeless wells excavated around the lake shore by
farmers locally called “Ella”. Thus, most part of the
watershed was cultivated throughout the year for
vegetable and chat production [18]
. To enhance the
continuity of their agricultural production farmer’s
were digging more than one Ella per family. Ella is a
principal source of water for irrigation and livestock
production for local farmers living along the shoreline
of the lake [18]
. Famers used water from ella to irrigate
crops using small private motor pumps. About 1500
farmers were using pump in the water shed for
agricultural practices [18]
.
Fig 3: Livelihood dependency in shore settlement of Lake Haramaya (Photo by Frehiwot Abebe, 2015)
3.3 Type of waste generated from shoreline households of lake Haramaya
Table 1: Type of waste generated from shoreline households of Lake Haramaya
No Responses No of respondents Percentage %
1. Animal manure 23 38.33
2. Plastic materials 17 28.33
3. Washed utensils 12 20
4. Others 8 13.33
Total 60 100%
Majority (100%) of the local villagers were releasing
both solid and liquid types of waste towards the
shoreline of the lake. Animal manure accounts 38.33 %
followed by 28.33% plastic materials and 20% washed
liquid materials associated with food scraps.
The Journal of Zoology Studies
Vol. 2 No. 4 2015 Journalofzoology.com
Page 26
Fig 4: Type of waste generated from shoreline settlement of lake Haramaya (Photo by Frehiwot Abebe, 2015)
3.4 Toilet use and waste management practices of
lake shore households Majority (64%) of the households in Ife-Bate own
toilet in their home while the remaining 36% didn’t
own. 50% of the local villagers without toilet use
agricultural fields proximal to the lake whereas (50%)
use open shoreline of the lake. This can possibly
expose the residents to various water born diseases in
time were they reuse the water. Majority (87.9%) of
the liquid wastes generated by the households were
dumped to the lake ecosystem while 12.1% were
managed by burning. Dumping the waste directly
coupled with burning can possibly pollute the overall
ecology of the aquatic organisms. In 02 kebele 75% of
the households own toilet in their home while 25%
have no toilet and depend on proximal agricultural
fields and Lake Shore. Majority of the lake shore
residents (40%) dispose their household and
agricultural wastes to proximal fields of the lake
catchment. 30% of the villagers manage their waste
through burning plastics and papers. Composting of
degradable materials and mutual household heads
mechanical removal of wastes account 16.7% and
13.3% of the waste management practices respectively.
In Tuji-Gebissa 35% of the local villagers own toilet in
their home while 65% depend on proximal agricultural
fields and Lake Shore. 40.9% of lake shore residents
dispose there household waste on the lake. 36.4% of
the villagers manage their waste through composting
while (22.7%) employ burning.
The Journal of Zoology Studies
Vol. 2 No. 4 2015 Journalofzoology.com
Page 27
Fig 5: Waste management practices of the three kebelles located in the shoreline of Lake Haramaya
3.5 Agricultural practice at the shoreline of Lake
Haramaya
55% of the local villagers own agricultural land while
45 % depend on selling wetland grass, washing cloth
and other activities. The major crop grown along the
lake shore is chat, potato, maize, corn and vegetables
(lettuce, carrot, onion, tomato and cabbage). 100% of
the lake shore agrarian use both chemical and local
fertilizer to improve their crop productivity. Animal
manure and plant remains from agricultural practice
are local fertilizers being used by the farmers. Urea and
DAP are the types of chemical fertilizers mostly
utilized by the farmers. DDT
(dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) (100%) malatine
(54.5%), and marshal (6.0%) were used to protect
crops pest. A study conducted by Eshetu et.al., 2014 [7]
has shown, the livelihood of the community in the lake
catchment is mainly based on mixed farming i.e,
cropping and livestock production. The major crop
grown in the area under irrigated condition are chat,
potato and vegetables (lettuce, carrot, onion, tomato
and cabbage).
3.6 The current threats of Lake Haramaya
The lake is an important bird area listed by Ethiopian
wildlife conservation authority but the human
settlement around the lake shore is a threat factor
threatening the overall ecology within the watershed.
We observed the lake is currently threatened from
household waste disposal by the inhabitants of the
shoreline, chemical wastes of onshore agricultural
lands, cutting of wetland grass as income source, motor
pump for irrigation, detergents for washing cloth,
uncontrolled fishing, human & animal wastes. A study
done by Tena, 2011 increasing pumped irrigation and
domestic water use, agricultural expansion and poor
governmental policy towards waste and water
management were threats of the lake currently. Similar
study in the lake has also shown that, the watershed of
this lake is devoid of apparently all its natural
vegetation and is highly populated, with the majority of
the land being used for horticultural crops and a
stimulant plant locally known as "khat" (Catha edulis)
for export to neighboring Djibuti and Somali. Farmers
in the watershed needed water for irrigation for about
eight dry months of the year. The lake water was used
for various purposes of this pumped for municipal uses
to a town by the same name of about 30, 000 people
and the nearby town of Harar, 20 km in the eastern
direction with a population of about 150, 000 [3]
.
4. Conclusion
The result of our study shown that, the land use of the
lake is more preferred for agricultural expansion and
better settlement. The respondents perceived that,
human settlement at the margin of the lake does not
have any effect on the lake ecosystem. There is also a
socioeconomic dependency in the lake water to
enhance their livelihood. This includes irrigation,
primary source of income by washing cloth in the open
fields, potential source of drinking water for livestock
and the emerging unsustainable subsistence fishing
practices. Majority of the local villagers were releasing
both solid and liquid types of waste towards the
shoreline of the lake. The wastes include Animal
manure, plastic materials and washed liquid materials
associated with food scraps. Majority of the lake shore
residents dispose their household and agricultural
The Journal of Zoology Studies
Vol. 2 No. 4 2015 Journalofzoology.com
Page 28
wastes to proximal fields of the lake catchment.
Majority of the local villagers own agricultural land
while some others depend on selling wetland grass,
washing cloth and other activities. The major crop
grown along the lake shore is chat, potato, maize, corn
and vegetables (lettuce, carrot, onion, tomato and
cabbage). The lake shore agrarian use both chemical
and local fertilizer to improve their crop productivity.
Animal manure and plant remains from agricultural
practice are local fertilizers being used by the farmers.
Urea and DAP are the types of chemical fertilizers
mostly utilized by the farmers. The lake is an important
bird area listed by Ethiopian wildlife conservation
authority but the human settlement around the lake
shore is a threat factor threatening the overall ecology
within the watershed. The bird species found in this
site includes Fulica cristat, Phoenicopterus ruber,
Phoenicopterus minor, Porphyrio porphyrio,Podiceps
nigricollis, Pelecanus onocrotalus, Alopochen
aegyptiacus, Anas clypeata, Himantopus
himantopus,Recurvirostra avosetta,Limosa
limosa,Calidris minuta/temminckii, Philomachus
pugnax,Corvus edithae
(http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/sitefactsheet.php?id
=6251). Generally, the lake needs a great concern of
conservation by all stakeholders and inhabitants to
manage human settlement, waste disposal, agricultural
practice, pumped irrigation, uncontrolled fishing and
cutting of wetland grass.
5. Conservation Perspective
Land use, settlement and irrigation practice of
inhabitants along the margin of the lake should be
managed to halt the deterioration of the water quality
and eventual transformation of the lake into a terrestrial
environment. Likewise, the administration of the town
of Haramaya needs to develop integrated waste
management system focusing on sustainable sanitation
alternatives based on equity, prevention and
sustainability. The decline of the lake could be
associated with a range of threatening practices halting
the conservation of high biological value sites which
supports avifauna. Moreover, to our understanding
conservation efforts of the lake along the livelihood of
the adjacent local community is poorly prioritized.
Therefore, participatory approach of Lake Ecosystem
conservation is decisive. Besides, further intensive
study of water quality over different season of the year
could help to notice conservation action of aquatic
organisms and birds of the important bird area.
6. Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge College of
Natural and Computational Sciences of Dire Dawa
University for material and logistics support. We also
thank the residents of the study site who helps us in
responding to the questionnaires honestly. We would
also like to thank Frehiwot Abebe and Tigist Mekonen
for their field assistance.
7. References 1. Alemneh A. Conservation Challenges of Gibe
Sheleko National Park, Southwestern
Ethiopia. Natural Resources. 2015; 6: 286-
289.
2. Baldus R. Wildlife: Can it pay its way or must
it be subsidized? In: R.D. Baldus, G.R. Damn
and K. Wollscheid (eds.) Best practices in
sustainable hunting- A guide to best practices
from around the world. 2008; 12-16 pp.
3. Brooks M, Mittemeier A, Mittemeier G,
Fonseca, G. Habitat loss and extinction in the
hotspots of biodiversity. Conservation
Biology. 2002; 16: 909-923.
4. Caleb M. Challenges Facing the Conservation
of Lake Naivasha, Kenya.Dept. of
Environmental Planning & Management,
Kenyatta University Nairobi, Kenya. 2005 89-
93pp.
5. Cardinale B, Duffy E, Gonzalez A, Hooper U,
Perrings C, Venail P, et.al. Biodiversity loss
and its impact on humanity. Nature. 2012;
486: 59-67.
6. Convention on Biological Diversity. (1992).
Preamble to the Convention on Biological
Diversity. (Accessed from www.biodiv.org/
convention/articles.asp on 3 March 2015).
7. Eshetu T, Bayissa W, Kbrom A. Soil erosion,
sediment yield and conservation practices
assessment on Lake Haramaya Catchment.
World Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 2014;
2(7): 186-193.
8. Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute. Ethiopia’s
Fifth National Report to the Convention on
Biological Diversity. Addis Abeba, Ethiopia.
2014; 8-23 pp.
9. Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority.
Awash National Park Ecological and Threat
Monitoring Priorities and Plan. Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia. 2014; 4-5 pp.
10. Grignolio S, Merli E, Bongi P, Ciuti S,
Apollonio M. Effects of hunting with hounds
on a non-target species living on the edge of a
protected area. Biological Conservation. 2011;
144: 641-649.
11. Kideghesho J. The potentials of traditional
African cultural practices in mitigating
overexploitation of wildlife species and
habitat loss: experience of Tanzania.
International Journal of Biodiversity Science
& Management. 2009; 5:83-94.
The Journal of Zoology Studies
Vol. 2 No. 4 2015 Journalofzoology.com
Page 29
12. Krause, T Zambonino, H. More than just
trees- animal species diversity and
participatory forest monitoring in the
Ecuadorian Amazon. International Journal of
Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services &
Management. 2013; 9: 225-238.
13. Lambooy, T Levashova, Y. Opportunities and
challenges for private sector entrepreneurship
and investment in biodiversity, ecosystem
services and nature conservation. International
Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem
Services & Management. 2011; 7: 301-318.
14. Leuschner C, Moser G, Hertel D, Erasmi S,
Leitner D, Culmsee H et.al. Conversion of
tropical moist forest into cacao agro forest:
consequences for carbon pools and annual C
sequestration. Agroforestry Systems. 2013;
87: 1173-1187.
15. Meklit T (2005). Mulfunctional analysis of the
evolution of lake Alemaya, Ethiopia, using
remote sensing data.
16. Michel S (2008). Conservation and use of
wild Ungulates in central Asia- potentials and
challenges. In: R.D. Baldus, G.R. Damn and
K. Wollscheid (eds.) Best practices in
sustainable hunting- A guide to best practices
from around the world. pp. 32-40.
17. Olana K. Assessment of Climate Change
Impacts on Highland Lake of Eastern
Ethiopia. International Journal of Scientific &
Engineering Research. 2014; 5(6): 2229-5518.
18. Tena A. Estimation of Groundwater Recharge
in the Lake Haramaya Watershed. Institute of
Technology Haramaya University, Haramaya.
2011.
19. Vatn A, Barton N, Lindhjem H, Movik S,
Ring I, Santos R. Can markets protect
biodiversity? An evaluation of different
financial mechanisms. Noragic Report No.
60. Norway: Norwegian University of Life
Sciences. Water and rivers commission
(1998).Water facts. 2011; 47-54 pp.
20. Young J. Ethiopian Protected Areas A
‘snapshot’. A reference guide for future
strategic. 2012; 14-16 pp.
Mulualem G, Ayalew S, Tesfahunegny W. Contemporary challenges of restoring the threatened important bird area of Lake Haramaya,
Eastern Ethiopia. Journal of Zoology Studies. 2015; 2(4):21-29.
*****************************************************************