contents 133 jems - jag.journalagent.com

UCTEA - The Chamber of Marine Engineers

JEMS

Volume : 8Issue : 3Year : 2020ISSN:2147-2955UCTEA - The Chamber of Marine Engineers

JOURNAL OF ETA MARITIME SCIENCE

Journal of ETA Maritime Science

Volume 8, Issue 3, (2020)

Contents

(ED) EditorialSelçuk NAS

133

(AR) The Moderating Role of Sea Service Period on the Relationship between Perceived Organizational Justice and Job Satisfaction; Evidence from Seafarers.Murat YORULMAZ, Gönül KAYA ÖZBAĞ

134

(AR) Analysis of Operational Performance of Crude Oil Refining andPetrochemical Jetties in Nigeria.Donatus. E. ONWUEGBUCHUNAM, Moses. O. APONJOLOSUN, Sodiq. O. BUHARI, Dotun OJO

150

(AR) Gender Discrimination Perception Among Maritime Students In Turkey.Volkan FİDAN, Esin GÜNAY, Gamze AKPINAR, Can ATACAN

162

(AR) Investigation of the Effect of Number of Longitudinal Rounded Grooves on Hydrodynamic Forces acting on Cylinders in Cross Flow at Re=10⁵.Oktay YILMAZ

178

(AR) Raising Awareness About Women in Turkish Maritime Industry.Nihan ŞENBURSA, Pınar ÖZDEMİR

194

Antarctic Research Strategy of Turkey. Ersan BAŞAR

210

Başar, E. (2020) R-S/V Betanzos at the Anchorage Area of the Horseshoe Island, ANTARCTICA

JEM

S -

JOU

RNAL

OF

ETA

MAR

ITIM

E SC

IENC

E - I

SSN

: 214

7-29

55VO

LUM

E 8

, ISS

UE

3 (2

020)

i

JOURNAL INFO

Publisher : Feramuz AŞKIN The Chamber of Marine Engineers Chairman of the Board

Engagement Manager : Alper KILIÇ

Typesetting : Burak KUNDAKÇI CoşkanSEVGİLİ ElifARSLAN EminDenizÖZKAN GizemKAYİŞOĞLU MerveGÜLÇIVGIN ÖmerARSLAN PelinERDEM Layout : RemziFIŞKINCover Design : SelçukNASCover Photo : ErsanBAŞAR Publication Place and Date :

Online Publication : www.jemsjournal.org/30.09.2020

The Chamber of Marine EngineersAddress : Sahrayıcedit Mah. Halk Sk. Golden Plaza No: 29 C Blok K:3 D:6 Kadıköy/İstanbul - TürkiyeTel : +90 216 747 15 51Fax : +90 216 747 34 35

ISSN : 2147-2955 e-ISSN : 2148-9386

Type of Publication: JEMSisapeer-reviewedjournalandispublishedquarterly(March/June/September/December)period.

Responsibility in terms of language and content of articles published in the journalbelongstotheauthors.

To link to guide for authors: https://www.jemsjournal.org/Default.aspx?p=Guide-for-Authors

©2020GEMİMOAllrightsreserved

ii

EXECUTIVE BOARD:

Editor-in-ChiefProf. Dr. Selçuk NASDokuz Eylül University, Maritime Faculty

Deputy EditorRes. Asst. Dr. Remzi FIŞKINOrdu University, Fatsa Faculty of Marine Sciences

Associate EditorsRes. Asst. Dr. Emin Deniz ÖZKANDokuz Eylül University, Maritime FacultyRes. Asst. Burak KUNDAKÇIİskenderun Technical University, Maritime FacultyRes. Asst. Coşkan SEVGİLİZonguldak Bülent Ecevit University, Maritime FacultyRes. Asst. Elif ARSLANDokuz Eylül University, Maritime FacultyRes. Asst. Gizem KAYİŞOĞLUİstanbul Technical University, Maritime FacultyRes. Asst. Merve GÜL ÇIVGINİstanbul Technical University, Maritime FacultyRes. Asst. Ömer ARSLANDokuz Eylül University, Maritime FacultyRes. Asst. Pelin ERDEMPiri Reis University, Maritime Faculty

Foreign Language EditorsAsst. Prof. Dr. Seçil GÜLMEZIskenderun Technical University, Maritime FacultyLec. Seda ALTUNTAŞRecep Tayyip Erdoğan UniversityCpt. Yücel YILDIZ

BOARD OF SECTION EDITORS:

Maritime Transportation Eng. Section EditorsProf. Dr. Ender ASYALIMaine Maritime AcademyProf. Dr. Selçuk ÇEBİYıldız Technical Uni., Fac. of Mechanical EngineeringAssoc. Prof. Dr. Emre AKYÜZ İstanbul Technical University, Maritime FacultyAssoc. Prof. Dr. Momoko KITADAWorld Maritime UniversityAssoc. Prof. Dr. Özkan UĞURLUOrdu University, Fatsa Faculty of Marine Sciences

Naval Architecture Section EditorsProf. Dr. Dimitrios KONOVESSIS Singapore Institute of TechnologyProf. Dr. Ercan KÖSE Karadeniz Tech. Uni, Sürmene Fac. of Mar. SciencesDr. Rafet Emek KURTUniversity of Strathclyde, Ocean and Marine EngineeringDr. Sefer Anıl GÜNBEYAZUniversity of Stratchlyde, Ocean and Marine Engineering

Marine Engineering Section EditorsAssoc. Prof. Dr. Alper KILIÇBandırma Onyedi Eylül University, Maritime FacultyAsst. Prof. Dr. Fırat BOLAT Istanbul Technical University, Maritime FacultyAsst. Prof. Dr. Görkem KÖKKÜLÜNKYıldız Technical Uni., Fac. of Nav. Arch. and MaritimeDr. Jing YUDalian Maritime UniversityDr. José A. OROSA University of A Coruña

Maritime Business Admin. Section EditorsProf. Dr. Soner ESMERIskenderun Technical University, Maritime FacultyAssoc. Prof. Dr. Çimen KARATAŞ ÇETİNDokuz Eylül University, Maritime FacultyCoastal and Port Engineering Section EditorAssoc. Prof. Dr. Kubilay CİHANKırıkkale University, Engineering Faculty

Logistic and Supply Chain Man. Section EditorAssoc. Prof. Dr. Ceren ALTUNTAŞ VURAL Chalmers University of Technology, Technology Management and Economics

EDITORIAL BOARD

iii

MEMBERS OF EDITORIAL BOARD:

Prof. Dr. Ersan BAŞARKaradeniz Technical University, Sürmene Faculty of Marine Sciences, TURKEY

Prof. Dr. Masao FURUSHOKobe University, Faculty, Graduate School of Maritime Sciences, JAPAN

Prof. Dr. Metin ÇELİKİstanbul Technical University, Maritime Faculty, TURKEY

Prof. Dr. Nikitas NIKITAKOSUniversity of the Aegean, Dept. of Shipping Trade and Transport, GREECE

Prof. Dr. Selçuk NASDokuz Eylül University, Maritime Faculty, TURKEY

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Feiza MEMETConstanta Maritime University, ROMANIA

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ghiorghe BATRINCAConstanta Maritime University, ROMANIA

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Marcel.la Castells i SANABRAPolytechnic University of Catalonia, Nautical Science and Engineering Department, SPAIN

Dr. Angelica M. BAYLONMaritime Academy of Asia and the Pacific, PHILIPPINES

Dr. Iraklis LAZAKISUniversity of Strathclyde, Naval Arch. Ocean and Marine Engineering, UNITED KINGDOM

Heikki KOIVISTOSatakunta University of Applied Sciences, FINLAND

EDITORIAL BOARD

iv

MEMBERS OF ADVISORY BOARD

Prof. Dr. Durmuş Ali DEVECİ Dokuz Eylül University, Maritime Faculty, TURKEY

Prof. Dr. Irakli SHARABIDZE(President)Batumi State Maritime Academy, GEORGIA

Prof. Dr. Latif KELEBEKLİ Ordu University, Fatsa Faculty of Marine Sciences, TURKEY

Prof. Dr. Mehmet BİLGİN İstanbul University, Faculty of Engineering, TURKEY

Prof. Dr. Muhammet BORANKaradeniz Technical University, Sürmene Faculty of Marine Sciences, TURKEY

Prof. Dr. Oğuz Salim SÖĞÜT İstanbul Technical University, Maritime Faculty, TURKEY

Prof. Dr. Oral ERDOĞAN (President)Piri Reis University, TURKEY

Prof. Osman TURANUniversity of Strathclyde, Naval Arch. Ocean and Marine Engineering, UNITED KINGDOM

Prof. Dr. Temel ŞAHİN Recep Tayyip Erdoğan University, Turgut Kıran Maritime School, TURKEY

EDITORIAL BOARD

v

1. Submission of an article implies that the manuscript described has not been publishedpreviouslyinanyjournalsorasaconferencepaperwithDOInumber.

2. Submissionsshouldbeoriginalresearchpapersaboutanymaritimeapplications.

3. Itwillnotbepublishedelsewhereincludingelectronicinthesameform,inEnglish,inTurkishorinanyotherlanguage,withoutthewrittenconsentofthecopyright-holder.

4. ArticlesmustbewritteninproperEnglishlanguage.

5. Itisimportantthatthesubmissionfiletobesavedinthenativeformatofthetemplateofwordprocessorused.

6. Referencesofinformationmustbeprovided.

7. Notethatsourcefilesoffigures,tablesandtextgraphicswillberequiredwhetherornotyouembedyourfiguresinthetext.

8. Toavoidunnecessaryerrorsyouarestronglyadvisedtousethe‘spell-check’and‘grammar-check’functionsofyourwordprocessor.

9. JEMS operates the article evaluation processwith “double blind” peer reviewpolicy. Thismeansthatthereviewersofthepaperwillnotgettoknowtheidentityoftheauthor(s),andtheauthor(s)willnotgettoknowtheidentityofthereviewer.

10. Accordingtoreviewers’reports,editor(s)willdecidewhetherthesubmissionsareeligibleforpublication.

11. AuthorsareliableforobeyingtheJEMSSubmissionPolicy.

12. JEMSispublishedquarterlyperiod(March,June,September,December).

13. JEMSdoesnotchargeanyarticlesubmission,processingandpublicationfees.

JEMS SUBMISSION POLICY

vi


133

(AR) The Moderating Role of Sea Service Period on the Relationship betweenPerceivedOrganizationalJusticeandJobSatisfaction;EvidencefromSeafarersMurat YORULMAZ, Gönül KAYA ÖZBAĞ

134

(AR) Analysis of Operational Performance of Crude Oil Refining andPetrochemicalJettiesinNigeriaDonatus. E. ONWUEGBUCHUNAM, Moses. O. APONJOLOSUN, Sodiq. O. BUHARI, Dotun OJO

150

(AR) GenderDiscriminationPerceptionamongMaritimeStudentsinTurkeyVolkan FİDAN, Esin GÜNAY, Gamze AKPINAR, Can ATACAN

162

(AR) InvestigationoftheEffectofNumberofLongitudinalRoundedGroovesonHydrodynamicForcesactingonCylindersinCrossFlowatRe=10⁵Oktay YILMAZ

178

(AR) RaisingAwarenessAboutWomeninTurkishMaritimeIndustryNihan ŞENBURSA, Pınar ÖZDEMİR

194

AntarcticResearchStrategyofTurkeyErsan BAŞAR

210

ReviewerListofVolume8Issue3(2020) IIndexing II

CONTENTS

133

Journal of ETA Maritime Science (JEMS), published by UCTEA Chamber of MarineEngineers,starteditsacademiccareerin2013.ItfirstindexedintheDOAJin2014andproveditsquality.Laterin2016,itenteredintothe“IndexCopernicus”citationindex.Inthesameyear,itwasentitledtoenterintoTUBITAKTRindexes.Finally,wearepleasedtoinformyouthat“JournalofETAMaritimeScience(JEMS)”,publishedbyUCTEAChamberofMarineEngineers,hasbeenselected forcoverage inClarivateAnalyticsproductsandservicesofWoS.JEMSwillbeindexedandabstractedinEmergingSourcesCitationIndex(ESCI).

ThereisanEditorialBoardbehindthisshortstoryofJEMS’sfullofsuccess.Thisboard

members consist of highly qualified academics from different nationalities and fields,workingwithgreatdevotionsallaroundtheworld. Inaddition, theAssociateEditorsofJEMS,consistingofyoungacademicianswhoprepareJEMSforpublicationfourtimesinayear,arevoluntaryservantsoftheJEMS.Besides,theAuthorswhogeneratethejournal'sintellectualcapitalbysharingtheirvaluableresearchesinJEMShaveagreatshareinthesesuccesses. The entry of JEMS into theWeb of Science Emerging Sources Citation Index(ESCI)haswelcomedbytheBoardofUCTEAChamberofMarineEngineers.ThissuccesswillincreasetheattractivenessofJEMSandenabletheselectionofthebestqualityarticlesamongmanymorequalityarticles.

In this issue,wepresent to your attention two remarkable articleshighlighting the

issueof“womenandsea”.Inaddition,wepresentanimpressivearticleaboutthescopeandacademicperspectiveofpolarresearchpreparedbyProf.Dr.ErsanBasarintheacademicperspectivesectionofourjournal.Wealsothankhimforthecoverphotoofthisissue.

JournalofETAMaritimeScienceNas/JEMS,2020;8(3):13310.5505/jems.2020.75983020.75983EDITORIAL(ED)

Editorial

Prof. Dr. Selçuk NASEditor-in-Chief

134

JournalofETAMaritimeScienceYorulmaz&KayaÖzbağ/JEMS, 2020;8(3):134-149

10.5505/jems.2020.35693

The Moderating Role of Sea Service Period on the Relationship between Perceived

Organizational Justice and Job Satisfaction: Evidence from Seafarers

Murat YORULMAZ, Gönül KAYA ÖZBAĞ

KocaeliUniversity,MaritimeFaculty,[email protected]; ORCIDID:https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5736-9146

[email protected];ORCIDID:https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4205-6171CorrespondingAuthor:MuratYORULMAZ

ABSTRACT

Although the number of organizational justice studies has increased rapidly in recentyears,littleresearchhasfocusedonfairnessperceptionsofseafarers.Therefore,thispaperintendedtofillthegapbyinvestigatingtheeffectoforganizationaljusticeperceptionsofseafarersontheirjobsatisfactiondescribedbythreefacetsincludingproceduraljustice,distributivejusticeandinteractionaljustice.Thedataobtainedthroughface-to-facesurveytechniquewereanalyzedusingSPSS22andAMOS22(withPROCESSmacro)statisticalpackage programs. The findings generated from regression analysis point that justiceperception of seafarers positively affects their job satisfaction level. Furthermore, thelengthofseafarers’seaservicehasamoderatingrolebetweenperceivedorganizationaljusticeandjobsatisfaction.Themanagerialimplicationsoftheresultsarediscussedinlightof theparticularcontextof themaritime industrywithsomesuggestions forenhancingjusticeandsatisfactionperceptionsofseafarers.

Keywords

OrganizationalJustice,JobSatisfaction,Seafarers.

ORIGINALRESEARCH(AR)Received: 03 April 2020 Accepted: 30 June 2020

To cite this article:Yorulmaz,M.&KayaÖzbağ,G.(2020).TheModeratingRoleofSeaServicePeriodontheRelationshipbetweenPerceivedOrganizationalJusticeandJobSatisfaction;EvidencefromSeafarers.Journal of ETA Maritime Science,8(3),134-149.To link to this article: https://dx.doi.org/10.5505/jems.2020.35693

1. IntroductionDetermining antecedents of job

satisfaction (JS) has been an overridingeffort of scholars for years and nowadaysmany of them have recognized the roleof perceived organizational justice (POJ)of employees in designing this desiredwork attitude. After all, researchers haveseemedtoagreethatorganizationaljustice

isapowerfuldeterminativeofJS[1][2][3].However, it is apparent that the linkagebetween justice and JS is too complexand thus it is beneficial to explore therelationship indifferentculturalandworksettings. Although, how tomaintain andpromote JS in theworkplace is crucial forallprofessions,tostrengthenthefeelingsofJSamongseafarersisevenmoreimportant

135

© UCTEA The Chamber of Marine Engineers Journal of ETA Maritime Science

due to circumstances specific to life on aship.Seafarersliveanisolatedlifeonboardfor months away from their families andsociety which makes seafaring a highlyunsatisfiedandstressfuloccupation.

Seafarers suffer from long workinghours, shift work and watchkeeping, highjobdemandsandhighstress,poorqualitysleep, hectic pace, physical work hazards,and ill health [4][5][6][7]. In addition,permanent job-related physical factorson vessels including noise, temperature,vibration, and ship motion decreaseseafarers’ satisfaction, both during workhoursandduringleisuretime[8][9].Thus,relative to other areas of employment,disadvantageousworkingconditionscreatehighturnoverratesintheshippingindustrywhich in turn costs the organization timeand money [10][11][12]. Many pieces ofresearch have indicated that poor andunfavourableworkingconditionsatseaarenegativelyinfluencingboththerecruitmentofyoungpeopleintoaseafaringcareerandretaining in-serviceseafarers [11][12][13][14][15].Allthesementionedaspectsjointlydecrease the overall performance andcompetitivenessofmarineorganizations.

OnepossiblesolutionmayincreaseJSofseafarersthatmayhaveasignificantimpacton employee behavioural responses, suchas job performance, productivity andefficiency,intentiontoquit,organizationalturnover, absenteeism, work engagementand organizational identification [16][17][18][19][20][21][22]. In general, JS refersto an employee’s subjective perception ofhis/her work and all aspects of the workenvironment. It is influenced by manyorganizational elements, ranging fromsalaries, jobsecurity, jobautonomy,careerprospects, to the relationship betweenemployees and colleagues. Organizationaljustice raises above all these potentialelements because seafarers who feel thattheir contributions and sacrifices are notreciprocated by the organisation will be

frustrated and most likely to respondnegatively.

For that reason, the data of this studyaredrawnfrommarineemployeesinordertoanalyzethe linkagebetweenPOJand JSinthemaritimeindustrywhichisstrategicfortheeconomyofcountries.AlthoughthepositiveeffectsofPOJonemployees’JShavebeenconfirmed,tothebestoftheauthors’knowledge, this connection has not beeninvestigated in the shipping industry. Itis vital to determine the predictors ofseafarers’satisfactionduetohighdemandsof the job and the strategic value of theirmotivation and psychological well-being to enhance firm performance andcompetitiveness. Therefore, the currentstudy is important in filling the void inthe literature by focusing on shippingorganizations that seems to expose theiremployees tohigh levelsofemotionalandwork-relatedstressesleadingtodecreasedJS which in turn can affect absenteeism,performance, productivity and turnover[23][24][25].

2. Theoretical Background and Hypotheses

Organizational justice is a conceptbasicallyusedtodescribesubjectivefairnessperceptions in the work environment. AsAdams put forward years ago in hiswell-known equity theory, employees comparetheir input (contributions) and output(rewards) with those of relevant workersand conclude if they are being treatedfairly or not [26]. For instance, when anindividual explores that a co-workerwiththe same seniority and experience has ahigher status than himself/herself, s/heis likelytoperceivethesituationasunfair.Besides, social exchange theory whichassumes sources are exchanged via aprocessofrepaymentisabreedinggroundfor perceived justice [27] whereby onepartytendstoreciprocatethegoodorbadactions of another party[28]. Accordingly,

136

the positive judgement of employeesregarding the supervisor or organizationmayprobablyresultinasenseofobligationto reciprocate positively[29]. So, it seemslogical to expect that positive justiceperception of seafarers is likely to turnintodesiredresponsessuchasmotivation,satisfactionandcommitment.

Recentprogressandperspectivesinthisareadescribethreesortsoforganizationaljustice including procedural, interactionaland distributive [30]. Building on theequity theory [26], distributive justiceplaced emphasis on the equitablenessof the outcomes (e.g., pay, rewards,promotions) while procedural justice onthe fairness of the process like policiesand procedures [30][31]. On the otherhand, interactional justice focuses thedegree to which employees are treatedwith dignity, politeness, gentleness andrespect by supervisors in the applicationof related operations [32]. Researches onorganizational justice have proved thatfairness perceptions at work may affectindividuals’ critical work manners andbehaviourslikeorganizationalcommitment[33][34], organizational citizenshipbehaviour [35][36][37] performance [30][38] innovative behaviour [39][40] andturnoverintentions[41][42].

Most of the previous studies concludethatthreedimensionsofjusticeperceptionact in a holistic way but participants feltjustice in different ways. For instance,Robbins[43]arguedthatinhighperceptionsof procedural justice, employees look uppositively to their supervisors, even ifthey are dissatisfied with their salaries,job opportunities, and other personalvariables.Someindividualsmayfeeljusticein theway theoutcomesweredistributedwhileothersfeelitinmanagementsupport.These different perceptions with regardto dimensions of organizational justicemay be explained by Maslow's well-knownhierarchyof needs inwhichneeds

and expectations are categorized. Whenemployees' contributions are rewarded intermsoftheirownneedsandexpectations,their perception of justicewould increaseaswell.Accordingly,perhapstheconditionsofspecialtysettingsdifferentiateaccordingto what employees value most andthese incoherences (between perceivedimportance and perceived fulfilment)significantly influenceseafarersPOJ.Thus,thefollowingisproposed;

Hypothesis 1: There are significant differences among seafarers’ perception mean scores with regard to dimensions of organizational justice.

There is also a considerable amountof research indicating that there exists asignificantcorrelationbetweenPOJand JS[2][44][45][46][47][48]. Jobsatisfaction isexplainedasapositiveemotionalresponseofanemployeeat theworkplaceresultingfromtheassessmentoffivedimensionssuchas satisfaction with work, pay, promotionopportunities, supervision, and co-worker[49]. Karimi et al. [50] referred to JS asemployees’ feelingof jobor theemotionalreaction to the work environment. Sucha perception depended on the gap ofemployees acquired rewards and theexpecteddeserved rewards in the specificworkenvironment.Thesmallergapwouldpresenthighersatisfaction,whilethelargergap would result in lower satisfaction.In other words, JS relied on individualsassessing the objective environmentand various factors and comparing pastexperienceswithreferencetoothergroups[51].Organizationalscholarsrecognizetheimportanceofinvestigatingtheantecedentsof JS because it has been discovered notonly to reduce absenteeism and turnoverintentions [52][53][54][55] but alsoincreaseemployees’ commitment [53][55][56][57].

High turnover rates present a numberof risks to the shipping industry and thusplace great importance on seafarers JS

Yorulmaz&KayaÖzbağ/JEMS, 2020;8(3):134-149

137


becauseitisdirectlyrelatedtotheretentionin the seafaring profession. Accordingly,Li and colleagues investigated the mainfactorsthatcontributetoJSandfoundthatpromotionisthekeyfactorintheJSoftheChinese seafarers [58]. In another study,[59] participants stated that income asthe only source of pleasure related to thejob and the primary reason for being inthis job. Inaddition, theyalsoemphasizedfinancial stabilityandsecurityasa sourceofsatisfaction.Studieshavealsoshownthatorganizational support, job demands, andteam cohesion are among the importantfactors related to JS of seafarers [60],[61]. Factors including salary, promotionopportunities, fringebenefits, supervision,co-workers, job conditions, the natureof the work, organizational support andcommunication have been frequentlylinkedtosatisfactionandthusinconsistentor unfair treatment of these factors maylead to low JS [15][58][60][61][62][63].Consequently, employees would perceivethe organization as fair if the comparisonoftheseelementsresultsinapositivewaywhich leads to the development of thefollowinghypothesistobetested;

Hypothesis 2: Seafarers’ POJ positively affects their JS.

Reviewing past studies also revealsthat demographic characteristics such asage marital status, gender, job position,education, job satisfaction, organizationaltenure may influence the perceptionsof individuals. Different needs andexpectationsofdifferentdemographicandpersonality groups can affect the feelingof organizational justice. However, it isalso important to note that all membersof the same demographic group do notnecessarily share similar experiences andhence have the same justice perceptions[64].Forinstance,insomestudies,genderdifferencesfoundtomoderatethePOJandJS [65]) whereas some others found nosignificantdifferences[66].Organizational

tenure is another demographic variablethatisfrequentlylinkedtobothjusticeandsatisfaction.Relatedly,Pignata&colleagues[67] found that academic staff’s tenurepredicted perceived justice which wasthe strongest determinant of academicstaff’s JS. This result is also supportedby two studies of Bidarian & Jafari [68]whichpointthatthereispoorbutpositivelinkagebetweenperceived justice and thelengthofworkexperience.Accordingly,itisproposed;

Hypothesis 3: Seafarers' sea service period moderates the relationship between POJ and JS.

Consequently, past studies revealedsignificant relationships between thethreefacetsofjusticeandJS.However,thetopic is generally investigated by usingsamplesdrawnfromtheemployeesofwestorganizationswithsimilaroccupations.ThelackofstudiesinvestigatingtherelationshipbetweenPOJandJSonaparticularworkingenvironment of seafarers increase theimportance of this study. Consequently,the present study intends to enhance theliterature by examining the followingresearchmodelinFigure1withdatadrawnfrom a probability sample of seafarer’sfromTurkey.

Figure 1. Research Model

3. MethodThis study was conducted to measure

the organizational justice perceptionsof seafarers and to examine the causalrelationships between their POJ and JS.Thedatawere collectedusing face-to-facesurvey method, and analyzed by SPSS 22andAMOS22statisticalpackageprograms

138

using descriptive statistics, skewnessand kurtosis coefficients, convergent anddiscriminantvalidityinconfirmatoryfactoranalysis for validity analysis, Cronbach’salphaandcompositereliabilitycoefficientsin reliabilityanalysis.Correlationanalysis,dependent-samples one-way analysisof variance (ANOVA), path analysis andstructuralequationmodellingwereusedtotestresearchhypotheses.

3.1. SampleThe sample consists of Turkish

seafarersworkingonmerchant ships.Thedata were collected using conveniencesampling method and face-to-face surveyfromseafarersworkingonships includingferries, passenger boats and sea busesused for passenger transportation in theMarmaraRegion.

3.2. Data Collection ToolsThesurveyformconsistsoftwosections.

The first section includes questions aboutthe seafarers’ demographic features suchasage,gender,educationandworkingtimeat sea, and the second section includestwo scales to measured the researchvariables including POJ and JS. Five-pointLikert scale (scoring between 1= stronglydisagreeand5=stronglyagree) isusedtoratetheperceptionsofseafarers.POJscaleconfigured by Neiehoff & Moorman [69]and adapted to Turkish by Yıldırım [70]covers20-items relating to three facets ofjustice;distributivejusticeperception(DJP)(5 items), procedural justice perception(PJP) (6 items) and interactional justiceperception (IJP) (9 items). Some of thescale items are as follows: “I think thearrangements on my working hoursonboard are fair”, “Seafarers’ opinions areasked before any decision about workson board”, and “My supervisor onboardexplainseverydecisionaboutmy jobveryclearly and in details”. According to theresults of the exploratory factor analysis

(EFA) applied using varimax rotation andprincipal components analysis techniquesto determine the consistency of POJscale, it was revealed that the scale hada three-dimensional structure (PJP, DJPand IJP) with eigenvalues greater than1 as in previous studies (KMO=0.954;χ 2=4466.375; df=190; p<0.001; factorloadings ranging between 0.565-0.878;total explained variance: 64.7%). Table 1presents thegoodnessof fit indicesof thefirstandsecond-orderconfirmatoryfactoranalysis(CFA)performedtodeterminethestructuralvalidityofthescale.Accordingly,both the first (χ2/df: 2.477; GFI: 0.894;CFI: 0.945; TLI:0.936; RMSEA:0.066) andsecond (χ2/df: 2.410; GFI: 0.897; CFI:0.948; TLI: 0.939; RMSEA: 0.065 ) orderfit indices were within acceptable values[71],[72].Inaddition,theaveragevarianceextracted (AVE) and composite reliability(CR) values were calculated to determinethe convergent and discriminant validityin DFA, and results are given in Table 2.Accordingly,thefactorloadingsofobservedvariablesvariedbetween0.577and0.857,and the t-test values were statisticallysignificant (p <0.001). The standardizedβ coefficients of observed variables werehigherthanthethresholdvalueof0.50,andtheAVEvalueswerehigherthanthecriticalvalue of 0.50. Furthermore, the CR valueswerehigher thanthecriticalvalueof0.70and AVE values suggested a convergentvalidity between the dimensions of themeasurement model. However, due tocorrelation coefficients between thedimensions of the measurement modellower than the square roots of AVEvalues, the discriminant validity was alsoachieved[73].Inthereliabilityanalysis,theCronbach’sAlpha (CA) coefficients rangedbetween0.842-0.928andtheCRcoefficientsbetween 0.888-0.960. Accordingly, theorganizational justice perception scale isvalidandreliable[72][73].

JSscaledevelopedbyChenetal.[74]


139


Scales χ2 sd χ2/sd GFI CFI TLI RMSEA

FirstOrderPOJ 406.190 164 2.477 .894 .945 .936 .066

SecondOrderPOJ 392.824 163 2.410 .897 .948 .939 .065

JS 10.138 4 2.535 .988 .957 .983 .068

Table 1. Confirmatory Factor Analysis Goodness of Fit Indices

Factors Observed Variables Standardized β t Values AVE CR CA

PJP

PJP1 .577 7.701***

.522 .866 .842

PJP2 .766 11.128***

PJP3 .829 11.716***

PJP4 .803 11.482***

PJP5 .717 10.635***

PJP6 .605 -

DJP

DJP7 .746 12.689***

.587 .876 .873

DJP8 .786 13.332***

DJP9 .734 12.499***

DJP10 .857 14.407***

DJP11 .698 -

IJP

IJP12 .727 13.416***

.582 .926 .928

IJP13 .782 14.552***

IJP14 .758 14.072***

IJP15 .710 14.861***

IJP16 .830 15.563***

IJP17 .838 15.736***

IJP18 .727 13.423***

IJP19 .739 13.665***

IJP20 .746 -

JS

JS1 .730 9.282***

.519 .841 .728

JS2 .842 9.735***

JS3 .562 7.634***

JS4 .724 9.222***

JS5 .715 -

Table 2. Confirmatory Factor Analysis Results

work onboard” (reverse coded). Accordingto the EFA results applied using varimaxrotationandprincipalanalysistodeterminetheconsistencyoftheJSscale,itwasrevealedthat the scale has a one-dimensional

andadoptedtoTurkishbyTurunçandÇelik[75] is used to rate JS levels of seafarers.Some example items are as follows: “I amsatisfiedwithmy jobonboard” and “I feellike the daywill never endwhen I domy

***p<0.001

140

structurewith an eigenvalue greater than1 as in previous studies (KMO = 0.731; χ2 = 368.170; df = 10-factor loads rangingfromp<0.001;0.589-0.896;totalexplainedvariance: 57.2%). Table 1 presents theDFA goodness of fit indices calculated todetermine the structural validity of thescale. Accordingly, the fit indices of thissingle-factor JS scale (χ2/df: 2.535; GFI:0.988; CFI: 0.957; TLI: 0.983; RMSEA:0.068) were within acceptable values[71],[72].Inaddition,theaveragevarianceextracted (AVE) and composite reliability(CR) values were calculated to assess thescale’sconvergentanddiscriminantvalidityinDFA,andtheresultsaregiveninTable2.Accordingly,thefactorloadingsofobservedvariablesvariedbetween0.524and0.842,and the t-test values were statisticallysignificant (p<0.001). The standardizedβ coefficients of observed variables werehigherthanthethresholdvalueof0.50,andtheAVEvalueswerehigherthanthecrucialvalue of 0.50. Furthermore, the higher CRvaluesthanthecriticalvalueof0.70andtheAVEvaluessuggestaconvergentvalidityofthemeasurementmodel.Cronbach’sAlpha

(CA)andCRcoefficientsof the scalewerefound as 0.728 and 0.815 respectivelywhichindicatesJSscaleisvalidandreliable[72][73].

Beforetestingtheresearchhypotheses,the skewness and kurtosis coefficients ofthe observed variables were examined todeterminewhether thedatahadanormaldistribution. As the coefficients rangedbetween -1.5 and + 1.5, the data wereconsideredtohaveanormaldistribution.

4. Results4.1. Demographic Characteristics of Participants

Table 3 presents the seafarers’demographic characteristics. Accordingly,94.3% (n=316) of them are male, 30.4%(n=102) are 31-40 years old, 49.2%(n=170)arehighschoolgraduates,25.4%(n=85)haveworkexperiencebetween4-7years,and60.3%(n=202)aredeckcrew.

4.2. Hypothesis TestingTable 4 presents the means, standard

deviations and correlation coefficients oftheresearchvariables.

Variables Groups n % Variables Groups n %

Gender

Female 19 5.7

WorkExperience

3yearsandunder 71 21.2

Male 316 94.3 4-7years 85 25.4

Total 335 100.0 8-11year 64 19.1

Age

20-25 57 17.0 12-15years 36 10.7

26-30 68 20.3 16andover 79 23.6

31-40 102 30.4 Total 335 100.0

41-50 77 23.0

Department

Deck 202 60.3

51andover 31 9.3 Engine 101 30.1

Educationstatus

Primary 55 16.4 Galley 32 9.6

Highschool 170 49.2 Total 335 100.0

University 110 32.8

Total 335 100.0

Table 3. Demographic Characteristics of Participants


141


Values Means SS 1 2 3 4

1.PJP 3.688 .785 1

2.DJP 3.628 .845 .794** 1

3.IJP 3.936 .735 .734** .716** 1

4.POJ 3.751 .719 .924** .914** .888** 1

5.JS 3.796 .636 .373** .363** .415** .419**

(I) Factor1(J) Factor 1

Average Difference (I-J) Std. Dev. p

PJP DJP IJP

.059*-.248*

.029

.030.040.000

DJP PJP IJP

-.059*-.308*

.029

.033.040.000

IJP PJP DJP

.248*

.308*.030.033

.000

.000

equationmodellinginFigure2,whichwasimplementedtorevealtheeffectofPOJonJSwerewithinacceptablevalues[71],[72].The path analysis revealed that POJ hada significant positive effect on JS (std. β:0.507; t: 6.518; p<0.001; R2:25.7) andexplainedaround26%ofthevarianceofJS.Therefore,Hypothesis2wasaccepted,too.

To discover the moderating role ofseafarers' service (SS) period at sea inthe relationship between POJ and JS, thePROCESSmacroplugininSPSS22programwasused[76].Theresultsofthemoderatingrole analysis with the Bootstrap 5000sampleareshowninTable7.

B SE t 95% CILL UL

Constant 3.790 0.031 120.685 3.729 3.852

POJ 0.411*** 0.045 8.994 0.321 0.501

SS 0.007 0.021 0.370 -0.033 0.049

POJ*SS -0.073* 0.029 -0.249 -0.131 -0.015

ModelSummary R2=0.196;F=27.030;p<0.01

ChangeinR-sq. ΔR2=0.015;F=6.246;p<0.05

Table 7. Moderating Effect Analysis

*p<0.05;***p<0.01

Table 4. Means, Standard Deviations and Correlation Coefficients

Values Levene's Test df1 df2 p

1.PJP 1.599 4 330 .174

2.DJP 1.395 4 330 .235

3.IJP 2.064 4 330 .085

There is a moderate and statisticallysignificant relationship among seafarers’meanscoresofJS,POJ,andthreedimensionsofjustice.Meanscoresofthreedimensionsof justicepoint adifferenceamong justiceperceptions of seafarers. The dependentsamples’ one-way analysis of variancewas performed to reveal whether thesedifferenceswerestatisticallysignificantornot. Firstly, Levene’s test, a prerequisiteof one-way analysis of variance, wasconducted to checkhomogeneitybetweenthegroups(Table5).

Accordingly, the dimensions oforganizational justice were homogeneous[α (0.05)<p], and thus the prerequisite ofvariance analysis for these variables wasmet.Afterthedependentsamples’one-wayanalysisofvarianceconfirmedthatthemodelwas statistically significant [α (0.01)>p;F:66.653],binarycomparisonswereappliedtodeterminewhetherthedifferencebetweengroupswassignificant(Table6).

Consequently, the difference betweenseafarers’ mean scores on organizationaljusticeperceptionsubscaleswasstatisticallysignificant. Therefore, Hypothesis 1 wasaccepted.The goodnessof fit indices (χ2/df:2.239; GFI:0.876; CFI:0.932; TLI:0.924;RMSEA:0.061) regarding the structural

**p<0,01

Table 6. Variance Analysis Binary Comparison

*p<0.05

Table 5. Levene’s Test

142

TheresultspresentedinTable7pointsthatmoderating effect of SSperiod is significant(R2=0.196;F=27.030;p<0,01)andtheeffectoftheinteractionterm(POJ*SS)onJSisalsosignificant (B = 0.073; t = -0.249; p <0.05;-0.113<LL95%CI<-0.015;ΔR2=0.015).

Therefore,Hypothesis3wasaccepted.Slopetest was performed to determine whetherPOJ differs from zero from the average ofworking time at sea, a standard deviationfromtheaverageofworkingtime[77],andtheresultsarepresentedinFigure3.

Figure 2. Structural Equation Modeling

Figure 3. Slope Graph of Organizational Justice Perception and Sea Service Interaction


143


It isunderstoodfromFigure3that therelationship between POJ and JS is morepowerfulforseafarerswhoselengthofseaserviceisshorter.

5. Discussion and ConclusionsThe current study tests the effect of

justice perception between seafarers onJS. The results show that the differenceamong seafarers’ mean scores onorganizationaljusticeperceptionsubscalesis statistically significant. Accordingly, thelevel of distributive justice perception ofseafarers(X:3.628)islowerthanperceivedprocedural (X:3.688) and interactionaljustice (X:3.936). This result providessupport for the organizational justiceliterature that suggests individuals fromdifferent contextual circumstances focuson a different criterion to rate justice[78],[79],[80].LikeAmbrose&Schmin[80]claim employees view justice dimensionsdifferently and are apt to perceive onehigherthatservetheneedsoftheindividual.Therefore, the low level of distributivejusticemightbeduetotheperceptionthatsalaries, promotional opportunities andorganizational resources are generallyinsufficient when hidden costs involvedforworkingonboarda ship is considered.This finding of the study suggests thatseafarers perceive equity in the amountof compensation they receive and thusshippingcompaniesneedtofindadelicatebalance between seafarers’ contributionsandcompensation.

Thestudyalso reveals that the levelofperceived interactional justice (X:3.936)is greater than the other two dimensionsof organizational justice. The attributesof the maritime companies may play aconsiderable role in seafarers’ justicejudgement.Shippingfirmsgenerallyoperatein a closed business environment wherepoweranddecisionmaking is centralized,andcommunicationchannelsfollowastricthierarchy. Besides, isolation is an innate

characteristic of the prevalent systemonboardwhichmay lead to a tendency toreduce interpersonal relationships. Thesecharacteristicsoftheworkingenvironmentare well known among sea labour andthusmayhavecreatedanegativebiasandexpectation towards interactional justicewhich seems to be the reason for ratingthe perceived interactional justice higher.In other words, unlike common practice,in the application of related operations,theshipmanagerswithinthescopeof thecurrent research seem to treat seafarerswith dignity, politeness, gentleness andrespect. Thus, seafarers who do not havemanyexpectationsinthisregardmayhavefelt interactional justice more than theotherdimensionsofjustice.

So far, scholars have pointed out thelink between POJ and JS but testing thesimilarlinkwithinthemaritimecontextisneglected. Drawing on this idea, perhapsthe most important benefaction of thecurrent study is that it providesempiricalsupport for the interaction betweenjustice perceptions of seafarers and theirsatisfaction. The path analysis which wasperformed using the structural equationmodelling has revealed that as predictedjustice perception of seafarers positivelyaffects their JS level (std. β:0.507; t:6.518;p<0.001)andexplainedaround26%ofthevariance in JS(R2:25.7).This findingof thestudy is consistent with previous studiesthat found POJ to be positively related toJS [81], [82]. Although such connectionis intensely verified among differentoccupations in the literature, this studyextends prior researches by investigatingthelinkbetweenorganizationaljusticeandsatisfactionforthefirsttimeintheshippingindustry.

Furthermore, the results confirm thatthe length of seafarers’ sea service has amoderating role (B = 0.073; t = -0.249; p<0.05;-0.131<LL95%CI<-0.015)betweenPOJ and JS. Short-tenured seafarers have

144

reported more positive views of fairnessatworkwhichmoderates the relationshipbetweenPOJandJS.Apossibleexplanationfor this result is that seafarers enteringa company may be more responsive tojustice in the work environment whichin turn influence their satisfaction levels.Maybe, it is more important for youngeremployees to have a job and that’s whyseafarerswhohavelessexperiencewiththeorganizationaremorelikelytotoleratetheshippingorganization formakinga justiceviolation. On the other hand, seafarerswho have contributed to the organizationwith their experience and knowledge foryearsmay think that they are not gettingenough compensation for this long-termrelationship.

The findings of the study should bejudgedgivensomeconstraints.Forinstance,thereissomeevidenceintheliteraturethatthe different dimensions of organizationaljustice can have different effects onindividuals’ behaviours. According toCohen-Charash & Spector’s meta-analysis[64], distributive justice is the dominantfactor that impacts satisfaction whereasColquitt and colleagues [83] meta-analysis concluded procedural justice asthe more effective determinant. Futurestudies that investigate which dimensionof organizational justice has a higherimpactonseafarers’jobsatisfactionwouldcontribute to the literature. On the otherhand, there is also some evidence in theliteraturethattheamountoforganizationaljustice demanded by staff from theirorganizations may be influenced by theirnationalculturewhichinturnwouldaffecttheir level of satisfaction. The individualsfrom high power distance culture maydemandlessinteractionaljusticecomparedto those with low power distance sinceit basically requires the cooperation andcommunication between employees andthe administrators. From this point ofview, further studies can be performed

to investigate the effect of culture on therelationship between research variables.Second, the generalization of sampling isarguable because the surveywas realizedin a particular context. Therefore, themoderatingeffectofthelengthofseafarers’serviceatseaontherelationshipbetweenPOJ and JS may be deepened with dataobtainedfromdifferent industriesandthecomparison of different industries willdeepentheunderstandingoftheprocess.

References[1] Dailey, R. C. , & Kirk, D. J. (1992).

Distributive and Procedural JusticeasAntecedentsofJobDissatisfactionand Intent to Turnover. Human Relations,45(3),305–317.

[2] McFarlin, D. B., & Sweeney, P. D.(1992). Distributive and ProceduralJustice as Predictors of Satisfactionwith Personnel and OrganizationalOutcomes. Academy of Management Journal,35(3),626–637.

[3] Cropanzano, R. , & Ambrose, M. L.(2001). Procedural and DistributiveJustice are More Similar Than YouThink: A Monistic Perspective anda Research Agenda. In J. Greenberg& R. Cropanzano (Ed.), Advances in Organizational Justice(pp.119–151).Lexington:NewLexingtonPress.

[4] Oldenburg,M.,Jensen,H.J.,Latza,U.,&Baur,X.(2009).SeafaringStressorsAboard Merchant and PassengerShips.International Journal of Public Health,54(2),96–105.

[5] Oldenburg, M., Baur, X., & Schlaich,C. (2010). Occupational Risks andChallenges of Seafaring. Journal of Occupational Health, 52(5), 249–256.

[6] Carotenuto, A., Molino, I., Fasanaro,A. M., & Amenta, F. (2012).Psychological Stress in Seafarers:A review. International Maritime Health,63(4),188–194.


145


[7] Hystad, S.W., Saus E.R., Sætrevik B.,&Eid J. (2013).Fatigue inSeafarersWorking in the Offshore Oil andGas Re-Supply Industry: Effects ofSafety Climate, Psychosocial WorkEnvironmentandShiftArrangement.Internatonal Maritime Health,64(2),72–79.

[8] Comperatore, C. A., Rivera, P. K., &Kingsley, L. (2005). Enduring TheShipboard Stressor Complex: ASystems Approach. Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine, 76(6Suppl),B108–B118.

[9] Allen, P.,Wadsworth, E.,& Smith, A.(2008).Seafarers’Fatigue:AReviewoftheRecentLiterature.International Maritime Health,59(1–4),81–92.

[10] Cahoon,S.,&Haugstetter,H.(2008).Shipping, Shortages and GenerationY. 8th International Conference on Maritime Training, Communication and Technology (MARTECH) (pp.1-9).Singapore.

[11] Bhattacharya, D. (2015),NonparametricWelfare Analysis forDiscreteChoice.Econometrica,83(2),617–649. https://doi.org/10.3982/ECTA12574.

[12] Ruggunan, S., & Kanengoni, H.(2017). Pursuing a Career at Sea:AnEmpiricalProfileofSouthAfricanCadets and Implications for CareerAwareness. Maritime Policy & Management,44(3),289–303.

[13] Zaar, S., & Hammarstedt, K. (2012).Promotion Campaigns in the Maritime Sector and the Attitude of Young People towards a Career at Sea (MSc Thesis).ChalmersUniversityofTechnology.

[14] Fei, J., & Lu, J. (2014). Analysis ofStudents’ Perceptions of SeafaringCareer in China Based on ArtificialNeural Network and GeneticProgramming. Maritime Policy & Management,42(2),111–126.

[15] Yuen, K. F., Loh, H. S., Zhou, Q., &Wong,Y.D.(2018).DeterminantsofJobSatisfactionandPerformanceofSeafarers.Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 110,1–12.

[16] Efraty,D.,&Sirgy,M.J.(1990).TheEffects of Quality Of Working Life(QWL) on Employee BehavioralResponses. Social Indicators Research,22(1),31–47.

[17] King,A.S.,&Ehrhard,B. J.(1997).Empowerment the Workplace: AComminment Cohosion Exercise.Empowerment in Organizations, 5(3),139-150.

[18] Allan, P., & Loseby, P. H. (1993).No-Layoff Policies and CorporateFinancial Performance. SAM Advanced Management Journal, 58(1),44-49.

[19] Danna, K., & Griffin, R.W. (1999).Health and Well-Being in theWorkplace:AReviewandSynthesisof the Literature. Journal of Management,25(3),357–384.

[20] Chan,K.W.,&Wyatt, T.A. (2007).Quality of Work Life: A Study ofEmployees in Shanghai, China.Asia Pacific Business Review,13(4),501–517.

[21] Kanten, S., & Sadullah, O. (2012).An Empirical Research OnRelationship Quality Of Work LifeAndWork Engagement.Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 62,360–366.

[22] De Jong, B. A., Kroon, D. P., &Schilke, O. (2015). The future oforganizational trust research:a content-analytic synthesis ofscholarly recommendations andreview of recent developments.InRockenbach,B.,vanLange,P.,&Yamagishi, T. (Ed.), Trust in Social Dilemmas(pp.173-194).NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.

146

[23] Lyubomirsky, S., King, L., &Diener,E.(2005).TheBenefitsofFrequentPositive Affect: Does HappinessLead to Success?. Psychological Bulletin,131(6),803–855.

[24]Wang, Y-D. & Yang, C. (2016). HowAppealing are Monetary Rewardsin the Workplace? A Study ofEthical Leadership, Love ofMoney,Happiness,andTurnoverIntention.Social Indicators Research, 129(3),1277-1290.

[25]Di Castro, V.C., Hernandes, J. C,Mendonca, M.E., & Porto, C. C.(2018). Life Satisfaction andPositive and Negative Feelings ofWorkers: A Systematic ReviewProtocol. Systematic Reviews, 7(1),1-6.

[26]Adams, J. S. (1965). Inequity inSocial Exchange. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 2,267–299.

[27]Cropanzano, R. , & Mitchell, M. S.(2005).SocialExchangeTheory:AnInterdisciplinaryReview.Journal of Management,31(6),874-900.

[28]Gouldner, A. (1960). The Normof Reciprocity: A PreliminaryStatement. American Sociological Review,25(2),161–178.

[29]Wayne, S. J., Shore, L. M., Bommer,W. H., & Tetrick, L. E. (2002). TheRoleofFairTreatmentandRewardsin Perceptions of OrganizationalSupport and Leader-MemberExchange. Journal of Applied Psychology,87(3),590–598.

[30] Judge,T.A.,&Colquitt,J.A.(2004).Organizational Justice and Stress:The Mediating Role of Work-Family Conflict. Journal of Applied Psychology,89(3),395–404.

[31]Thibaut, J.W., &Walker, L. (1975).Procedural Justice: A Psychological Analysis. (Hillsdale, N.J., Ed.):LawrenceErlbaumAssoc.

[32] Bies, R. J. (2001). Interactional (In)justice:TheSacredand theProfane.In J. Greenberg & R. Cropanzano(Ed.), Advances in Organizational Justice (pp. 89-118). Stanford, CA:StanfordUniversityPress.

[33] Kwong, J.Y. & Leung, K. (2002).A Moderator of the InteractionEffect of Procedural Justice andOutcome Favourability: Importanceof the Relationship. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes,87(2),278-300.

[34] Mathieu, J.E. & Zajac, D.M. (1990).A Review and Meta-analysis ofthe Antecedents, Correlates andConsequences of OrganizationalCommitment. Psychological Bulletin, 108(2),171-194.

[35] Niehoff, B. P., & Moorman, R. H.(1993). Justice as aMediator of theRelationships Between Methodsof Monitoring and OrganizationalCitizenship Behavior. Academy of Management Journal, 36(3), 527-556.

[36] Skarlicki, D. P., & Latham, G. P.(1997). Leadership Training inOrganizational Justice to IncreaseCitizenshipBehaviorwithinaLaborUnion: A Replication. Personnel Psychology, 50(3),617–633.

[37] Moorman, R.H., Blakely, G.L., &Niehoff, B.P. (1998). Does PerceivedOrganizational Support Mediate theRelationship Between ProceduralJustice and OrganizationalCitizenship Behavior?. Academy of Management Journal, 41(3), 351–357.

[38] Wang,X., Liao, J., Xia,D.&Chang,T.(2010).TheImpactofOrganizationalJustice on Work Performance:Mediating Effects of OrganizationalCommitment and Leader-MemberExchange. International Journal of Manpower, 31(6),660-677.


147


[39] Moon, H. , Kamdar, D., Mayer, D. M., & Takeuchi, R. (2008). Me or We?The Role of Personality and Justiceas Other-Centered Antecedents toInnovative Citizenship BehaviorsWithin Organizations. Journal of Applied Psychology,93(1),84-101.

[40] Young,L.D.(2012).HowtoPromoteInnovative Behavior at Work? TheRole of Justice and Support withinOrganizations. Journal of Creative Behavior,46(3),220–243.

[41] DeConinck, J.B. , & Stilwell, D.C.(2004).IncorporatingOrganizationalJustice, Role States, Pay Satisfactionand Supervisor Satisfaction in aModel of Turnover Intentions.Journal of Business Research, 57(3),25-231.

[42] Loi, R., Ngo H. , & Foley, S. (2006).Linking Employees JusticePerceptions to OrganizationalCommitmentandIntentiontoLeave:The Mediating Role of PerceivedOrganizational Support. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology,79(1),101-120.

[43] Robbins,S.P.(2007).FudamentalsofManagement(6thed.).Tehran:Nil.

[44] Clay-Warner,J.,Reynolds,J.,&RomanP. (2005). Organizational JusticeandJobSatisfaction:ATestofThreeCompeting Models. Social Justice Research,18(4),391-409.

[45] Suliman, A., & Tahir, M. (2007).Links between Justice, Satisfactionand Performance in the Workplace:A Survey in the UAE and ArabicCountries. Journal of Management Development,26(4):294-310.

[46] Fatt, C. K., Khin, E.W.K., & Heng,T. N (2010). The Impact ofOrganizationalJusticeonEmployee’sJob Satisfaction: The MalaysianCompanies Perspectives. American Journal of Economics and Business Administration,2(1),56–63.

[47] Shah, S.A.,Waqas,M. andSaleem,R.(2012). Organizational Justice andJob Satisfaction: The Mediating Roleof Trust in Supervisor. International Journal of Human Sciences,9(1),672-721.

[48] Mete,E.S.,&SökmenA.,(2019).TheMediating Role of OrganizationalCommitment in the OrganizationalJustice’sEffectonJobSatisfactionandTurnover Intention: A Research onAcademicStaff.Gazi İktisat ve İşletme Dergisi,5(3):193-205.

[49] Smith, P. C., Kendall, L. M. , & Hulin,C. L. (1969). The Measurement ofSatisfaction inWorkandRetirement:AStrategy for theStudyofAttitudes.Chicago:RandMcnally.

[50] Karimi, L., Leggat, S. G., Donohue, L.,Farrell, G., & Couper, G. E. (2013).Emotional Rescue: The Role ofEmotionalIntelligenceandEmotionalLabour onWell-Being and Job-StressAmongCommunityNurses.Journal of Advanced Nursing, 70(1),176–186.

[51] Yao,C.,&Huang,P. (2018).EffectsofLeadership Style on Job Satisfactionand Intention to Stay in ShippingIndustry. Journal of Coastal Research, 83,796–801.

[52] Arnold,H.J.,&Feldman,D.C.(1982).A Multivariate Analysis of theDeterminantsofJobTurnover.Journal of Applied Psychology,67(3),350–360.

[53] Tett, R. P., & Meyer, J. P. (1993).Job Satisfaction, OrganizationalCommitment, Turnover Intention,and Turnover: Path Analyses BasedonMeta-Analytic Findings. Personnel Psychology, 46(2),259–293.

[54] Bakhshi, A., Kumar, K., & Rani, E.(2009). Organizational JusticePerceptions as Predictor of JobSatisfaction and OrganizationCommitment.International Journal of Business and Management,4(9),145-154.

148

[55] Johnson, R. E., Chang, C.H. , &Yang, L.Q. (2010). Commitmentand Motivation at Work: TheRelevance of Employee IdentityandRegulatoryFocus.The Academy of Management Review, 35(2),226–245.

[56]Brief, A. P., & Aldag, R. J. (1980).Antecedents of OrganizationalCommitment Among HospitalNurses. Sociology of Work and Occupations,7(2),210–221.

[57] Igbaria,M.,&Guimaraes,T.(1993).Antecedents and Consequences ofJobSatisfactionamongInformationCenter Employees. Journal of Management Information Systems, 9(4),145–174.

[58]Li, K. X., Yin, J., Luo, M., & Wang,J. (2014). Leading factors in jobsatisfaction of Chinese seafarers.International Journal of Shipping and Transport Logistics, 6(6), 680-693.

[59]Slišković, A., & Penezić, Z. (2015).DescriptiveStudyofJobSatisfactionandJobDissatisfactioninaSampleofCroatianSeafarers.International Maritime Health,66(2),97-105.

[60]De Silva, R., Stanton, P., & Stanton,J. (2011). Determinants of IndianSub-continent Officer–seafarerRetentionintheShippingIndustry.Maritime Policy & Management, 38(6),633–644.

[61]Nielsen,M. B., Bergheim, K. & Eid,J. (2013). Relationships BetweenWork Environment Factorsand Workers’ Well-Being in theMaritime Industry. International Maritime Health,64(2),80-88.

[62]Shields, M. A., & Ward, M. (2001).Improving Nurse Retention in theNationalHealthServiceinEngland:The Impact of Job Satisfaction onIntentionstoQuit.Journal of Health Economics, 20(5),677-701.

[63] Davey, J. D., Obst, P. L., & Sheehan,M. C. (2001). Demographic andWorkplace Characteristics WhichAdd to the Prediction of Stress andJob Satisfaction within the PoliceWorkplace. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology,16(1),29-39.

[64] Cohen-Charash, Y.& Spector, P.E. (2001). The Role of Justice inOrganization: A Meta-Analysis.Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes,86(2),278-321.

[65] Greenberg, J., & McCarty, C. (1990).The Interpersonal Aspects ofProceduralJustice:ANewPerspectiveon Pay Fairness. Labor Law Journal, 41(8),580-586.

[66] Witt, L. A., & Nye, L. G. (1992).Gender and the RelationshipBetween Perceived Fairness of Payor Promotion and Job Satisfaction.Journal of Applied Psychology, 77(6),910-917.

[67] Pignata,S.,Winefield,A.H.,Provis,C.,&Boyd,C.M.(2016).ALongitudinalStudy of the Predictors of PerceivedProcedural Justice in AustralianUniversity Staff. Frontiers in Psychology,7,1-14.

[68] Bidarian, S., & Jafari, P. (2012). TheRelationshipBetweenOrganizationalJustice and Organizational Trust.Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences,47,1622–1626.

[69] Niehoff,B.P.,&Moorman,R.H.(1996).ExploringtheRelationshipsBetweenTop Management Behaviors andEmployee Perceptions of Fairness.International Journal of Public Administration,19(6),941–961.

[70] Yıldırım, A., & Yıldırım, D. (2007).Mobbing in the Workplace by PeersandManagers:MobbingExperiencedby Nurses Working in HealthcareFacilities inTurkey and Its Effect onNurses. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 16(8),1444–1453.


149


[71] Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D.W. (1998). Structural EquationModelinginPractice:AReviewandRecommendedTwo-StepApproach.Psychological Bulletin,103(3),411-423.

[72]Hair, J. F. , Black, W. C. , Babin,B. J. , & Anderson, R. E. (2010).Multivariate Data Analysis (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:PrenticeHall.

[73]Fornell, C., & D. F Larcker (1981).Evaluating Structural EquationModels with UnobservableVariables and Measurement Error.Journal of Marketing Research,18(1)39–50.

[74]Chen,G.,Kanfer,R. ,DeShon,R.P. ,Mathieu, J.E. ,&Kozlowski,S.W.J.(2009).TheMotivatingPotentialofTeams:TestandExtensionofCross-LevelModelofMotivationinTeams.Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes,110(1),45–55.

[75]Turunç, Ö. & Çelik, M. (2012) İşTatmini-Kişi-ÖrgütUyumuveAmireGüvenKişi-ÖrgütUyumuİlişkisindeDağıtım Adaletinin DüzenleyiciRolü. İş, Güç Endüstri İlişkileri ve İnsan Kaynakları Dergisi,14(2),57-78.

[76]Hayes, A. F. (2017). Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Approach. (2ndEdition.) New York: GuilfordPublications.

[77]Aiken, L. S. & West, S.G. (1991).Multiple Regression: Testing and Interpreting Interactions, NewburyPark:SagePublications,Inc.

[78]Leventhal,G.S.(1980).WhatShouldBe Done With Equity Theory? InK. J. Gergen, M. S. Greenberg, & R.H. Willis (Eds.), Social Exchange: Advances in Theory and Research (pp.27–55).NewYork:Plenum.

[79] Tyler,T.R. (1996).TheRelationshipofOutcomeandProceduralFairness:How Does Knowing the OutcomeInfluence Judgments about theProcedure?. Social Justice Research, 9(4),311–325.

[80] Ambrose, M. L. & Schminke, M.(2003). Organization Structure asa Moderator of the RelationshipBetween Procedural Justice,Interactional Justice, PerceivedOrganizational Support, andSupervisoryTrust.Journal of Applied Psychology,88(2),295–305.

[81] McFarlin, D. B., & Sweeney, P. D.(1992). Distributive and ProceduralJustice as Predictors of Satisfactionwith Personal and OrganizationalOutcomes. Academy of Management Journal,35(3),626-637.

[82] Bakhshi, A., Kumar, K., & Rani, E.(2009). Organizational JusticePerceptions as Predictor of JobSatisfaction and OrganizationCommitment. International Journal of Business and Management, 4(9),145-154.

[83] Colquitt,J.A.,Conlon,D.E.,Wesson,M. J. , Porter, C.O. L.H. ,&Ng,K. Y.(2001). Justice at the Millennium:A Meta-analytic Review of 25 Yearsof Organizational Justice Research.Journal of Applied Psychology,86(3),425–445.

150

JournalofETAMaritimeScienceOnwuegbuchunametal./JEMS, 2020;8(3):150-160

10.5505/jems.2020.98705

Analysis of Operational Performance of Crude Oil Refining and Petrochemical Jetties

in Nigeria

Donatus. E. ONWUEGBUCHUNAM1, Moses. O. APONJOLOSUN1, Sodiq. O. BUHARI2, Dotun OJO2

1FederalUniversityofTechnology,DepartmentofMaritimeManagementTechnology,Nigeria

2FederalCollegeofFisheriesandMarineTechnology,MaritimeTransportandBusinessManagementDepartment,Nigeria

[email protected]; ORCIDID:https://orcid.org/[email protected];ORCIDID:https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3656-7370

[email protected];ORCIDID:https://orcid.org/[email protected];ORCIDID:https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5763-0546

CorrespondingAuthor:Moses.O.Aponjolosun

ABSTRACT

ThispaperassessedtheperformanceofjettyoperationsinWarriRefiningandPetrochemicalCompany(WRPC).Primarydataforthestudyconsistedofshipturnroundtimes,volumeofcargoandnumberofvesselshandledatthejettiesforyears2004to2018.Thesevariablesserved as key performance assessment criteria. In addition, copies of questionnaireson postulated factors affecting terminal performance were administered to a randomsampleofWRPCstaff.Our findings showed that the jettieswerebeingoperatedat lessthanoptimumlevel.TrendanalysisofthekeyperformanceindicatorsshowedexistenceofcontinuousdeclineinoperationalperformanceofWRPCovertheyearscoveredinthestudy.Significantfactorsaccountingforthisperformanceoutcomewerefoundtoinclude:inadequate berthing facilities, shortage of manpower supply, pipeline vandalisation,inadequate maintenance of jetty facilities and poor documentation process. The studyrecommended deployment of trained workforce to jetty operations, maintenance ofberthing facilities, adequate funding and improved documentation of processes duringjettyoperations.

Keywords

CargoThroughputs,TurnroundTime,ShipVisits,OperationalPerformance,PetroleumProductsJetties.

ORIGINALRESEARCH(AR)Received: 09 April 2020 Accepted: 13 July 2020

To cite this article:Onwuegbuchunam,D.E.,Aponjolosun,M.O.,Buhari,S.O.&Ojo,D.(2020).AnalysisofOperationalPerformanceofCrudeOilRefiningandPetrochemicalJettiesinNigeria.Journal of ETA Maritime Science,8(3),150-160.To link to this article: https://dx.doi.org/10.5505/jems.2020.98705

151


1. IntroductionThe demand for petroleum and

petroleumproductsinNigeriaisincreasingeveryday judging from the populationgrowth at geometric rate. Increase indemand for petroleum products hasnecessitated the need for efficientsupply chain and functional terminal/jetty operations. Efficient and productiveterminal operations are of essence giventhe technological advancement andglobalizationwhichhasgreatlyinfluencedthepatternofproductionandconsumptionof goods [1]. After the discovery of oilin 1956 at Oloibiri, the first shipment ofcrudeoilfromNigeriatoBritainoccurredin 1958. Importation of petroleumproducts was necessitated by growth inNigeria’seconomyandincreaseindemandfor the petroleum products. However,in order to meet the product needs ofcountry,ShellBPbuiltarefineryof38,000barrels per day production in 1965 nearPort Harcourt [2]. Furthermore, rapidgrowth and increased economic activitiesledtotheestablishmentofWarrirefineryand Kaduna refinery in 1978 and 1980respectivelywhile the newPortHarcourtrefinery was completed for operation in1989. However, local refineries startedexperiencing decline in performance intheearly1990’sasaresultofinterferenceby politicians [2]. The refineries werecharacterized by poor governance,poor turnaround time maintenance,vandalisationofpipelinessupplyingcrudetopipelinesandthoseconveyingproductsfrom them; thus, leading to low capacityutilization [2]. The inability of the fourrefineries in Nigeria to meet demand forproducts led to frequent acute shortageof petroleum products. These challengescould be attributed to lack of innovativedrive, shortage of manpower, defectiveoperational process, re-appointment ofretiredstaffascontractstaff,buyingbackof refined products whichwere exported

asrefinedcrudeoilandpaymentofsubsidybyNigeriangovernment[3].

1.1. Problem StatementNigeria’s four refineries have been

operating below installed capacitieswhich have made supply of petroleumproducts to Nigerians (population about200million)insufficientgivenhighenergyconsumptions required by Nigeriawhosepopulationisgrowingrapidly.Theproblemsof refining industry in Nigeria includecorruption, theft of petroleum products,poor maintenance of pipelines and otheroperationalchallenges[4].WarriRefiningand Petrochemical Company (WRPC)which is one of the refineries in Nigeriais also saddled with these operationalchallenges. WRPC has a capacity of125,000 bpd but it has never achievedfull capacityutilization asproductionhasdeclinedsteadilyexceptintheearly1990’sduringwhichtherewasabriefupsurgeinproduction [5]. The collapse of loadingberth 1 and 2 at WRPC out of 4 berthsin 2015 and 2016 respectively was duemainly to these operational challenges. Itisanticipatedthatexcepttheseconstraintsarecontrolledtheyarelikelytonegativelyimpact performance of the refinery.Against this backdrop, this paper seeksto empirically identify significant factorsaffectingoperationalperformanceofWarrirefinery.

1.2. ObjectivesThis study seeks to evaluate trends

in performance of WRPC based on thefollowing operational indicators: cargothroughput, vessel traffic and vesselturnroundtimes.Thestudywillalsoassessthe extent in which WRPC operationalperformance is affected by inadequateberthing facilities, inadequate funding,shortage of manpower supply, poormaintenance of jetty facilities and slowdocumentationprocess.

152

2. Literature Review2.1. Description of Warri Refinery and Petrochemical Company Jetty

Warri refinery was established in1978 with a refining capacity of 100,000barrels per stream day [6]. The refinerywhich is operated by Warri Refining andPetrochemicals Company limited, a NigerianNational Petroleum Corporation subsidiaryis situated at Ekpan,Warri, Delta state. ThemajorproductshandledbyWRPCare crudeoil,PremiumMotorSpirit(PMS),DualPurposeKerosene (DPK), Automobile Graded Oil(AGO), Polypropylene, Carbon Black and soon.However,WRPCjettyhasFourberthsbutamongthesefourberths,itisimportanttonotethatloadingberth1(LB1)andloadingberth2(LB2)goneoutofoperation(collapsed)inyear2016and2017respectively[7].Table1belowgivesadetaileddescriptionandstatusof theberthsasatthetimeofcarryingoutthisstudy.

Berth Length (M)

Draught (M) Status

Cargoberth1(CB1) 105 8 Inoperation

Cargoberth2(CB2) 105 12 Inoperation

Loadingberth1(LB1) 125 5.9 Collapsed

Loadingberth2(LB2) 125 12 Collapsed

Table 1. Description of Characteristics of WRPC Berths

2.2. Overview of Operational Performance Measurement

Performance indicators (or metrics)are used for measurement or assessmentof performance which activity is vital forthegrowthandsuccessofanorganisation[8]. Key Performance Indicators (KPIs)is a set of quantifiable measures whichcould be used as guides for achievementoforganization’s strategicandoperationalgoals [9]. These may differ from oneorganization to other depending on their

priorities[9].Inevaluatingtheoperationalperformanceofanyterminalorjettysuchasoiljetty,fishingjetty,cargojettyandsoon,somekeyperformancemetricsareapplied.Threeperformanceindicatorsinrespecttoterminal or jetty operations are physicalindicators, factor productivity indicators,economic/financialindicators[8].Physicalindicators address issues relating to shipturnround time, berth occupancy rate,cargo throughput and cargo dwell time.Factor productivity indicators measuresvariables relating to labour input andoutput and capital (equipment) requiredfor stevedoring operations. Lastly theeconomicandfinancialindicatorsmeasurethe income and expenditure aspect of theoperation.

There are five types of performanceindicators applicable to operation of oiland gas companies and these are namely:environmental performance indicators,health and safety performance indicators,social responsibility performanceindicators, economic performanceindicators and normalization factors [9].Environmental performance indicatorsshoweffectofoperationontheenvironmentwhich includes hydrocarbon spills to theenvironment, greenhouse gas emissions,the extent of flared and vented gas, thelevelofcontrolleddischargestothewater,biodiversity, and other environmentalfactors. Health and Safety performancemetrics include the rate of occupationalhazards, product-related health risks andworkforce health. Social responsibilityperformance indicators include humanrights, training, and development, labourpractices, resettlement and land right,social investment, non-discriminationand equal right opportunity policy.Economic performance indicatorsinclude transparency of payment, capitalexpenditureandsoon.Lastly,normalizationfactors include terminal, refining andpipeline throughputs, amount of cargoSource: WRPC reports (2018)

Onwuegbuchunametal./JEMS, 2020;8(3):150-160

153


transported and production of crude oilcondensates, natural gas liquids anddrygasinbarrelsofoilequivalent.

3. MethodologyTheprimarydata for this studywere

obtained from copies of questionnairesadministered to a random sample ofWRPCstaff,while thesecondarydataoncargo throughput, ship traffic andvesselturnroundtime from2004to2018wereobtained from WRPC annual reports.The questionnaire was divided into twosections. Section A elicited informationon demographic characteristics ofrespondents. Section B consistedof questions related to the effect ofmanpower, pipeline vandalization,documentationproceduresandfundingonoperationalperformanceofWRPC.Afive-pointLikertscalewasusedas theratingresponseformatandthiswasspecifiedasfollows:stronglyagree,agree,undecided,disagree and strongly disagree. Onehundred copies of questionnaire wereadministered to staff of WRPC in ninedepartments. These departments areAccounts,MarineLogistics,Maintenance,Operations, Electrical, Right of Way,Human Resources, Safety and Sales.Eightycopiesofquestionnairesreturnedwere completely filled. We applied testof proportions and statistical trends toanalysethedatadiscussed.

3.1. One Sample Proportions-TestThis will be employed to test for

significantdifferencesifany,intheopinionofrespondentsregardingsomequestions.Testofproportioncanbeusedtotesttheopinionofrespondentsonfactorsaffectingperformance of jetties. For example, totest the null hypothesis that operationalperformanceofthe jetties isnotaffectedby inadequate berthing facilities, we setthe null : 0.5oH P ≠

i.e. proportion ofrespondents who agree, is not equal to

0.5 (or 50% of the sample), against thealternative hypothesis: 1 : 0.5H P =

i.e.

the proportion who agreed is at least

50%.Thecategoricaldataobtainedfromcopies of questionnaires administeredwere recoded tomake them suitable forcalculating test of proportions. Thus,scores from 1 to 3 were coded as 0 torepresent ‘disagree’ while scores 4 to 5werecodedas1torepresent‘agree’.TheZ-statistics for one sample

populationproportioniscalculatedthus:

P=0,5isthehypothesizedproportion.P � is calculated from the sample andq=1-p Wherenissamplesizefrompopulationofrespondents.Criticalregion:Z<Zα/2andZ<-Zα/2(Foratwo-tailedtest)Decision:RejectH0ifZ>1,96orZ<-1,96orifp-value<0,05The sample size n of the populationunder study is 80. This was made uppersonnelworkinginWPRC.

3.2. The Linear Trend ModelThe linear model is represented by

theequationasshown:

(1)

(2)

WhereYt: Value of the dependent variable Y (e.g.Volumeofcargothroughput)duringperiodt.t: ithunitoftime(years2004-2018).εt: Random movement unexplained by thetrendvariableduringperiodt.

154

The trend analysis of cargo, vesselthroughputs and turnround times wereconducted to assess the performance ofthejettiesduringtheobservationalperiod.In otherwords,we sought to find out thedirectionof jettyperformance(upwardordownward)duringthestudyperiod.

4. Data Presentation and Analyses4.1. Analysis of WRPC Operational Performance

Thedescriptionofoperationalactivitiesin the jetties under study for the periodbetween 2004 and 2018 is captured inTable2usingtwoindicators.Cargovolumeand number of vessels handled are bothindicators of output. For the period, onaverage about 8 billion metric tonnes ofcargoand341vesselswerehandledatthejetties. Based onTable 2,we note that onaverage vessels that called for service atthejettyspent46daysbeforeleavingjettyupon completion of ship operation. Shipturn round time is an indicator of serviceand represents in this case the qualityof service received by calling vessels. Itshouldbenotedthatthevaluesofstandarddeviationsarehighineachofthevariablesexamined.

The trend in cargo throughputs (madeup loadedanddischarged tonnage) in thejettiesduringthestudyperiodisshowninFigure1.Theslopeofthegraphisnegative

Variable Mean Std. Dev. Min Max

cargovolume(000,m/t) 8,209,240 2187418 3,291,000 10,800,000

vesseltraffic(count) 341 67.424 192 409

shipturnroundtime(days) 46 10.479 33 66

Table 2. Descriptive Statistics: Operational Data of Warri Refining and Petrochemical Company (2004 – 2018)

Source: Authors, based on field work, (2019)

withavalueof-380.21(R2=60.4%).Thus,it can be stated that in terms of output,performance of the jetties declined in theperiod. The same can be stated for thevesselthroughput.SeeFigure2.Thetrendin vessel traffic also declined consideringthe negative slope of value of 12.02 (R2 =63.6%).

Considering ship turnround timeswhich is a measure of performance ofquality of service rendered to the vesselsthat called for service at the jetties, wenoticeamarkedincrementinaveragetimespentbythevessels.Acarefulobservationof the figures shows that in years 2004-2005,therewasaverageturnroundtimeof44days,whileinyears2006to2008,shipsspentaverageof33days.Similarly,averageturnroundtimeofvesselspeakedto44,56and 66 days for years 2009-2014, 2015-2016and2017-2018, respectively.Figure3indicatesthattherewaspositiveslope(ofvalue1.88andR2=64.3)inthetrendofshipturnround time over time. This outcomeisanindicationofpoorperformancesinceobviouslyvessels thatcalled forserviceatthejettiesexperienceddelays.

So far, the analyses of secondary datain the study showed the following: poorperformance evidenced in declining levelofcargo,vesselthroughputsandincreasedturnround times. The opinion of thepersonnel in these jettieswas sought and


155


Figure 1.Figure 1. Trends in Cargo Throughputs Handled in Warri Refinery Company Jetties (2004 -2018)

Figure 2.Figure 2. Trends in Vessel traffic (counts) Over the Study Period

Figure 3.Figure 3. Trends in Turnround Times of Vessels at the JettiesTrends in Turnround Times of Vessels at the Jetties

156

thefindingsaresummarizedinTable3.Thefollowing factors affecting performancewere examined: cargo handlingfacilities, funding, manpower resources,vandalizationofpipelinesfeedingthejetties,jetty maintenance, and documentationprocedures.Fromthetable,themeanscoreof the rating response on each factor isgreaterthan2.5(themeanof5onaLikertscaleof1 to5continuums).Thisoutcomeimpliesthatthesefactorscanbeconsideredto collectively affect performance of jettyoperation.Therespondents’opiniononthelevel of performance at the jettywas alsosought and Table 3 shows their responsewithameanscoreof3.75.

To address the hypotheses implied inthisstudy,weemployedtestofproportionsby calculating the proportion of

Constructs Obs. Mean Std. Dev. Min Max

Inadequateberthingfacilities 80 3.70 1.43 1 5

Inadequatefunding 80 3.94 1.45 1 5

Inadequatesupplyofmanpower 80 4.00 1.21 1 5

Pipelinevandalisation 80 3.68 1.34 1 5

Lackofmaintenanceofjettyfacilities 80 3.69 1.22 1 5

Poordocumentation 80 3.53 1.47 1 5

Rating on perceived level of performance by the Respondents

WRPChasnotperformedoptimally 80 3.75 1.33 1 5

Table 3. Descriptive Statistics: Determinants of Operational Performance in WRPC

Source: Authors

Table 4. Variable/Construct Examined

Item Nos. Factors Affecting Jetty Performance Po P Std. Error. Z-cal. Z-tab. Decision:

Reject Ho

i. Inadequateberthingfacilities 0.5 0.70 0.05 3.58 1.96 Yes

ii. Inadequatefunding 0.5 0.73 0.05 4.02 1.96 Yes

iii. Inadequatesupplyofmanpower 0.5 0.37 0.05 5.14 1.96 Yes

iv. Pipelinevandalization 0.5 0.73 0.05 4.02 1.96 Yes

v. Lackofmaintenanceofjettyfacilities 0.5 0.75 0.05 4.47 1.96 Yes

vi. Poordocumentation 0.5 0.68 0.05 3.13 1.96 Yes

Response on Performance Level

vii. WRPChasnotperformedoptimally 0.5 0.73 0.05 4.02 2.96 Yes

Source: Authors own calculation

respondentswhoagreedversusthosewhodisagreedwith respect todeterminantsofperformance and level of performance atthejetties.InTable4,wepresenttheresultsofinferentialstatisticsandtheirsignificantvalues.Theresultsshowthatthefollowingsignificantfactorsaffectjettyperformance:inadequate berthing facilities, funding,and manpower constraints. Others arepipeline vandalization, poor maintenanceof jetty facilities and poor documentationprocesses. These factors were statisticallysignificant given that the calculated Zstatistic(Z-cal.)ineachcaseisgreaterthanthecalculatedZstatistic(Z-tab.).FromtheoutputinTable4,significantproportionoftherespondentsalsoagreed that the levelperformanceof jettyoperationwasbelowoptimumduringtheperiod.


157


4.2. Discussion of FindingsWithin the framework of the

methodology adopted for this study, wesought to assess the level of operationalperformanceinWRPCjetties.Theindicatorsofoutputatthejettieswereobtainedfromthe volumeof cargo throughputs and thenumber of vessels handled at the jettiesduring the study period. It was deducedfromthetrendanalysesoftheseindicatorsthat performance decreased. The trendinturnroundtime,whichgives indicationof quality of service received by callingvesselsontheaverageincreased-meaningthat calling vessels experienced delaysduring the period under observation.These findings are not surprisinggiven that the respondents stated thatperformance level was not optimal.Significant majority also stated that theobserved sub-optimal performance wasduetoconstraintsrelatedtothefollowing:funding, manpower, documentation andavailablefacilitiesandtheirmaintenance.

However, it should be expected thatgiven the consistent reduction in volumeof cargo handled and vessels serviced,somefacilitiesshouldhavebeenavailableor idle. The possible explanation toinadequate facilities (as reported) maybe that due funding, vandalization andpoor facilities maintenance, the quantityand quality of available facilities werenegatively affected. It is apparent fromthe findings that efforts should be madeto improve jetty performance to improveservice tovesselsand increase cargoandvessel throughputs and hence improverevenue earnings. In addition, jettiesprovide complimentary service to portssincetheiroperationsreducedemandforservicepressuresevident inconventionalports.

5. Conclusion and RecommendationsThe findings from this study showed

that shortage of manpower, inadequate

berthing facilities, poor documentationprocesses, pipeline vandalization andinadequate funding significantly affectedthe operational performance of WRPC.The trend analysis showed a downwardtrend in cargo throughput and vesseltraffic while upward trendwas observedin the turnround times of calling vessels.Inrespecttocargothroughputandvesseltraffic this downward trend implieda continuous decline in operationalperformance of WRPC while the upwardtrend inrespect tovessel turnroundtimemeansincreaseintimespentbyvesselsatWRPCjettywhichisanindicationofpoorservicedelivery.

The study made the followingrecommendationsasfollow;i. There is need to improve manpower

resources through adequate trainingthat will enhance their performance.It must be noted that a well-trainedwork force is essential for effectiveand efficient performance of anyorganization.

ii. There is need to improve berthingfacilities and introduce some changesinthemaintenancemanagementpolicysuchasthepreventiveandturnaroundmaintenanceofthefacilities.

iii.WRPCshouldbewellfundedandhavemechanisms in place that will ensurethat funds provided are spent for thepurposewhichtheyaremeantfor.

iv. Documentation procedures shouldbe enhanced especially throughdeployment of Information,Communication and Technology (ICT)facilities.

References[1] Madueke, U. A. (2013). Measuring

and Benchmarking Efficiency andProductivity Levels of Liquid BulkTerminalOperationsUsingaDEAandOEEApproach(MScThesis).ErasmusUniversityRotterdam.

158

[2] Ogbuigwe, A. (2018). Refining inNigeria: History, Challenges andProspects. Applied PetrochemicalResearch, 8, 181-192. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13203-018-0211-z

[3] Igboanugo, A. C., Garba, O. M. &Okafor, T. I. (2016). A FactorialStudy of Corporate Performance ofNigerian Refineries. Nigerian Journalof Technology, 35 (1), 71-79. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/njt.v35i1.12

[4] Nwosu,E.(2018).EnergyMixReport.Retrieved January 15, 2020, fromhttps://www.energymixreport .com/nigerian-refineries-challenges-privatization-option/

[5] Bureau of Public Enterprises (2018).Warri Refining PetrochemicalsCompany Limited. RetrievedSeptember 10, 2019, from https://bpe.gov.ng/warri-petrochemicals-company

[6] Department of Petroleum Resources(2019). Petroleum Refineries andPetrochemicals. Retrieved December05, 2019, from https://www.dpr.gov.ng/downstream/refinery/

[7] Warri Refining and PetrochemicalCompany (WRPC) Reports (2018).h t t p s : / / nnp c g roup . c om/a f s /Documents/2018%20Audited%20Financial%20Statements/WRPC%202018%20SIGNED%20FS.pdf

[8] Sarwar, N. (2013). Time-Related KeyPerformance Indicators and PortPerformance: A Review of Theory& Practice (MSc Thesis). Faculty ofTechnology and Maritime Sciences,VestfoldUniversityCollege,Norway

[9] Pedraza, J. M. (2015). What arekey the KPIs for the gas processingindustry. Retrieved March 15, 2020,from https://www.researchgate.net/post/what_are_the_KPIs_for_the_-gas_processing_industry


159


SECTION A: Respondent Profile

Pleaseticktheappropriateoptionwhereapplicable.

1.Sex Male[]Female[]

2.Maritalstatus Single[]Married[]Divorced[]Others[]

3.Educationalqualification SSCE[]OND/NCE[]HND/BSC[]MSC[]OTHERS[]

4.Department

Accounts[]MarineLogistics[]Maintenance[]Operations[]Electrical[]Rightofway[]HumanResources[]HealthandSafety[]Sales[]

5.Currentposition:

6.Workexperience 0-5[]6-19[]11-15[]6-20[]21andabove[]

SECTION B: Please tick the appropriate option that best suits your answer in respect to the operational performance of Warri Refining and Petrochemical Company (WRPC) in the table below.KEY: SA- Strongly Agree A- Agree U- Undecided D- Disagree SD- Strongly Disagree

RespondentviewonWRPCoperationalperformance

S/N STATEMENT SA A U D SD

1 WRPCJettyishasnotperformedoptimally.

2.Inadequatesupplyofmanpowerhasnegativelyaffectedoperationalperformance

3

Pipelineleaksasaresultvandalisationcauseddelaysincargo/shiploadinganddischargeoperationsWRPC

4Lackofmaintenanceofjetty'sfacilitieshasaffectedperformanceofWRPC

5Inadequateberthingfacilitieshasaffectedoperationaloutputofthejetties

6Documentationproceduresatthejettieshaveaffectedoperationaloutputs.

7Operationsatthejettieshavebeenhamperedbyinsufficientfunding.

Appendix 1: Sample Questionnaire Used for the Study

160

Appendix 2: Data on WRPC’s operational performance indicators (2004-2018)

Year Cargo throughput (Metric tons)

Average Vessel Turnround time

(days)

Vessel Traffic (counts)

2004 8,947,500 44 367

2005 9,810,900 44 380

2006 10,758,700 33 409

2007 9,174,000 33 387

2008 9,968,300 33 396

2009 8,843,700 44 373

2010 8,359,200 44 357

2011 9,625,400 44 378

2012 8,905,000 44 364

2013 8,240,300 44 339

2014 9,584,800 44 384

2015 7,473,800 56 322

2016 6,528,000 56 249

2017 3,628,000 66 216

2018 3,291,000 66 192

Source: Field study, 2019


161


ThisPageIntentionallyLeftBlank

162

JournalofETAMaritimeScienceFidanetal./JEMS, 2020;8(3):162-176

10.5505/jems.2020.31932

Gender Discrimination Perception among Maritime Students in Turkey

Volkan FİDAN, Esin GÜNAY, Gamze AKPINAR, Can ATACAN

EgeUniversity,UrlaMaritimeVocationalSchool,[email protected]; ORCIDID:https://orcid.org/[email protected];ORCIDID:https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3851-0108

[email protected];ORCIDID:https://orcid.org/[email protected];ORCIDID:https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4490-7566

CorrespondingAuthor:VolkanFIDAN

ABSTRACT

Gender discrimination is a controversial issue that is being debated around theworld,independently the level of development of countries. This discrimination is tried to bepreventedbylegalregulations.However,itisapracticeproblemratherthanlawinbusinesslife.Themaritimesectorisoneofthesectorsconsideredtobemoreprevalentinstereotypesof gender roles. It is thought that this discrimination is appliedmore in occupationalgroupsthatrequirephysicalforce.ItwasaimedtodeterminetheperceptionsofassociatedegreestudentsinmaritimeprogrammesaboutgenderdiscriminationrelatedtomaritimeprofessionatpublicuniversitiesacrossTurkey.The result of the study reveals that the perception of gender discrimination is higheramongfemalestudentsthanmale.EspeciallyUnderwaterTechnologystudents’perceptionofgenderdiscriminationishigherthanMaritimeTransportandManagement,andYachtMasterstudents.Itprovesthatwomencannotfindanyjobintheindustrialdivingsectordue to restrictions of Turkish Labor Law although they have education in UnderwaterTechnologyprogrammes.

Keywords

GenderDiscrimination,MaritimeProfession,PerceptionofMaritimeStudents.

ORIGINALRESEARCH(AR)Received: 26 June 2020 Accepted: 14 September 2020

To cite this article: Fidan,V., Günay, E., Akpınar, G. & Atacan C. (2020). Gender Discrimination Perception amongMaritimeStudentsinTurkey.Journal of ETA Maritime Science,8(3),162-176.To link to this article: https://dx.doi.org/10.5505/jems.2020.31932

1. IntroductionLiterally, “equality” is the right of

differentgroupsofpeople tobe subjectedto similar social positions and practices.Gender discrimination is defined as asituation where people who are equal inquality are treated differently dependingontheirgenderonly[1].

Therolesandresponsibilitiesexpected

from individuals born and equippedwith different genetic, physiological, andbiological features, are expressed as theconcept of gender. Although judgmentsabouttheimportanceattributedtogenderdiscrimination vary in different societiesat different times, it is seen that thereare different attitudes according to thegenderoftheindividualsintermsofusing

163


opportunities, benefiting resources, andaccessingservices[2].Thisconcept,whichwe encounter in many areas of society,is also one of the most important issuesof the labor markets. An important partof the labor force, which forms the basisof development and economic growth, isexposedtotheissueofdiscriminationbasedon gender and this causes the economy toloseitsabilitytoadapttochange[3].

Throughout history, women, like men,havebeeninvolvedinworkinglifeinorderto contribute to the family and nationaleconomy.Despitethedifficultiesandgenderdiscrimination they faced in business life,theytriedtoacquiretheirownpositionandtitleineveryfieldoflife.

It is undeniable fact that deep legalchanges are needed to guaranteewomen'srights in theworld. Discrimination againstwomeninsocialandlegalnormscontinuesinmany countries.As of 2014, 143of 195countrieshaverecognizedequalitybetweenwomenandmen,but52othercountrieshavenottakeanystepsinthisregard.Therehasbeengenderdiscriminationintheeconomicand political sectors over the past decade,andwomenearn24%lessthanmenintheglobal job market [4]. The gender barrierdenies the potential of many women interms of opportunities and empowerment,both in current and business life. Genderequality and women's empowerment canbe described as the basic dimensions ofhuman development. Development andimprovement activities involving half ofhumanity and without women are notuniversal [5]. World Economic Forumfounder Klaus SCHWAB emphasized thatsocieties, where women are ignored, willlosetheirtalents,ideas,andperspectivesfornewopportunitiesagainstglobalchallenges.Hesaysthatthereisarelativegapbetweenwomenandmenareinthefieldsofhealth,education, economy, and politics and heemphasizes that the integration of womenintothetalentpoolintheinnovativecapacity

ofcountriesshouldbemadeimperative[6].Gender discrimination remains one of

thebiggestobstaclestosocialdevelopment.Anotherdangerousaspectofdiscriminationis that negativity in the quality of socialcohesioncanalsoslowhumandevelopment[7].

According to the Global Gender GapReport 2020 of World Economic ForumIceland is the top performer country ingenderdiscriminationandTurkeyisrankedat the 130 of 149 [8]. The report providesdatathatitwouldtake108yearsforwomento have equal rights with men and 202yearsformentohaveequalpay.TurkeyasamemberofOECD,drawsachartthatfallsfarbehind the OECD countries also. Women'slabor force participation rate was 32.8%intheOECD'sreport forthe lastquarterof2018,whilethatofmenwas69.9%[9].Thisratioreveals itsplace intheworking lifeofwomeninTurkey.

TurkStat 2017 data, which includeslabor force participation rates based oneducational status in Turkey, shows thatwomenaremorelikelytojointhelaborforceas education levels rise. The labour forceparticipation rates are as follows: illiteratewomen %15.9 high educated women%27.7highschoolgraduatewomen%34.3,vocationalortechnicalhighschoolgraduatewomen %42.9, higher education %72.7.According to the results of the householdlabourforcesurvey;in2017,theproportionof men employed in Turkey aged 15 andabove was 65.6%, while the proportion ofwomenwas28.9%[10].

In today's working life, there arestereotyped prejudgements aboutgender in some occupational groups.The maritime sector is also a gender-discriminated occupational group.The place of female seafarers among1.25 million sailors worldwidedoes not exceed 1-2 %. In addition,women's participation in the maritimetransportation sector is 17-18% [11].

164

AccordingtodatafromtheT.R.MinistryofTransport and Infrastructure May 2017,the proportion of female officers in thesectoris2%.ThisdataisshownbelowinTable1[12].

sector isseenasan invasionbymen[14].However, women's performance in themaritime sector should not be measuredbytheirgender.

Prejudiceandattitudestowardsgenderdiscrimination are not limited only to thereactionof family andemployers.Articlesstated in labor law like“It is forbiddentoemploymen under eighteen years of ageandwomenofallages inundergroundorunderwaterworkssuchasmineandcablelaying,sewerageandtunnelconstruction”completely abolishes the employmentof women divers. Women divers whoare allowed to receive training in theunderwater sector are prevented fromworkinginthesectorbythisregulation.

International Maritime Organization(IMO)nominatedtheyearof2019as“TheYear of Maritime Women & IncreasingAwareness of Maritime Women”.International Labor Organization (ILO)and the International TransportWorkers’Federation (ITF) put regulating rulesagainst gender discrimination as theInternational Maritime Organization.These non-governmental organizationsstrive tobreak the taboo thatmaritime isa male-dominated sector. Despite thesepositiveefforts,womenseafarersconsistof1.2millionseafarerspopulation[15].

It can be stated that genderedapproaches have been adopted in themaritime sector in the world and inTurkey. This study is based on the ideathat there are stereotypes of genderedattitudes in industrial divers, shipofficers, and yacht master professions.Inthiscontext, it isaimedtoidentifytheperceptions of gender discriminationin the maritime profession of associatedegree studentswho are studying in thefieldsofUnderwaterTechnology,MaritimeTransportation and Management, andYacht Master Programs in Turkey. Somestudies on gender discrimination andtheirresultsareshownbelowinTable2.

Rank Women Officers

Total Officers(Women +

Men)

OceangoingWatchkeepingOfficer

141 2813

OceangoingChiefOfficer 48 1886

OceangoingMaster 31 3423

OceangoingWatchkeepingEngineer

26 1530

OceangoingFirstEngineer 1 937

OceangoingChiefEngineer 7 1886

Total 254 12475

Table 1. Licenced Turkish Women Officers on Maritime Sector

Source: [12].

In addition, according to the Food andAgriculture Organization (FAO) data, theemploymentparticipationrateofwomeninfisheriesandaquacultureareasisonly14%in 2014. Despite the new arrangementsintended to improve the existing situation,womenarestillexcludedfrommainstreammaritimeactivitiesandmanycountriesstillpursuegender-blindmaritimepolicies[13].

Asintheworld,womenareaminorityinthemaritimesector inTurkey.Thismakesitnecessaryforwomentomakemoreefforttoget themselves involved in the industry.Effortstoestablishwomen'sidentityinthesector are not much supported by familymembers and employers. The entry ofwomen into the men-dominated maritime

Fidanetal./JEMS, 2020;8(3):162-176

165


Authors Researches Aim of Researches Outcomes

SanchezveBrock(1996)[16]

OutcomesOfPerceivedDiscriminationAmongHispanicEmployees:IsDiversityManagementALuxuryOrANecessity?

Investigatingtheeffectofdiscriminationperceptiononemployeeproduction

Theperceptionofdiscriminationaffectsemployeesaboveandbeyondotherfactorscausingworkstressandaffectstheproductionofemployees.

Guteketal.(1996)[17]

Reactionstoperceivedsexdiscrimination

Toinvestigatetherelevanceofperceiveddiscriminationinbusinessandorganizationallifetoindividuality

Whileworkersperceivedrelativelylessdiscrimination,womenperceivedmorediscriminationagainstthemthanmen,andwhenthetwosexesweredealtwithatthesametime,itwasdeterminedthatwomenwerediscriminatedagainstmorethanmen

Brickman(2008)[18]

MaritimeEducationAndTrainingofWomen:TheirImpactOnTheProgramAtTheUnitedStatesMerchantMarineAcademy

ToinvestigatechangesinmaritimeeducationandtrainingfollowingtheinclusionofwomenasstudentsintheMaritimeAcademy

ChangesinmaritimeeducationandtraininghavebeenachievedfollowingtheinclusionofwomenasstudentsintheMaritimeAcademy.

Onay(2009)[19]

TheConsequencesOfPerceivedGenderDiscriminationAndAnEmpiricalResearchRelatedWithTheTopic

Tobeabletoidentifytherelationshipbetweenvariablesthathelptoidentifytheconceptofsexdiscriminationinindividuals

Femaleemployeesperceivediscriminationmorethanmen.Inaddition,genderdiscriminationamongemployeesaffectstheirorganizationalcommitmentandincreasesemployees'intentiontoquit.

Arlı(2013)[20]

GenderSegregationandGenderBiasPerceivedinMarineTourism:AResearchontheStudentsofKaramürselVocationalHigherSchool

Toidentifywhatistheperceptionofgenderdiscriminationandgenderbiasamonguniversitystudentsinmaritimetourismeducation

Itwasdeterminedthattherewasastatisticallysignificantdifferencebetweenfemaleandmalestudents'perceptionsofoccupationalsexdiscriminationandprejudiceagainstwomen.Itwasalsodeterminedthatfemalestudentswereawareofthegenderdiscriminationappliedtowomeninthisarea

Nas(2014)[21]AStudyOnShortHistoricalProcessOfProfessionalTurkishWomenSeafarers

ToexplaintheprocessfromtheadmissionofTurkishwomentomaritimeeducationinstitutionstotheprofessionalcareerstheyreachtoday.

Theproportionoffemaleseamencandidatesinmaritimetraininginstitutionswasfoundtobe5%ofthetotalstudentquotaoftheseinstitutions.Whilethisproportionineducationalinstitutionshasbeenmaintained,veryfewofthefemalesailorsworkingonshipshaveachievedthehigh-levelqualificationsofthemaritimeprofession.

Cömert(2014)[22]

ThoughtsaboutTheirSectoralWorkingAreasandSexDiscriminationinEmploymentbyStudentsWhoAreTakingTourismTraining

Todeterminethethoughtsabouttheirsectoralworkingareas,whethergenderfactoraffectsthesepreferences,andstudents'thoughtsongenderfactorinrecruitmentandpromotionprocessesfromtourismsector.

Thedepartmentwheremaleemployeeswanttoworkthemostistheservice(32.5%)andthedepartmentwherefemaleemployeeswanttoworkthemostisthehousekeepingservice(15.9%).Theperceptionthatsomejobsareconsideredwomen'sworkandsomejobsareconsideredmen'sworkissupported.

Table 2. Previous Studies on Gender Discrimination

./..

166

Authors Researches Aim of Researches Outcomes

Davras&Davras(2015)[23]

ThoughtsaboutsexdiscriminationintourismsectorbystudentswhoareinGastronomyandCulinaryProgram

Theaimofthisstudywastoidentifythestudents’thoughtsongenderdiscriminationintherecruitmentandpromotionprocessesinthekitchen.

Studentsstatedthatthemostgenderdiscriminationwasinpromotionandrecruitment,whiletheleastwasinthesalary.Femalestudents'perceptionsofgenderdiscriminationwerehigherthanmalestudents'

NemlioğluıKoca(2015)[24]

ThePerceptionofGenderDiscriminationAndPrejudiceinMaritime:AResearchontheStudentsofBarbarosMaritimeSchool

Genderdiscriminationinmaritimeeducationandstudents'perceptionsofbiasweretriedtobedetermined.

Astatisticallysignificantrelationshipbetweengenderandgenderdiscriminationandprejudicehasbeenrevealed.Accordingly,theresultisthatthegenderofthestudentsinfluencestheirthoughtsongenderdiscriminationandprejudice.Itisrevealedthatthereisadirectlyproportionalrelationshipbetweengenderdiscriminationandprejudice,andthatgenderdiscriminationcanalsobeeliminatedbyeliminatingprejudices

Özcanetal.(2017)[25]

AResearchAboutPredictiononGenderDiscriminationRelatedtoEngineering

Genderperceptionsandprejudicesforseniorstudentsinindustrialengineeringandengineeringprofessionareexamined.

StudentsfoundIndustrialEngineeringappropriateintermsoftheirgender.Whilestudents'perceptionofmen'sprofessionasanengineeringprofessiondifferedsignificantlybygender,itdidnotdifferbyotherdemographics.Prejudicesregardinggenderdiscriminationintheengineeringprofessiondifferonlybytheirgender.

Table 2. Previous Studies on Gender Discrimination (Cont')

2. Method2.1. The Goal of the Present Research

Theaimofthestudyistodeterminetheperceptionsofgenderdiscriminationinthemaritime profession of associate degreestudentswhoarestudyinginthemaritimefield (underwater technology, maritimetransportationandmanagement,andyachtmaster)whichhavenotyetbeenintroducedinto their working lives. In addition,the findings on gender discriminationaccording to the profile variables of thestudents and the existence and reasonsof occupational sex discrimination in

the maritime profession were tried to bedetermined.

2.2. Hypothesis (1) Students' perceptions of gender

discriminationdifferintermsofprofileforbulletedlists.• “gender”.• “educationprogramme”.• “classlevel”.• “regionwheretheirfamilylived”.• “familyeducationlevel”.• “familyincomelevel”.• “whetherthereisarelativeinthesector”.

Source: Created by author

Fidanetal./JEMS, 2020;8(3):162-176

167


Source: Created by the authors

2.3. Population and Sample of the Research

The population and sample of researchareindicatedbelowinTable3.Indeterminingthe population of the research, it wascalculated by taking twice the 2018 quotaof the institutions providing underwatertechnology, marine transportation andmanagement, and yacht master associatedegree education in Turkey. However, thenumber of active students in schools arebelowthespecifiedsetofpopulation(quotas).

Table 3. Population and Sample of The Research

2.4. InstrumentsThe first part of the questionnaire

involves students’ demographiccharacteristics: gender, educationprogramme, class level, region wheretheir family lived, family education level,family income level, andwhether there isarelativeinthesector.10itemsofgenderdiscrimination perception have been usedwith the permission of Prof. Sanchez on18 April 2018 and developed by Sanchez

STATE UNIVERSITIES IN TURKEY PROVIDING EDUCATION IN THE FIELD OF UNDERWATER TECHNOLOGY PROGRAM POPULATION SAMPLE

EGEUNIVERSITY-(İZMİR)UrlaMaritimeVocationalSchool 100 51

İSTANBULUNIVERSITY-CERRAHPAŞAVocationalSchoolofTechnicalSciences 60 19

İSKENDERUNTECHNICALUNIVERSITY-(HATAY)MaritimeVocationalSchool 60 16

ÇUKUROVAUNIVERSITY-(ADANA)YumurtalıkVocationalSchool 50 5

SİNOPUNIVERSITYVocationalSchool 60 14

RECEPTAYYİPERDOĞANUNIVERSITY-(RİZE)VocationalSchoolofTechnicalSciences 70 34

STATE UNIVERSITIES IN TURKEY PROVIDING EDUCATION IN THE FIELD OF MARITIME TRANSPORTATION AND MANAGEMENT PROGRAM POPULATION SAMPLE

EGEUNIVERSITY-(İZMİR)UrlaMaritimeVocationalSchool 120 92

YALOVAUNIVERSITY-YalovaVocationalSchool 120 71

MERSİNUNIVERSITY-MaritimeVocationalSchool 110 -

KOCAELİUNIVERSITY-KaramürselVocationalSchool 160 71

YALOVAUNIVERSITY-YalovaVocationalSchool(EveningEdu.) 70 -

ORDUUNIVERSITY-FatsaVocationalSchool 120 46

GİRESUNUNIVERSITY-VocationalSchoolofTechnicalSciences 40 10

MERSİNUNIVERSITY-MaritimeVocationalSchool(EveningEdu.) 70 -

GALATASARAYUNIVERSITY-(İSTANBUL)VocationalSchool(EveningEdu.) 50 25

STATE UNIVERSITIES PROVIDING TRAINING IN THE FIELD OF YACHT MASTER PROGRAM POPULATION SAMPLE

MUĞLASITKIKOÇMANUNIVERSITY-BodrumMaritimeVocationalSchool 60 19

Total 1320 402

168

andBrock's(1996)andGuteketal.(1996).Inthepresentstudy,thequestionnaire’soverallCronbach’s internal consistency reliabilityestimateis0.850(n=402)(r≥0.70).

2.5. AnalysesDatacollectedbythequestionnairewere

analysedwithSPSS25.0program.• Frequency analyses of the responses ofthe students to the questions aimed atrevealing their demographic characteristicswere carried out. Also, skewness andkurtosis values of these variables wereused todeterminewhether thedistributionof variables were parametric or not. Forkurtosisandskewnessvalues, it isassumedtobeanormaldistributionwhenitis-1.5to+1.5[26].

• ANOVA test has been used in theparametric variables of the field ofeducation programme, regionwhere theirfamily lived, family education level, andfamily income level.MannWhitneyU testwasusedinthenonparametricvariablesofgender,classlevel,andwhethertherewasarelativeinthesector.• ‘e²’ (eta-squared) value was used formeasuring the effect size of significantdifferences inANOVA tests. The effect sizewas small if e² value is smaller than 0.01,medium if e² value between 0.01-0.059,andlargeife²isbiggerthan0.138.InMannWhitneyU test ‘r’ value has been used formeasuring theeffect size.Theeffect size issmallifrvalueissmallerthan0.1,mediumifr value is between 0.1-0.3, and large if r

Table 4. Frequency Analyses

Education programme Gender Class level

N %MTM 244 60UT 139 35YM 19 5

N %Male 340 84Female 62 16

N %1.grade 225 562.grade 177 44

Total 402 100 Total 402 100 Total 402 100

Region where the family lived Mother education level Father education level

N %Marmara 120 30Aegean 110 27Akdeniz 74 18Karadeniz58 14İçAnadolu22 5DoğuAnadolu10 3Güneydoğu83Anadolu

N %Primary 153 38Secondary111 28Highschool102 25Higher 36 9

N %Primary 109 27Secondary137 34Highschool94 23Higher 62 16

Total402100 Total 402100 Total 402100

Family income level Whether there is a relative in the sector

N %1000-3000TL 215 543000-6000TL 154 386000oraboveTL 33 8

N %Yes 76 19No 326 81

Total402 100 Total 402 100

Source: Created by the authors(UT:UnderwaterTechnolgy,MTM:MaritimeTransportationandManagement,YM:YachtMaster)

Fidanetal./JEMS, 2020;8(3):162-176

169


valueisbiggerthan0.5[27].• The students' perceptions of genderdiscrimination have been indicated lowfrom 1.00 to 2.39, moderate from 2.40 to3.39,andhighfrom3.40to5.00[24].

3. Findings

3.1. Frequency AnalysisThe frequency analyses of the

demographiccharacteristicsofthestudentsparticipatinginthestudyaregiveninTable4.

3.2. Distribution of Profile VariablesSkewness and kurtosis values were

used to determine the analysis methodsforvariablesofgender,educationprogram,grade level, theregionof family,educationlevel of parents, the total income of thefamily,whetherornot they were familiarwiththesector.TheskewnessandkurtosisvaluesofthevariablesareshownbelowinFigure1.

Figure 1.Figure 1. Distributions of Profile Variables and Analysis Methods ./..

170

Strongly disagree Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly

agree

ST. n % n % n % n % n % Mean SD

1 110 27.4 109 27.1 51 12.7 79 19.7 53 13.2 2.6418* 1.402

2 24 6.0 59 14.7 57 14.2 160 39.8 102 25.4 3.6393* 1.180

3 26 6.5 53 13.2 58 14.4 172 42.8 93 23.1 3.6294* 1.162

4 14 3.5 56 13.9 62 15.4 166 41.3 104 25.9 3.7214* 1.099

5 38 9.5 111 27.6 87 21.6 108 26.9 58 14.4 3.0920 1.222

6 33 8.2 99 24.6 72 17.9 130 32.3 68 16.9 3.2512 1.231

7 34 8.5 86 21.4 81 20.1 143 25.6 68 14.4 3.2612 1.192

8 29 7.2 93 23.1 94 23.4 127 31.6 59 14.7 3.2338 1.171

9 76 18.9 137 34.1 113 28.1 46 11.4 30 7.5 2.5448* 1.143

10 74 18.4 124 30.8 117 29.1 54 13.4 33 8.2 2.6219* 1.170

Figure 1.Figure 1. Distributions of Profile Variables and Analysis Methods (Cont')

3.3. Distributions of Students' Responses to Statements About Gender Discrimination Perception

Distributionsofstudents'responsestostatements about gender discriminationperception are shown below in Table5. When the response distributions areexamined, it is understood that theyparticipate in “I believe women arebeing treated biased in the maritimeindustry” (3.6393±1.180), “I believethere are stereotyped negative thoughtsabout women working in the maritimeindustry” (3.6294±1.162) and “I believe

men are more favoured in recruitmentin the maritime sector” (3.7214±1.099)expressions at a high level. It was alsorevealedthattheyparticipatedmoderatelyin “I believe that seafaring is perceivedas a male profession” (2.6418±1.402), “Ibelievethereisdifferentremunerationformenandwomenemployeesinthemaritimesector”(2.5448±1.143),and“Ibelievethatdifferent legal arrangements have beenmade for men and women employees inthe maritime sector” (2.6219±1.170)expressionsandgavethelowestscore.

Table 5. Distributions of Students' Responses to Statements About Gender Discrimination Perception

3.4. Hypothesis Test Results on Gender Discrimination Based on Students' Profile Information

Hypothesis tests based on profileinformationshowedsignificantdifferencesin the variables of gender, educationprogramme, and whether there was anacquaintance in themaritimesector.Therewere no significant differences in the testsaccording to the variables of the classlevel, the region where the family lived,the education level of the parents, and

Source: Created by the authors

Fidanetal./JEMS, 2020;8(3):162-176

171


the income level of the family.Thedata forvariables with significant differences areshown below in Table 6. The perception ofbeingtreatedwithprejudicebywomeninthemaritime sectorwas higher amongwomenparticipants(272.16)thanmen(188.61)andthis significant difference had a large effectsize(r=-0.52).Theperceptionofstereotypednegative thoughts towards women in themaritime sectorwas higher amongwomenparticipants(259.97)thanmen(190.84)andthis significant difference had a moderateeffect size (r=-0.23). The perception thatmen were preferred in recruitment in themaritime sectorwas higher amongwomen(262.47) than men (190.38) and thissignificant difference had amoderate effectsize (r=-0.24). The perception that menadvancemore easily in themaritime sectorwas higher among women (236.53) thanmen(195.11)andthissignificantdifferencehadasmalllevelofeffectsize(r=-0.13).Theperception that men were more supportedin the maritime sector was higher amongwomen participants (254.94) than men(191.76)andthissignificantdifferencehadamoderateeffectsize(r=-0.20).Theperceptionthat definitions for the stereotyped roles ofmenandwomenwereusedinthemaritimesectorwashigheramongwomenparticipants(263.02) than men (190.28) and that thissignificant difference had amoderate effectsize (r=-0.23). The perception of attachingdifferentweights to the thoughtofwomenandmen in themaritimesectorwashigheramong women participants (258.97) thanmen(191.02)andthissignificantdifferencehad a moderate effect size (r=-0.22). Theperceptionofdifferentremunerationbetweenmenandwomeninthemaritimesectorwashigheramongwomenparticipants (233.23)than men (195.71) and this significantdifferencehadasmalleffectsize(r=-0.12).

The perception that men preferred inrecruitment in the maritime sector washigher among Underwater Technologyprogramme students (4.1295) than Marine

TransportationandManagementprogrammestudents (3.4918) and this significantdifferencehadamediumeffectsize(e²:0.07).The perception that men advanced moreeasily in the maritime sector was higheramongUnderwater Technology programmestudents(3.5683)thanMarineTransportationandManagement(2.8402)andYachtMaster(2.8421) programmes students and thissignificant difference had a medium effectsize (e²: 0.08). The perception that menweremoresupportedinthemaritimesectorwas higher among Underwater Technologyprogramme students (3.5827) thanMarine Transportation and Managementprogramme students (3.0656) and thissignificantdifferencehada small effect size(e²: 0.04). The perception that definitionsforthestereotypedrolesofmenandwomenwereusedinthemaritimesectorwashigheramong Yacht Master programme students(3.7368) than Marine Transportation andManagementprogramme students (3.0738)and this significant difference had a smalleffect size (e²: 0.04). The perception thatdifferent remuneration between men andwomen in the maritime sector was higheramong Yacht Master programme students(3.2105) than Marine Transportation andManagement (2.2910) and UnderwaterTechnology (2.8993) programmes studentsandthissignificantdifferencehadamediumeffectsize(e²:0.08).Theperceptionthattheexistence of different legal arrangementsformenandwomen in themaritimesectorwas higher among Underwater Technologyprogramme students (3.0504) than MarineTransportation and Management (2.3975)and Yacht Master (2.3684) programmestudentsandthissignificantdifferencehadamediumeffectsize(e²:0.07).

The perception that the existence ofdifferent remuneration between menand women in the maritime sector washigheramong thestudentswhohadnotanacquaintanceinthemaritimesector(210.80)thanthestudentswhohad(161.61)andthis

172

SCALE TO DETECT PERCEPTION OF GENDER DISCRIMINATION

PROFILE VARIABLES

Gender “Mann Whitney U Test”Differences*

Education programme“Anova Test”Differences*

Whether there is a relative in the sector “Mann Whitney U Test”Differences*

1-Ibelievethatseafaringisperceivedasamaleprofession.

-- -- -- -- --

2-Ibelievewomenarebeingtreatedbiasedinthemaritimeindustry.

U:6159.000p: 0.000r:-0.52

Male:188.61Female:272.16

-- -- --

3-Ibelievetherearestereotypednegativethoughtsaboutwomenworkinginthemaritimeindustry.

U:6915.000p: 0.000r:-0.23


-- -- --

4-Ibelievemenaremorefavouredinrecruitmentinthemaritimesector.

U:6760.000p: 0.000r:-0.24


F:16.021p: 0.000e²:0.07

UT(4.1295)*MTM(3.4918)* -- --

5-Ibelievemenadvancemoreeasilyandquicklyinthemaritimeindustry.

U:8368.000p: 0.008r:-0.13


F:17.440p: 0.000e²:0.08

UT(3.5683)*MTM(2.8402)*YM(2.8421)* -- --

6-Ibelieveinthemaritimeindustrythatmenaremoresupportedinprofessionaldevelopment

U:7227.000p: 0.000r:-0.20


F:8.103p: 0.000e²:0.04

UT(3.5827)*MTM(3.0656)* -- --

7-Ibelievedefinitionsarebeingusedforthestereotypicalrolesofmenandwomeninthemaritimeindustry.

U:6726.000p: 0.000r:-0.23


F:8.226p: 0.000e²:0.04

YM(3.7368)*MTM(3.0738)* -- --

8-Ibelievethatthewordsoropinionsofmenandwomenemployeesinthemaritimesectorarevalueddifferently.

U:6977.000p: 0.000r:-0.22


-- -- --

Table 6. Hypothesis Test Results on Gender Discrimination Based on Profile Information

significant difference had a medium effectsize (r=-0.17).Theperception thatdifferentlegal arrangements formen andwomen inthemaritime sector was higher among the

studentswhohadnotanacquaintanceinthemaritime sector (213.71) than the studentswho had (149.13) and this significantdifferencehadamediumeffectsize(r=-0.22).

./..

Fidanetal./JEMS, 2020;8(3):162-176

173


SCALE TO DETECT PERCEPTION OF GENDER DISCRIMINATION

PROFILE VARIABLES

Gender “Mann Whitney U Test”Differences*

Education programme“Anova Test”Differences*

Whether there is a relative in the sector “Mann Whitney U Test”Differences*

9-Ibelievethereisdifferentremunerationformenandwomenemployeesinthemaritimesector.

U:8572.500p: 0.015r:-0.12


F:17.218p: 0.000e²:0.08

YM(3.2105)*MTM(2.2910)*UT(2.8993)*

U:9356.500p: 0.001r:-0.17

Yes:161.61No:210.80

10-Ibelievethatdifferentlegalarrangementshavebeenmadeformenandwomenemployeesinthemaritimesector

-- --

F:3.822p: 0.023e²:0.07

UT(3.0504)*YM(2.3684)*MTM(2.3975)*

U:8408.000p: 0.000r:-0.22

Yes:149.13No:213.71

Source: Created by the authors (UT:UnderwaterTechnolgy,MTM:MaritimeTransportationandManagement,YM:YachtMaster)

Table 6. Hypothesis Test Results on Gender Discrimination Based on Profile Information (Cont')

4. ConclusionInthisstudy,itwasaimedtodetermine

the perceptions of gender discriminationamong university students receivingassociate degree maritime education andwhethertheperceptionsdifferaccordingtodemographics. The presence of perceivedgender discrimination in the maritimesector,particularlyby femalestudents,hasbeenrevealed.Accordingto72ndArticleofTurkishLaborLawNo. 4857 (10.06.2003)[28] “It is forbidden toemploymenundereighteenyearsofageandwomenofallagesinundergroundorunderwaterworkssuchas mine and cable laying, sewerage andtunnel construction” completely abolishestheemploymentofwomendivers.Thestudyisthoughttobetheresultofthisregulation,in particular, that Underwater TechnologyProgramstudentsaremoreinvolvedintheexistence of gender discrimination thanother programs. Although the regulationarticle is tried to be intended to protectwomenagainstthedangersinunderwater,itpreventswomentoworkintheunderwater

sector other than tourism. On the otherhand, there is no obstacle for women toreceive education in schools that offerunderwatertechnologyeducation.However,femalediversgraduatedfromtheseschoolsareunable to findaplace in the industrialdiving sector due to the limitation of thefield of work provided by the regulation.

InMaritimeTransportandManagementsector,therewasnotanyrestrictioninlawforwomenemployment.But,bothTurkishTradeLawandTurkishMaritimeLabourLawstilldonotrecognizewomenseafarers,andwomen are still enforced to get "Seamen'sBook" instead of "Seafarer's IdentificationBooks".Thisshowsthatexistinglegislationsare insufficient in recognition of womenin all fields of maritime industry [29].Increasing participation of women in themaritime industry will prevent existingdiscrimination and inequality in law andpractice.Also,themaritimesector,inwhichwomen aremore involved,will havewell-basedworkingstandards,andconditions.

Itwasconcludedthatthereisprejudice

174

againstwomeninthemaritimeprofession,negative thoughts aboutwomen, and theperceptionthatmenfindworkeasierthanwomen.Thefactthatthereareprejudicesandnegativethoughtsabouttheexistenceofwomenboth in theunderwater sectorandinthemaritimetransportsector.Thissituation restricts the ability of womento plan careers in the maritime sector.Therefore, as stated by Nas (2014), theproportionofwomeninmaritimetraininginstitutionsdoesnotexceed5%.

The fact that female students'perceptionsofgenderdiscriminationwerehigher than male students' proved thattheperspectiveofwomenwasnegativeinthe sector. Particularly, recording a highlevel of difference between male andfemalestudentsinthesecondquestionofthescalehasindicatedthattheprejudiceagainst women in the maritime sectorhas not yet been demolished and thatmore should be done on the subject. Inaddition,theperceptionthatthemaritimeprofession is a male profession is notperceiveddifferentlyby female andmalestudents.Thisisapromisingaspectoftheresearch.

In order to increase the employmentrate of women in all branches of themaritimesector,equalapproachesshouldbeprovidedtowomenbothineducation,legally, and in work environments. Thefact that women are more involved inbothamentallyandphysicallydemandingprofession, such as maritime, will bean important factor in demolishingstereotyped prejudices in society. It isalso thought that the increase in thenumberofwomenwhocontribute to thequality understanding in the sector theyenter, will increase dynamism and affectmaritimeinapositiveway.

5. Discussion and SuggestionsThis study has revealed the existence

ofgenderdiscrimination in themaritime

sector in parallel with the studiesconducted by Gutek et al. (1996), Onay(2009), Arlı (2013), Davras & Davras(2014) and Nemlioğlu Koca (2015). Inthis study gender discrimination has notbeen analyzed from general perspective.Insteadofthisapproach,theperceptionofofficerscandidatesanddiverscandidateswere measured separately because oftheirdifferentdynamics.

To eliminate the prejudice againstwomen in the maritime sector, it isnecessary to raise awareness of thesector's dignitaries. Although there havebeenpositivedevelopments, it isthoughtthat there is a further path to be takenboth in termsof legislation and in termsofdemolishingnegativethoughts.

Conducted the study on only theassociated degree maritime students isoneofthelimitationofthestudy.Theotherlimitationisfocusingonlytothestudentsonmaritime. In future studies, it will beuseful to make gender discriminationresearchonwomenseafarersandwomenworkersinthemaritimesector.

Future studies of the perceptions ofgender discrimination in the maritimeand aviation sectors, which have similardisciplines, are thought to be useful toensure that possible differences arelookedatfromdifferentpointsofview.

References[1] HRDC, (2002). Gender Equality in

the Labour Market – Lesson Learned (Final Report), Human ResourcesDevelopmentCanada,EvaluationandDataDevelopmentStrategicPolicy.

[2] Akın, A. (2007). Toplumsal Cinsiyet(Gender) Ayırımcılığı ve Sağlık.Toplum Hekimliği Bülteni,26(2),1-9.

[3] Parlaktuna, İ. (2010). Türkiye’deCinsiyete DayalıMesleki AyrımcılığınAnalizi. Ege Akademik Bakış, 10(4),1217-1230.

[4] United Nations Entity For Gender

Fidanetal./JEMS, 2020;8(3):162-176

175


Equality And The Empowerment Of Women, Women And Sustainable Development Goals (2019),RetrievedApril 15, 2019, from https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/ 2322UN%20Women%20Analysis%20on%20Women%20and%20SDGs.pdf

[5] United Nations Human Development Report (2016),HumanDevelopmentForEveryone,p.5

[6] World Economic Forum, The Global Gender Gap Report(2017),p.7

[7] United Nations Human Development Report(2018),HumanDevelopmentForEveryone,p.21

[8] World Economic Forum, The Global Gender Gap Report (2020),p.9

[9] OECD (2018), Short-Term Labour Market Statistics Retrieved May 26, 2019, fromh t tp s : // s t a t s . oecd . o rg/ Index .aspx?DataSetCode=STLABOUR#

[10]Turkish Statistical Institute, Labor Statistics (2017),RetrievedMay26,2019.

[11] Safety4sea. (2018). The role ofwomen in shipping continues togrow. Retrieved: April 18, 2019,from https://safety4sea.com/the-role-of-women-in-shipping-continues-to-grow/?__cf_chl_jschl_tk__ =30b7c6749196ae0276888a3aed0e578ab27c f725-1593164450-0- AX4Qo3--h X C u A v a a d t 4 M 2 5 E k mm 1 8 9 Q H i M O f YTs3saBy4bLh1lAsGU9 W8Yr Q E 8 g o F 2 r I N 6 1 c l F s S D z b j 9GUd4C-A_1_LCXq4Mj16f3WBzRqdNarfrSbea8b-Iy0 JtxujB1kbIjq-7gPZUs_aiYZ cbqYrLSir Qk4wVMAqcLqeE-FOPNDzIXBVQziN9KimgFGbcgZu3C3_Hg- Id6i Rzs sPChBJ_6iO_FpzgkZAUHt3pWfb GG8aOcsTpuYf5cJqqDWye _ukzd7iOP w1m1KwaRtqxQ0fOV pZ4PK sZe0Kw7

XzLOJFGW7VkubWq2zb_ZM LVz6vuamzTMPr0aIrYNSmUomQtUcE

[12] Güler, N. (2017). Kadın denizciler.İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi Tanıtım Bilim, Mühendislik ve Teknolojide Kadın Araştırmaları ve Uygulama Merkezi Dergisi,June,p.6

[13] UnitednationsFoodAndAgricultureOrganization (FAO) (2016),Promoting Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment in Fisheries and Aquaculture,p.1

[14] Popescu, C., & Varsami, A. E. (2010,July).Theplaceofwomeninamen’sworld from a maritime universityperspective.In Proceedings of the 7th WSEAS International Conference on Engineering Education: Latest Trends on Engineering Education, World Scientific and Engineering Academy and Society (WSEAS), (pp.22-24):CorfuIsland,Greece,

[15] Şenbursa, N. A Review of MaritimeWomen in the Global Arena. Deniz Taşımacılığı ve Lojistiği Dergisi,1(1),20-25.

[16] Sanchez, J. I., & Brock, P.(1996). Outcomes of perceiveddiscrimination among Hispanicemployees: isdiversitymanagementa luxuryoranecessity?.Academy of Management Journal, 39(3), 704-719.

[17] Gutek, B. A., Cohen, A. G., & Tsui, A.(1996). Reactions to perceived sexdiscrimination.Human relations,49(6),791-813.

[18] Brickman, J. P. (2008). Maritimeeducationandtrainingofwomen:theirimpact on the program at the UnitedStates Merchant Marine Academy. In Proceeding of IMLA 16th Conference on MET:‘Safety, Security and Quality Objectives on MET Institutions(pp.283-292).

[19] Onay, M. (2009). Algılanan CinsiyetAyrımcılığının Sonuçları ve Konuyla

176

İlgili Ampirik Bir Araştırma. Ege Akademik Bakış,9(4),1101-1125.

[20] Arlı, E. (2013). Deniz TurizmSektöründe Algılanan CinsiyetAyrımcılığı ve Cinsiyet Önyargısı:Karamürsel Meslek YüksekokuluÖğrencileri Üzerine Bir Araştırma.Çalışma ve Toplum : Ekonomi ve Hukuk Dergisi,38(3),283-301.

[21] Nas, S. (2014). Profesyonel TürkKadin Denizcilerinin Kisa TarihselSüreciÜzerineBirAraştırma.Beykoz Akademi Dergisi,2(1),29-53.

[22] Cömert, M. (2014). Turizm EğitimiAlanÖğrencilerinSektördeÇalışmakİstedikleri Alanlar Ve Sektördekiİstihdamda Cinsiyet Ayrımcılığıylaİlgili Düşünceleri. Gazi Üniversitesi Turizm Fakültesi Dergisi,(1),50-62.

[23] Davras, G. M., & Davras, Ö. (2015).Thoughts about sex discriminationin tourism sector by student whoare in Gastronomy and CulinaryProgram. Journal of Tourism Theory and Research,1(2),86-96.

[24] Nemlioğlu Koca, Y. (2015).Denizcilikte Cinsiyet Ayrımcılığı veÖnyargı Algısı: Barbaros DenizcilikYüksekokulu Öğrencileri ÜzerineBir Araştırma. Çalışma ve Toplum : Ekonomi ve Hukuk Dergisi , 44(1),151-176.

[25] Özcanetal.(2017).AResearchAboutPredictıonOnGenderDiscriminatıonRelated To Engineering. Current Approaches On Business And Economics,69-88

[26] Tabachnick,B.G.&Fidell,L.S.(2013).Using Multivariate Statistics, Boston:Pearson.

[27] Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical Power Analysis For the Behavioural Sciences,2ndEdition,Hillsdale,NJ:L.ErlbaumAssociates.

[28] Turkish Labor Law, https://w w w . m e v z u a t . g o v . t r /MevzuatMetin/1.5.4857.pdf,p.33

Fidanetal./JEMS, 2020;8(3):162-176

[29] Başak, A. A. (2015). Women’s rolein the Turkish and global maritimeindustry. In Maritime Women: Global Leadership (pp. 103-111).

177



178

JournalofETAMaritimeScienceYılmaz/JEMS, 2020;8(3):178-193

10.5505/jems.2020.49354

Investigation of the Effect of Number of Longitudinal Rounded Grooves on

Hydrodynamic Forces acting on Cylinders in Cross Flow at Re=10⁵

Oktay YILMAZ

YıldızTechnicalUniversity,FacultyofNavalArchitectureandMaritime,[email protected]; ORCIDID:https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3260-2992

ABSTRACT

Crossflow over cylindrical structures has been extensively studied by both academiaand industry in various fields. It is responsible for in-line and transverse vibrations ofmarine risers. Flow-induced structural vibrationsmay end upwith the failure of thesetubularsystemsinoceansandseas.Firstexperimentalstudiesinliteraturesignifiedthatlongitudinallygroovedcylinders inspiredbySaguaro treesmayofferreductionsboth indragandliftforces.Inthepresentstudy,theperformanceof2dimensional(2D)unsteadyReynoldsaveragedNavier-Stokes(URANS)simulationsistestedinpredictinghydrodynamicforcecoefficientsofcylinders.First,CFDrunsareconductedonasmoothcylinderandacactus-likecylinderinliterature.Thenflowover8-,10-,and12-groovedcylinderswithadiameterof0,5maresolvedtoanalyzeflowfeaturesindetailandevaluatethecapabilityof2DURANSsolverfortheproblemathand.k-ωSSTturbulencemodelisemployedinURANSsolver.Itisshownthatasthenumberofgroovesincreases,meandragslightlydecreasesandamplitudeofdragdecreasesby29%.Separationangleissignificantlyimprovedwithanumberofgroovesfrom92oto120o.However,theamplitudeofliftforceincreaseswiththenumberofgrooveswithreferenceto2DCFDsimulations.

Keywords

Cylinder,LongitudinalRoundedGrooves,FlowInducedForces,CFD,MarineRiser.

ORIGINALRESEARCH(AR)Received: 02 July 2020 Accepted: 11 September 2020

To cite this article:Yilmaz,O.(2020).InvestigationoftheEffectofNumberofLongitudinalRoundedGroovesonHydrodynamicForcesactingonCylindersinCrossFlowatRe=10⁵.Journal of ETA Maritime Science,8(3),178-193.To link to this article: https://dx.doi.org/10.5505/jems.2020.49354

1. Introduction Cylindrical-shapedbodiesincrossflow

streamaresubjecttounsteadyaerodynamicfluctuating drag and lift forces due toarising vortex shedding behind the object[1]. In response, the cylindrical structurefluctuates in streamwise and transverse

directions [2],[3]. The cylindrical bodymaybeanantenna,ariserintheoceanorsupportingcolumnofafloatingpetroleumplatforminthesea.Whenvortexsheddingfrequency coincides with the naturalfrequencyofthebody,amplitudesofmotiongrow substantially and may result in the

179


destructionofthestructuralsystem.Someengineering solutions have been devisedtoreducefluctuatingforcessuchashelicalstrakes[3]andfairings[4]onmarinerisers[5].Themainideabehindistobreakdownsynchronous vortex shedding along thecylinder spanwith helical strakes [2] andto increase backpressure streamlining thebodywithfairingsinordertodecreasedrag.In the tandemarrangement of twohelicalstraked-cylinders, increase in fluctuatinglift on a downstream cylinder wasexperimentally demonstrated [6]. On theotherhand,helicalstrakesincreasedrag[7].Fairings on marine risers reduce adversepressuregradientonthedownstreamside,blockvorticesinteractions,limittransversemotionofvorticesandmoveawayvorticesfromthebody.Thesefeaturesdiminishbothmean drag and fluctuating lift forces [8].Risers fittedwith fairings arenot suitablefor use near sea surface due to frequentdirectional changes of surface waves.These techniques are frequently appliedin production and drilling risers in theoffshore oil and gas industry to suppressflow-induced vibrations [8]. While helicalstrakes are omnidirectional, fairings areunidirectionalsolutions.

There exist some other suggestedmodifications on the cylinder in scientificresearchstudies.Sinusoidalwavycylinders[9], circular rings around cylinder[10], cylinders with bumps [7], surfaceroughened cylinders [11] are in thislist. It was revealed that wavy cylindersdisrupts regular vortex shedding andincreases three-dimensionality in thewake. These impacts yielded considerabledecrease both in drag and fluctuating lift[12]. Tripwire or other attachments oncylinderswere studied tomake boundarylayer turbulent before separation anddelay flow detachment from the surface[13][14]. However, tripwire techniquesare unidirectional; they immediatelylose their benefits when the current

directionchanges.LongitudinalU-groovedcylinders were also experimented andfound successful for a reduction in meandrag at Reynolds (Re) numbers greaterthan 4x10⁴. But the Strouhal (St) numberslightly increased with Re number [15].In experiments, longitudinal V-grooves oncylindersdecreasedthecriticalRenumberwheredragcoefficient(Cd)drops[16].

Due to the special features of Saguarotrees,theyhaveattractedmuchattentioninrecentyears [17]-[19].Saguaro treeshavetriangular grooves in spanwise directionand spines at the tip [17]. Although rootsof Saguaros are very shallow, with anaverage root-length of 25 cm, these treescanwithstandstrongwindsforyears.Theirlong life ends up to 150-years [17].Manyexperimental and computational researchstudies have been conducted on unsteadyhydrodynamic characteristics on Saguarotrees [19]-[23]. It was demonstratedexperimentally that both mean drag androot-mean-square (RMS) of lift force oncylinderscanbereducedwithlongitudinaltriangulargrooves [23].Groovesasvortexgenerators ensure attached flow and lateseparation resulting in less drag [18]. Itwasalsoreportedthatturbulenceintensity(TI) around the cacti, which is partiallyresponsible for the fluctuating forces onbluffbodies,decreased[18][19][22].

To the author’s knowledge, aero/hydrodynamic characteristics of thelongitudinalroundedgroovedcylinderhavenot been investigated numerically before.Thoughfluctuatinglifthasbeenmorewidelyresearched,fluctuatingdragforcesdamagethe structure in the same levelwith theirdouble frequency [24]. In this study, theeffects of the number of rounded grooveson fluctuating lift and drag forces areinvestigated by 2D URANS ComputationalFluid Dynamics (CFD) analyses. CFDsimulations are first performed for flowaround smooth and 8-grooved cylindersto test CFD solver in predicting flow field

180

and aero/hydrodynamic characteristicscomparingwithliteratureexperimentaldata.

2. CFD SimulationsInthisstudy,CFDsimulationsarecarried

out for one smooth cylinder and threegroovedcylinders.2Dcomputationaldomainand itsboundaries are shown inFigure1a.Free stream velocity (U) and TI (%0.35)are specified at the inlet. Since derivativesofvariablesinanormaldirectiontothefar-field boundary are expected to vanish, thesymmetry boundary condition is applied.Gage pressure is set to zero at the outlet.No-slip boundary condition is applied oncylinderwalls.

CFD simulations are performed by useof Ansys Fluent software [25]. k-ω SST, afully turbulent flow model, is employed tomodel unsteadyReynolds averagedNavier-Stokes equations. This model is known tobesuccessfulinpredictingadversepressuregradientboundarylayerflowsinwhichflowseparationoccurs[26][27].Forafewdecades,thek-ωSSTmodelhasbeenappliedtosolveturbomachinery flowproblemsby securingtrade-off between computational accuracyand computation time [28]. Continuity andmomentum equations derived by RANSmodelingareasfollows[27],

Here ρ, u, andp are density, time-averagedvelocity component, and time-averagedpressure, respectively. The Boussinesqhypothesis is employed to relate theReynolds stresses with the time-averagedvelocitygradients.

Here μt (= ρk/ ω) and k are turbulentviscosity and turbulence kinetic energy(TKE), respectively. ω is the ratio ofturbulence dissipation rate (ε) to k. In theBoussinesqhypothesis,μt isassumed tobeanisotropicscalarquantitywhichworkswellforsheardominatedflows.kandωequationsaregivenbelow[27].

Here ΓkandΓωareeffectivediffusivitiesofkandω. GkandGωaretheproductiontermsfor k and ω. Yk and Yω are the dissipationterms for k and ω. Dω is a cross-diffusionterm.Furtherinformationaboutthek-ωSSTturbulence model and its model constantscanbefoundin[26][27].

Pressure-basedsolverwiththepressure-velocity coupling algorithm is employed toachieveaconvergedsolutioninlessnumberof iteration compared to the segregatedalgorithm. Inspatialdiscretization,diffusionterms are discretized with a second-ordercell-centered scheme and convective termswithasecondorderupwindscheme.

First-order implicit time integrationis applied to advance in the solution ofthe unsteady problem. Dimensionlesstimestepsize is0.011whichisapproximately1/200ofoneperiodofthehighestfrequencywaveoffluctuatingforces.D is cylinder diameter. Gradients of scalarandvectorvariablesinCFDcomputationsarecalculated employing the least square cell-basedmethod.

Fullystructuredcomputationalmeshwithquad cells is generated by Ansys Meshing

(1)

(2)

(3)

(5)

(4)

Yılmaz/JEMS, 2020;8(3):178-193

181


Mesh Numberofcells

Cd-mean

Cd-rms

fd (Hz)

Cl-rms fl (Hz)

coarse 63,600 1.53 0.123 173 0.876 88

medium 113,880 1.52 0.131 172 0.843 87

fine 167,520 1.50 0.149 168 0.847 84

finest 253,500 1.46 0.156 164 0.841 82

Table 1. Mesh Independence Study

Figure 1. 2D Computational Domain a) Boundaries and Dimensions b) Mesh Structure

3. Results and Discussion3.1. Cross Flow over Smooth Cylinder at Re = 10⁵

Although a cylinder has a simple shape,flow characteristics around are verysophisticated and depend on Re number.Flowbehaviouraroundasmoothcylinderisclassifiedasfollows[1],[29]-[31].

(Figure 1b). Mesh independence study isconducted for the flow of air around the8-grooved cylinder at a Reynold numberof 1.1x10⁵. The coefficients of fluctuatingdrag and lift forces for varyingnumberofcomputational cells are provided in Table1. Relative change between variables ofthelasttwoconsecutivemeshstructuresismaximumof4.6%.Toworkwithreasonablecomputation time and ensure sufficientgridconvergence,thefinestmeshstructureis employed in CFD computations and nofurther mesh refinement is carried out.Average mesh skewness and its standarddeviation are 0.27 and 0.17, respectively.Average and maximum aspect ratios ofcells are 2.6 and 26, respectively. Whileaveragey⁺valueisnearly1,maximumy⁺issmaller than4onthecylinderwall.Whendetermining parameters in computations,aniterationconvergencestudyisconductedvarying iterationnumber from3 to60 forthetimesteps. It isseenthat5numberof

iterationsateachtimestep issufficient toreachaconvergedsolutionfortherelevanttime step. In the current study, 8 numberof iterations is implemented for the timesteps.Thesamemeshstructureandsolverparametersareappliedtoallcases.

182

• WhenRe<190flowiscompletelylaminarbothinthewakeandboundarylayerand,2DvortexsheddingisobservedafterRe=40.

• Subcritical regime (300 < Re < 2x10⁵):Flow is laminar in the boundary layer,turbulentinthewake.Laminarboundarylayer separation takes place and regularalternatingvorticesshed.

• Lowertransition(2x10⁵<Re<3.5x10⁵):Laminar boundary layer separates andthen turbulent shear layer reattaches.Theboundarylayerseparatesonceagain.Laminar separation bubble (LSB) formson one side of the cylinder wall. Thecylinderissubjecttolargemeanliftforces.

• Supercritical regime (3.5x10⁵ < Re <1.5x10⁶): Laminar boundary layerseparatesandthenturbulentshearlayerreattaches. Laminar separation bubbleformsonthetwosideofthecylinderwall.Stnumber isbetween0.4and0.45[32].Meandragisminimum.

• Uppertransition(1.5x10⁶<Re<4x10⁶):Laminar-turbulent transition occurswithintheboundarylayerwithoutLSB.

• Transcriticalregime(Re>4x10⁶):Flowisturbulentbothinthewakeandboundarylayer.Besides the turbulent flow is of three-

dimensional (3D) character, the flow fieldaround a cylinder has its own special 3Dfeatures such as cellular shedding, obliqueshedding, vortex dislocations and spanwisemomentum transferby streamwisevortices[1]. Laminar-turbulent transition, LSB,flow separation and 3D wake field make itdifficult to predict flow structures arounda cylinder by 2D CFD analyses. Performing3D direct numerical simulations (DNS)is the ideal solution to tackle with theproblem,butitrequiressupercomputersandsubstantial computation time [33]. 3D CFDsimulations of LargeEddy Simulation (LES)or Detached Eddy Simulation turbulencemodellingarethealternativesolutions.Theircomputationcost is less thanDNS,but they

are still computationally costly and veryfinemesh structures should be constructed[5]. Therefore, to estimate vortex-inducedvibrations of cylindrical structures,experimental tests are more frequentlycarriedout[4][7][22][31][34].

FlowregimearoundthecylinderatRe=10⁵ stays in a subcritical region where theboundarylayerislaminar.Thoughk-ωSSTisaturbulencemodelwhichconsiderstheflowto be fully turbulent, lowRe number termsin it offer very simple laminar-turbulenttransitionmodelingcapability[27].TheflowofwateroverasmoothcylinderatRe=10⁵is solved by 2D URANS computations andcomparedwith published literature data inthis section.U = 0.275m/s andD = 0.5m.ParametersoffluctuatingdragandliftforcesarelistedinTable2.Strouhalnumber,St=fl D/U.θs isthetime-averagedflowseparationangle measured from the upstream end ofthe cylinder (see Figure 7e). Backpressurecoefficientisdefinedasfollows,

Here pb , p∞,andρarebackpressureonthe cylinder surface, free stream pressureandfluiddensity,respectively.

Time-averaged drag coefficient (Cd-mean) predicted by CFD is smaller thanthe experimental value as seen in Table2. Supporting this result, θs predicted ishigherthantheexperimental.Thisimpliesthat the wake width estimated by CFD issmaller.Eventhoughthe freestreamTI innumerical simulation is rather small, thefully turbulent character of the k-ω SSTmodel carries turbulence to theboundarylayer,andpossiblyforthisreasonseparationdelays. CFD estimates Cpb to be greater,confirming predictions in θs and Cd-mean. Rmsof lift coefficient (Cl-rms) estimated byCFD ismuch larger than theexperimentalvalue. In literature, employing 2D URANSsimulations, fluctuating lift forcewas also

(6)

Yılmaz/JEMS, 2020;8(3):178-193

183


Parameter Computational Experimental

ReferenceforExp.Data

Error

Cd-mean 1.056 1.181 Schlichtingand

Gersten[13]

-11%

Cd-rms 0.099 N/A

Cd-amp 0.116 N/A

fd(Hz) 0.293 N/A

Cl-rms 0.909 0.511 Norberg[36]

78%

Cl-amp 1.264 N/A

fl(Hz) 0.147 0.11 Roshko[30]

34%

St** 0.267 0.20 Roshko[30]

34%

Cpb -1.06 -1.33 Williamson[1]

-20%

θs ~110° 78° Achenbach[31]

41%

Table 2. Comparison of Computational Predictions and Experimental Results

3.2. Cross Flow over 8-Grooved Cylinder at Re = 1,1x10⁵

AnexperimentalworkofEl-MakdahandOweis[18]isconsideredtotest2DURANSprediction capability of the flow fieldaroundagroovedcylinder.Theexperimentswere carried out in an openwind tunnel.The grooved cylinder diameter is 69 mmas depicted in Figure 2a. The square test

Figure 2. a) Dimensions of the 8-Grooved Cylinder (Reproduced from [18]) b) Origin, Axis Directions and, CFD Post-Processed Lines where Field Variables are Presented

Time-averaged streamwise velocityprofilesaredepictedinFigure3.BackflowinthenearwakecannotbecapturedbyCFDas seen in Figure 3a. Itwas reported thatRANS simulations fail to predict reversedmean flow in the cylinder wake [5]. 60%of the free stream velocity recovers at adistance twice cylinder diameter both inthe experiment and CFD. Wake recoversfaster and wake width slightly wider inexperimental results (Figure 3b). Meanshearinthewakeisnearlythesameforbothcases.Themaximumvelocity in the shearlayerisgreaterinexperiments(Figure3b).However,Uwasmeasured1,6Dupstreamofthecylinderinexperiments.Withreferenceto the CFD solution, velocity is retarded

computed larger than the experimental[17]. It is known that vortices behind thecylinder have 3D character and dislocate,this results in attenuation in vortices’strength [1]. The synchronous alternatingvortices in2DURANS simulationsmaybethe reason for such a large fluctuating liftforce.fdiscalculatedastwiceofflasintheliterature [24][35]. Stnumberdeterminedby CFD is 0.267 and greater than theexperimentalvalueof0.20.

sectionhas45,5cmsidelengths.Therefore,in experiments, the aspect ratio of thegroovedcylinder(L/D)andblockageratioare6.59and15%,respectively.

U,airviscosity(μ)andairdensity(ρ)arespecified as 23.3 m/s, 1.79x10-⁵ Pa.s and1.225kg/m³inCFDsolver.Theseparameterscorrespond to a Re number of 1.1x10⁵ asin the experiment. The grooved cylindertransitstheflowintotheturbulenceregimeimmediatelyafterthefirstcrestatθ =45o.Forthisreason,itisexpectedthatlaminar-turbulencetransitionlocationisnotcriticalforflowoverthegroovedcylinder.However3D nature of both turbulence and vortexstructuresbehind the cylinder still has animportanceonfluctuatingforces.

**Strouhalnumberisbasedonfrequencyofliftforce.

184

fromUby11%atthis location.Therefore,streamwise velocity (u) possibly is lessthanreportedinexperiments.Ontheotherside,blockageratiosintheexperimentandCFDare15%and1%,respectively.Largerblockageratiointheexperimentmaybetheotherconsiderationofhighervelocity.

Time-averagedTIprofilesontheverticalline(atx/D=0.5)areshowninFigure4a.TIpredictedbyCFDismuchsmallerthantheexperimentalresults.FreestreamTIinthewindtunneltestsisnotknown.Ontheotherhand, after comparison RANS simulationswithLESandPIVexperiments,Stetson[5]reportedthatReynoldsaveraging inRANSmodelling smooths out instantaneouspeaks in turbulence fluctuations. Thisresultsinlowerpredictedfluctuatingloads[5]. Magnitude and change in spanwisevorticity(ω�)alongupperandlowershearlayersagreewellwithexperimentsasseenin Figure 4b. Vorticity magnitudes closeto the cylinder is higher in CFD. Greatervorticity strength in the neighborhoodof the cylinder may result in increasedpredictedfluctuatingliftloadsinCFD[19].

3. 3. Influence of Number of Grooves3.3.1. Time Statistics

To investigate the effects of the numberof grooves on hydrodynamic forces andflow field,8-,10-and,12-groovedcylindersare considered. The 8-grooved cylinderin the previous section is scaled to be 0,5m in diameter. Three cylinders with theirdimensions are given in Table 3. In CFD,seawatercrossflowoverthethreecylindersare simulated at Re = 10⁵. U, μ and ρ are0.275m/s,1.41x10-³Pa.sand1.027kg/m³,respectively.

Parameters of fluctuating drag and liftforcesareprovidedinTable3.Afterdiscardingtheinitialtransientforcedata,theperiodicallyrepeatedpartsofforcesignalsinFigures5a,5b,5candFigures6a,6b,6careutilized inFast FourierTransform (FFT) analyses. FFTfunction embedded in Matlab is employed

toconstructthefrequencyspectrumoftime-varyingforcedata.Kreyszig[40]summarizedthe mathematical theory behind FFT. Thefrequency spectrum of fluctuating drag andliftforcesarepresentedinFigures5d,5e,5fand Figures 6d, 6e, 6f, respectively. As thenumberofgroovesincreases,aslightdecreaseinCd-meanisobserved.Cd-rmsofthe12-groovedcylinder isminimumand29%smaller thanthatof8-groovedcylinder. In thesameway,the amplitude of drag coefficient (Cd-amp)of the 12-grooved cylinder is less than the8-groovedcylinderby35.5%.However,Cd-rms andCd-ampof10-groovedcylinderincreasedby44%and30%,respectively.Comparingwiththedominantfrequencyofdragforce(fd)ofthe8-grooved,fdofthe10-grooveddecreasesby69%,andfdofthe12-groovedremainsthesame.

While the dominant frequency of liftcoefficient(fl)of8-,10,-12-groovedcylindersare almost the same, Cl-rms values for the10-groovedand the12-grooved increaseby12%and24%,respectively.Liftforceson8-and 12-grooved cylinders are sinusoidallychanging,butthatofthe10-groovedhastwostrong peaks in amplitude spectrum andthereforeitisthesumoftwosinusoidalforcesignals. St number of the three cylinders ischangingbetween22and25(Table3).

Figure 3. Comparison of Time-Averaged Streamwise Velocity a) along the Wake Center Line

Yılmaz/JEMS, 2020;8(3):178-193

185


Figure 4. Comparison of Flow Field Variables. a) Time-Averaged TI along Vertical Line at x/D = 0.5. Time Average of is Plotted. b) Time-Averaged ωZ along Horizontal Line at y/D = ±0.52. Experimental Data is from [18].

force signalwith the longest time period isutilized. Streamwise velocities of 10-, and12-groovedcylindersat thewakecenterlinereachslightlylargervaluesatx/D=2(Figure7a). This result implies reduced drag forcewith reference to 8-grooved cylinder [18].Mean spanwise vorticity near the cylindersdecreasesasthenumberofgroovesincreasesasseeninFigure7b.Astheflowmovedawayfromthecylinders, thevorticitymagnitudesconvergetoeachotherand,vorticityreceivesslightly greater value for the 10-grooved.Shear on grooved cylinders is expected tobe less than the smooth cylinder becauseeffectivefrictionsurfaceofgroovedcylindersissmaller.Thisleadstoadecreaseinvortexstrength [18]-[21]. Mean shear on groovedcylindershoulders (atx/D= -0.52 inFigure2b)isdepictedinFigure7c.Sincethecavityofthe10-groovedislocatedontheshoulder,its velocity gradient (shear) is less than theothers.Mean TKE on the cylinder shoulderincreases by the number of grooves asdepictedinFigure7d.Increasedmomentuminboundarylayersduetoturbulencehelpstheflowtoovercomeadversepressuregradientoncurvedsurfacesanddelayseparation[13][14][37].ThisisthemainreasonforreducedCd-mean by an increase in the number ofgrooves.Time-averagedpressurecoefficients(Cp) around the cylinders are depicted inFigure 7e. Lack of perfect symmetry inpressure distribution is possibly related tothe sampling rate of time-varying data. θs increaseswith the number of grooves. Thisresult again confirms the reduced drag bythe number of grooves. Yamagishi and Oki[37]showedthatmoregroovesontriangulargroovedcylindersreducedcriticalRenumberwhere Cd abruptly drops due change inboundarylayerturbulence.AsseeninTable3, Cpb increases by the number of groovesverifyingsmallerdrag.Duetotheabsenceofspanwiseflowincylinders’wakeofa2DCFDcomputationdomain,Cpbvaluesareprobablysmallerthanthevaluesthatcanbeobtainedby3Dcomputations[1].

Figure 3. b) along Vertical Line at x/D = 0.5. Experimental Data is from [18].

3.3.2. Time-Averaged VariablesTime-averaged line plots based on 2D

URANS simulations are shown in Figure7. To generate time-averaged line plots,20 snapshots per shortest time period offluctuating forces are captured (this is thesampling rate) and a 5-10 repeated part of

186

Parameter 8-grooved cylinder

10-grooved cylinder

12-grooved cylinder

D(m) 0.5 0.5 0.5

d(m) 0.391 0.411 0.427

h(m) 0.041 0.034 0.029

Cd-mean 1.443 1.408 1.426

Cd-rms 0.152 0.219 0.108

Cd-amp 0.200 0.260 0.129

fd(Hz) 0.26 0.08 0.28

Cl-rms 0.841 0.944 1.044

Cl-amp 1.162 multiplepeaks 1.473

fl(Hz) 0.13 0.12Hz(1.238amp)0.04Hz(0.479amp)(¹)

0.14

St 0.24 0.22(2) 0.25

Cpb -1.36 -1.25 -1.28

θs(3) 92o 108o 120o

Table 3. Geometry Data, Fluctuating Force Coefficients, Frequency of Forces, and Time-Averaged Cpb and θs for Cross Flow of Seawater over Grooved Cylinders at Re=10⁵

¹Multiplepeaksexistinamplitudespectrumofliftcoefficient(Cl).²StnumberisspecifiedbasedonthedominantfrequencyofClwithmaximumamplitude.³θsisdeterminedbasedontime-averagedCpdistributionaroundthecylinders.θs ,asaneffectiveseparationangle,isspecifiedwhenCpstartstoleveloff.ThereisnoincreaseinCp afterthisspecifiedangle(seeFigure7e).

3.3.3. Instantaneous Flow FieldInstantaneous contours and velocity

vectors for maximum lift force are shownin Figure 8. The high streamwise velocity,high vorticity [18] and separated flow areresponsible for low pressure on uppersurfacesofcylindersresultingliftforcein+ydirection. High-pressure stagnation zone atthefrontendofthecylindersislargestforthe8-grooved.

Vorticeswraparound12-groovedcylindermoreclosely.Asaresult, the flowseparatesatalargerangularpositioncomparedtothe8-,and10-groovedcylinders.Whenvorticesformfartherthanthecylinder,fluctuatingsideforceslessen[12],[19].Withreferencetotheconservation principle of momentum, flowstreamoffluidsexertforceonthesolidbodyintheoppositedirectionofflow[38].Downwardv-velocity(Bluecoloursofv-velocitycontours

Yılmaz/JEMS, 2020;8(3):178-193

187


indicatedownwardvelocity)occupieslargerregionforthe12-groovedasseenincontoursofv-velocity inFigure8. Inthemeantime, ifthecontoursofv-velocityandvelocityvectorplot are examined, downward flow stream(downwash) for the 12-grooved is morecloselycomparedtotheothercylinders.Thesetwopointsexplainthegreaterfluctuatingliftforce on the 12-grooved cylinder regarding2DURANSresults.

Figure 5. Time Series (a,b,c) and Amplitude Spectrum (d,e,f) of Drag Coefficient for 8-Grooved Cylinder (a,d), 10-Grooved Cylinder (b,e), and 12-Grooved Cylinder (c,f)

Turbulence intensitycontoursshowthattheboundarylayergetsintoturbulencejustafter the groove of the stagnation region atthefrontend.Theenergizedboundarylayercan withstand pressure forces and flowseparationisdelayed.

For such a high Re number flow, the

188

hydrodynamic lift forces arise solely dueto asymmetric instantaneous pressuredistributionaroundthecylinders[1].FrictionforcecontributiontohydrodynamicforcesforhighReisnegligiblysmall[11][20].InFigure7e,asexpected,time-averagedCparoundthecylinders is almost symmetrical. When thesnapshots of the Cp distribution around thecylinders are considered, they should likelybeasymmetricalduetoalternatingsheddingvortices on the downstream side of thecylinders.Resultingpressuredistributionsofthegroovedcylindersformaximumliftforceare depicted in Figure 9. The area betweenCp curves of upper and lower surfaces isproportionaltoliftforce[39].Confirmingthereported fluctuating lift force (Cl-rms)data inTable 3, area for the 12-grooved cylinder islargestandthatforthe8-groovedissmallest.FromFigure9,theinstantaneousseparationangles of upper and lower surfaces can bedetermined detecting start point of level-off in Cp distribution. In this regard, aftercross-checkwith contours ofu-velocity andvorticityinFigure8,instantaneousseparationangles of upper and lower surfaces of 8-,10- and 12-grooved cylinders are specifiedas (90o,90o), (108o,72o) and (120o,90o),respectively.

Figure 6. Time Series (a,b,c) and Amplitude Spectrum (d,e,f) of Lift Coefficient for 8-Grooved Cylinder (a,d), 10-Grooved Cylinder (b,e), and 12-Grooved Cylinder (c,f)

Yılmaz/JEMS, 2020;8(3):178-193

189


Figure 7. Time-Averaged Line Plots based on 2D URANS Simulations a) Streamwise Velocity on the Wake Center Line b) ωZ along Horizontal Line at y/D = 0.52 c) Velocity along Vertical Line on the Shoulder (x/D = -0.5) d) TKE along Vertical Line on the Shoulder (x/D = -0.5)

Figure 7. (continued) Time-Averaged Line Plots based on 2D URANS Simulations e) Cp around the Cylinders

4. ConclusionInthisstudy,theinfluenceofthenumberof

roundedgroovesoncylindersisinvestigatedemploying 2D URANS computations. Thefirst unsteady CFD analysis is performedon a smooth cylinder at Re = 10⁵. Whileseparationangle(θs)ispredictedlargerthanthe experimental, consistently, Cd-mean andbasesuctioncoefficient(-Cpb)areestimatedsmaller compared to the experimentalresults.RmsofCliscalculatedlargerbecausetheflowissolvedwith2DCFDanalysis,whichcannot consider spanwise flow and vortexdislocations in thewake fieldof thesmoothcylinder.

The second CFD analysis is carried outon an 8-grooved cylinder at Re = 1.1x10⁵.Althoughthebackflowinthenearwakecannotbepredicted,recoveredvelocitymagnitudeisin close agreement with experiment. MeanshearandmeanvorticityprofilesintheshearlayercomputedbyCFDshowagoodmatchwiththeliteratureexperimentalresults.

ThethirdCFDworkisconductedon8-,10-, and 12-grooved cylinders.While Cd-mean ofthe 12-grooved cylinder is slightly smallercompared to the 8-grooved, its fluctuatingdrag (rms of Cd) is 29% smaller. AlthoughrmsofCdofthe10-groovedincreasesby44%compared to the 8-grooved, its dominantfrequencyofCddecreasesconsiderablyby69%. θs has been significantly improvedfrom 92o of the 8-grooved to 120o of

190

the 12-grooved. Turbulence intensitycontoursrevealtheimmediatetransitionto turbulence after the first grooves. Inthis way, TKE increases by the numberof grooves and this is followed by a riseinθs.On theotherhand, rmsofCl of the12-grooved increases by 24% comparedwith the 8-grooved. Closer vortex roll-upforthe12-groovedresultsinstrongerdownwash, in turn, more lift forcearises with reference to conservation ofmomentum. Frequency of lift remains

nearlythesameforthegroovedcylinders.In summary, experimental time

statistics of fluctuating forces arepartially reproduced in 2D CFD for asmoothcylinder.Time-averagedvorticityand velocity profiles on the shear layerof the 8-grooved cylinder are fairlywellpredicted by 2D CFD comparing withexperimental results. However, backflowin the immediatewake of the 8-groovedcannotbepredicted.

Figure 8. Instantaneous Contours and Velocity Vector for Maximum Lift Force a) 8-Grooved Cylinder (Cl = 1.34) b) 10-Grooved Cylinder (Cl = 1.46) c) 12-Grooved Cylinder (Cl = 1.59)

Yılmaz/JEMS, 2020;8(3):178-193

191


Figure 9. Instantaneous Pressure Coefficient around the Cylinder for Maximum Lift Force

TI level computed in 2D CFD is wellbelow that of experiments possibly duetoReynoldsaveraginginRANSmodelling.Theabilityofgroovedcylinderstoreducethe fluctuating lift force observed inexperimental literature is not seen in2D CFD analysis. Fluctuating lift force isoverestimated due to inability of 2D CFDtotakeintoaccountvortexdislocations.Itisshownanddiscussedthattheincreasednumber of rounded grooves has thepotential to improve the hydrodynamicdrag characteristics of a cylindricalstructure. Although 2D CFD results areconsistent in itself, it is believed andpartially seen that 2D CFD approach aredeficient predicting highly complicatedflow field around smooth and groovedcylinders. Therefore 3D CFD approach,which will be more proper choice ofresearch tool, is essential to extend theresearch and investigate the benefits ofgrooves.

AcknowledgementThe author would like to thank Eng.

Şafak Doğru (M.Sc.) from Numesys Inc.for his valuable suggestions on themeshstructureinAnsysMeshing.

References[1] Williamson, C. (1996). Vortex

DynamicsintheCylinderWake.Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech., 28 (1), 477–539.https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.fluid.28.1.477.

[2] Zhou, T., Razali, S. F. M. & Cheng, L.(2010). Investigation on Suppressionof Vortex-Induced Vibration UsingHelical Strakes. 29th International Conference on Ocean, Offshore and Arctic Engineering. Shanghai: ASME.https://doi.org/10.1115/OMAE2010-20984

[3] Quen,L.K.,Abu,A.,Kato,N.,Muhamad,P.,Sahekhaini,A.,&Abdullah,H.(2014).Investigation on the Effectiveness ofHelical Strakes in Suppressing VIVofFlexibleRiser.Appl. Ocean Res, 44,82–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apor.2013.11.006.

[4] Allen, D. W., & Allen, C. W. (2008).Fairings vs. Helical Strakes forSuppression of Vortex-InducedVibration: Installation, Maintenance,andEconomicConsiderations.Offshore Technology Conference. Houston.https://doi.org/10.4043/19374-MS.

[5] Stetson, P. B., & Kinnas, S. A. (2013).PIV Measurements of Flow-Field Downstream of a Cylinder in Uniform Flow and Comparisons with CFD (MSc Thesis). The University of Texas atAustin.

[6] Huang, S., & Sworn, A. (2013).Hydrodynamic Coefficients of TwoFixed Circular Cylinders Fitted withHelical Strakes at Various Staggeredand Tandem Arrangements. Appl. Ocean Res, 43, 21–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apor.2013.06.001.

[7] Owen,J.C.,Bearman,P.W.,&Szewczyk,A. A. (2001). Passive Control of VIVWithDragReduction. J. Fluids Struct.,15 (3–4), 597–605. https://doi.org/10.1006/jfls.2000.0358.

[8] Allen, D.W., & Henning, D. (2008).

192

Comparisons of Various FairingGeometries for Vortex SuppressionatHighReynoldsNumbers.Offshore Technology Conference. Houston.https://doi.org/10.4043/19377-ms.

[9] Zhang,Daichin,W.,&Lee,S.J.(2005).PIVMeasurementsoftheNear-wakebehind a Sinusoidal Cylinder. Exp. Fluids,38(6),824–832.https://doi.org/10.1007/s00348-005-0981-9.

[10]Nakamura,H.,&Igarashi,T.(2007).ReductionsinDragandFluctuatingForces for a Circular Cylinder byAttachingCylindricalRings. J. Fluid Sci. Technol, 2 (1), 12–22. https://doi.org/10.1299/jfst.2.12.

[11]Achenbach, E. (1971). Influenceof Surface Roughness on theCross-flow around a CircularCylinder. J. Fluid Mech, 46 (2),321–335.https://doi.org/10.1017/s0022112071000569.

[12]Lam,K.,Wang,F.,&So,R.M.(2004).Three-dimensional Nature ofVorticesintheNearWakeofaWavyCylinder.J. Fluids Struct,19(6),815–833. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfluidstructs.2004.04.004.

[13]Schlichting,H.,&Gersten,K.(2017).Boundary-Layer Theory (9th ed).Berlin:Springer.

[14]Bushnell,D.(1991).DragReductionIn Nature. Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech,23 (1), 65–79. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.fluid.23.1.65.

[15]Lim,H.-C.,&Lee,S.-J. (2002).FlowControl of Circular Cylinders withLongitudinal Grooved Surfaces.AIAA J, 40 (10), 2027–2036.https://doi.org/10.2514/2.1535.

[16] Ko, N. W. M., Leung, Y. C., &Chen, J. J. J. (1987). Flow PastV-groove Circular Cylinders. AIAA J, 25 (6), 806–811. https://doi.org/10.2514/3.9704.

[17]Talley, S., Iaccarino, G., Mungal,

G., & Mansour, N. (2001). AnExperimental and ComputationalInvestigation of Flow Past Cacti.Center for Turbulence Research, Mech. Engg. Dept (AnnualResearchBriefs, pp. 51–63). StanfordUniversity.Available fromhttps://web . s t an fo rd . edu/group/c t r /ResBriefs01/talley.pdf.

[18]El-Makdah, A. M., & Oweis, G. F.(2013). The Flow Past a Cactus-inspired Grooved Cylinder.Exp. Fluids, 54 (2). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00348-013-1464-z.

[19]Liu,Y.Z.,Shi,L.L.,&Yu, J. (2011).TR-PIV Measurement of theWake behind a Grooved Cylinderat Low Reynolds Number. J. Fluids Struct, 27 (3), 394–407.h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 0 1 6 / j .jfluidstructs.2010.11.013.

[20]Morgenthal, G., & Walther,J. H. (2007). An ImmersedInterface Method for The Vortex-In-Cell Algorithm. Comput. Struct, 85 (11–14), 712–726.h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 0 1 6 / j .compstruc.2007.01.020.

[21]Babu, P., & Mahesh, K. (2008).Aerodynamic Loads on Cactus-shaped Cylinders at LowReynolds Numbers. Phys. Fluids, 20 (3), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.2887982.

[22]Abboud, J. E., Karaki, W. S., &Oweis,G.F. (2011).Particle ImageVelocimetry Measurements in theWakeofaCactus-ShapedCylinder.J. Fluids Eng,133(9),094502.https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4004824.

[23]Talley,B.S.,&Mungal,G.(2002).Flowaround Cactus-shaped Cylinders.Center for Turbulence Research, Mech. Engg. Dept (Annual Research Briefs,pp. 363–376). Stanford University.Available from https://web.stanford.edu/group/ctr/ResBriefs02/talley.pdf

Yılmaz/JEMS, 2020;8(3):178-193

193


[24] Trim, A. D., Braaten, H., Lie, H., &Tognarelli,M.A.(2005).ExperimentalInvestigation of Vortex-inducedVibration of Long Marine Risers. J. Fluids Struct, 21 (3), 335–361. SPEC.ISS. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfluidstructs.2005.07.014.

[25] AnsysFluent.(2019).R2,fromhttp://www.ansys.com.

[26] Menter, F. R. (1992). Improved Two-equationK-omegaTurbulenceModelsfor Aerodynamic Flows. NASA Tech. Memo, 103978, 1–31. California.Available from https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19930013620.pdf

[27] AnsysFluentTheoryGuide16.1.[28] Aranake,A.C.,Lakshminarayan,V.K.,&

Duraisamy, K. (2015). ComputationalAnalysis of Shrouded wind TurbineConfigurations using a 3-dimensionalRANS Solver. Renew. Energy, 75,818–832. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2014.10.049.

[29] Sumer, B. M., & Fredsøe, J. (2006).Hydrodynamics Around Cylindrical Structures (revised ed), 26. NewJersey:WorldScientific.

[30] Roshko, A. (1961). Experiments onthe Flow Past a Circular Cylinder atVery High Reynolds Number. J. Fluid Mech, 10(3),pp.345–356.https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022112061000950.

[31] Achenbach, E. (1968). Distributionof Local Pressure and Skin Frictionaround a Circular Cylinder in Cross-Flow up to Re = 5 × 10 6. J. Fluid Mech, 34 (4), 625–639. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022112068002120.

[32] Bearman, P. W. (1969). On VortexShedding from a Circular Cylinderin the Critical Reynolds NumberRágime. J. Fluid Mech, 37 (3), 577–585. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022112069000735.

[33] Dong,S.,&Karniadakis,G.E. (2005).DNS of Flow Past a Stationary and

Oscillating Cylinder at Re = 10000.J. Fluids Struct, 20 (4), 519–531.SPEC. ISS. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfluidstructs.2005.02.004.

[34] Bearman,P.W.(2009).Understandingand Predicting Vortex-inducedVibrations. J. Fluid Mech, 634,1–4 .h t tps ://do i . o rg/10 .1017/S0022112009990851.

[35] Ranjith, E. R., Sunil, A. S. & Pauly,L. (2016). Analysis of Flow over aCircular Cylinder Fitted with HelicalStrakes. Procedia Technol, 24, 452–460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.protcy.2016.05.062.

[36] Norberg, C. (2001). Flow Arounda Circular Cylinder: Aspects ofFluctuating Lift. J. Fluids Struct,15 (3–4), 459–469. https://doi.org/10.1006/jfls.2000.0367.

[37] Yamagishi,Y.&Oki,M. (2005).Effectof the Number of Grooves on FlowCharacteristics around a CircularCylinder with Triangular Grooves.J. Vis, 8 (1), 57–64. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03181603.

[38] Çengel,Y.A.,&Cimbala, J.M. (2013).Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentalsand Applications, 3rd ed. New York:McGraw-Hill.

[39] Somers, D. M. (1997). Design andExperimental Results for the S809Airfoil. Natl. Renew. Energy Lab. NREL,NREL/SR-44,Golden,Colorado.Availablefromhttps://www.nrel.gov/docs/legosti/old/6918.pdf

[40] Kreyszig, E. (2011). AdvancedEngineering Mathematics (10th ed.)NewJersey:JohnWiley&Sons.

194

JournalofETAMaritimeScienceSenbursa&Ozdemir/JEMS, 2020;8(3):194-209

10.5505/jems.2020.41275

Raising Awareness About Women in Turkish Maritime Industry

Nihan ŞENBURSA1, Pınar ÖZDEMİR2

1OrduUniversity,FatsaFacultyofMarineSciences,Turkey2PiriReisUniversity,MaritimeHigherVocationalSchool,Turkey

[email protected]; ORCIDID:https://orcid.org/[email protected];ORCIDID:https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9878-8139

CorrespondingAuthor:NihanSENBURSA

ABSTRACT

Themaritimesectorismale-dominated.Womenworkinginthissectorfacethechallengesof not only working in a male-dominated working environment but also being at sea,far from their home and families for a long time. Moreover, they struggle with manymisperceptionsandprejudiceagainst them. In this study, suchnegative feelingsagainstwomenintheTurkishmaritimesectorareexaminedthoroughly,andtheeliminationwaysofthemareexamined.Thedatainthisresearchhavecollectedbyemployingsurveyandstructured interviewmethods.After evaluation, themain stakeholderswhohave a roleinbuildingcareerpathof thewomeninmaritimeindustryaredeterminedasbeingthewomenthemselves,theirmalecolleagues,families,educationinstitutions,andemployersinthesector.Inconclusion,therolesofthesestakeholdersineliminatingnegativeattitudestowardswomenarediscussed.

Keywords

Maritime,Women,Misperception,Prejudice,Stakeholders.

ORIGINALRESEARCH(AR)Received: 04 February 2020 Accepted: 15 September 2020

To cite this article:Senbursa,N.&Ozdemir,P.(2020).RaisingAwarenessAboutWomeninTurkishMaritimeIndustry.Journal of ETA Maritime Science,8(3),194-209.To link to this article: https://dx.doi.org/10.5505/jems.2020.41275

1. IntroductionResearch shows that women working

in male-dominated sectors have someproblems that are different from those ofother working women [1]. Maritime is amale-dominatedsectorwherewomenmayfaceuniqueproblemsbecausetheynotonlyworkinamale-dominatedenvironmentbutalso livethere,andtheyare far fromtheirfamilies and home for extended periods.Therefore, it is commonly observed thatthey have some problems particular tothis sector; however, these problemshave

been ignored for a long time. It was onlywhenmoremaritimeschoolsopenedtheirdoorstofemalestudentsandmorewomenbegan to be employed in the sector thatresearchers began to study what theirproblemsareandhowtheycanbesolved.Thenumberoffemalestudentsinmaritime-related departments is still considerablylimited. That means female cadets gofrommale-dominatedclassroomstomale-dominated workplaces. In other words,they start to experience the challenges ofmale-dominated working environment as

195


earlyastheystartuniversityeducation[2].Thissituationmaycauseseveralproblems,andsomethingshouldbedonetohelpthemwith their fight against all these potentialproblems like discrimination, bullying,or harassment. Thus they can actualizethemselves and maritime industry canbenefit fromall theycancontribute to thesector.

2. Literature Review2.1. Global Approaches To Women

In1988,thesupportoftheInternationalMaritime Organization’s (IMO) strategyfor the integration of women into themaritime industry, and the following year,the implementation of IMO Women inDevelopment Program, accelerated theadmittanceofwomentothemaritimeworld[3].Intoday’sworld,similarapproachesstillareperformedbytheIMOandinternationalnongovernmental organizations such asUnited Nations, Global Fund for Women,and The Association for Women's Rightsin Development. IMO Secretary-GeneralKitack Lim emphasizes the importanceand urgency of the realization of the UNSustainable Development Goal (SDG) 5:Gender equality in the shipping industry[4].WithinthescopeofSDG5,IMOkeepsitscommitmenttoachievegenderequalitynotonly at seabutalsoonshore jobsbyadopting "Achieve gender equality andempowerallwomenandgirls”[5].

Supporting women in the maritimeindustry and increasing womenemployment both working onboard asseafarers and onshore in managerialpositions as maritime professionalsshall only be provided by implementingnew approaches to maritime sectordynamics. Encouragement ofwomen canbe sustained by discovering two pioneeraspects: 1) by enabling their attainmentto the essential education and theirparticipation to the labor force, and 2)by supporting them both at entry-level

positions and any stage of their career[6].Womenhaveadvancedanalyticalandmultitasking skills which are demandedbyshippingcompanies[7].Thepreferenceof women employment in the maritimesector shows concrete results. Accordingto the McKinsey Report (2018), thecompaniesinthetop-quartileintermsofgender diversity, which executive teamsalso consist of women were 21% morelikely to outperform on profitability and27% more likely to have superior valuecreation [8]. Therefore, the report’sresults showed that companies that hadgreat performance on both profitabilityanddiversityhadmorewomeninline(forexample,income-generating)rolesthaninstaffrolesontheirexecutiveteams.Inthemaritimeindustry,ifwomenaretriggeredand pulled to the maritime sector aspart of a diverse maritime workforce,wider opportunities for women willbe suitable both at leadership andmanagerialpositionswhichisabenefitinacompetitivemarketlikemaritime[9].

According to the International LaborOrganization’s Report (2019), shareof women in managerial positions byregion, between the years 1991–2018is as following: world’s average 27.1%,Americas 39%, Europe and Central Asia34.4 %, Asia and The Pacific 22.5 %,Africa 20.3 %, Arab States 11.1 % [10].However, the number of women whoare in managerial positions and in chaircompanyboardsisstilllimited.Theshareofwomensittingoncompanyboards,from2010–2016variesfrom0%inGermanyto4.6%intheUnitedStates,whichshowedthat glass disparity needs both in theinternationalandnationalarena[11].Sincemaritime women’s contribution to themaritimesectorhasbeenunderestimated,women at managerial positions haven’thadachancetoconfute.Therefore,raisingawarenessofthesuccessofwomeninthemaritimeindustrywasnotsufficient[12].

196

2.2. A Global View of Maritime Women in Recent Years

The obstacles for maritime womenarenot the sameas theywere sixtyyearsago. Thanks to the battlewonby the firstwomen seafarers in history, in today’sworld, maritime women can access tomany maritime institutions. As stated inWorld Economic Forum’s Global GenderGapReport2020,amongNordiccountries,Swedenisholdingthehighestrecord,with15.7% of female graduates from Science,Technology, Engineering andMathematics(STEM) programs [13]. In order to createmoreawareness,itisimportanttopromoteand introduce maritime fields and oceansciences(inthefieldsofscience,technology,engineering, andmathematics (STEM)) tomorewomen and girls in their early ages[14]. In recent years, regardless of theirsex,maritimestudents(especiallystudyingdeck and engine departments) have hadseriousproblemswith finding internshipsonboard both in theworld and in Turkey.According to the survey held by Ghosh &Bowles(2013)amongAustralianMaritimeEducationandTraining(MET)Institutions,theresultsreconfirmedthesestrugglesonfinding suitable cadetship onboard [15].Thestruggle starts fromtheir studentshipcadetprogramonboard.

Froman industrialperspective, it isanundeniable fact that struggles, problems,and bad experiences that maritimecompanies encounter in terms of womenseafarers and women holding managerialpositions have a butterfly effect on theapproach of maritime entities [16]. Theprejudices of ship owners and maritimecompanies set a big challenge for youngladieswhichmakethemfeeldiscriminatedatthebeginningoftheirprofessionallife.

Inthetransportsector,aswellasinthemaritime sector, women are consideredincapable and weak both physically andmentally. Stereotypes about women inthe transport sectormayendupwith low

demand of female community. Therefore;employmentandtrainingproblemsbecomemore difficult for female students andwomeninScience,Technology,Engineeringand Mathematics (STEM) fields [17]. It isa crucial fact that ship owners should beencouragedtogivingequalopportunitiestoaccept female cadets onboard consideringthe importance of this process in havingexperience in the field . Some maritimecompanieshavealreadystartedtosupportmaritime women and give them fairchances to show their skills andabilities .Thesecompaniescooperatewithmaritimeeducation and training (MET) institutionsto employ current cadets meaning futureofficers[18].

2.3. The Admission of Women to Maritime Colleges

Until the late 1970s, many womenseafarerswerefacingbarriersinacceptancetothemaritimeinstitutions,andmaritimeschools’criteria,mostlyaimedatsupportingmen. However, the acceptance of womento the maritime faculties and maritimeeducation and training institutions datesbacktothe1970’sintheworld[19].Someexamplesofwomenadmissiondatestothecollegesareasfollowing:1920’sinRussia,1950’sinChina,1970’sintheUSA,Sweden,Portugal,Ghana[19];1990’sinTurkey[20]andChile[21].ForthefirsttimeinTurkey’shistory,intheacademicyearof1991/1992,IstanbulUniversity,FacultyofEngineering,Department of Maritime TransportManagementEngineeringstartedtoacceptfemalestudents(totalquotaof26students).After this, in order to provide academicproficiency of maritime women, in 1997DokuzEylulUniversity,SchoolofMaritimeBusiness and Management, in 1999Istanbul Technical University MaritimeFacultyandNearEastUniversityMaritimeFaculty, and in 2001 Karadeniz TechnicalUniversity Surmene Faculty of MarineSciencesfollowedthisapproachforwomen

Senbursa&Ozdemir/JEMS, 2020;8(3):194-209

197


seafarers. Henceforth, as trickle-downeffect, manymaritime schools in Turkeyhave opened its doors to female students[20].Thankstothesesuccessfulinitiatives,intheprocessoftime,theambitioninsidethe first women officers made themwarriorsoftheoceansandhelpedthemtobecome the first womenMasterMarinersinTurkey.Thepathtosuccesswasnoteasy.This struggle for existence in their careerwastorefuteagainstbias[21].

3. MethodTheaimofthisstudyistodeterminethe

factors preventing awareness of women’scontributiontotheTurkishmaritimesectorandtodiscussthewaystoimprovethem.

To this end, two methods were usedto obtain the data. Firstly, a 11-statementsurvey aiming to question the awarenessforwomen’s contribution to themaritimesector was prepared and given to all thestakeholders,suchasbothmenandwomenseafarers, employers, ship owners, peopleworking in maritime companies, andmaritimeentrepreneurs in the sector.Thefirst two statements in the survey werequestions while the rest nine statementswere propositions. The first question ofthesurveywasademographicquestiontolearnthegenderof therespondentswhiletheotherswerethosepreparedtoseetheirperceptionsofwomeninthesector,tolearnthe problems women face and to studythe ways to solve them. The survey wasrespondedby657peoplefromthemaritimesector.Sincethefirstquestion,whichaskedthe gender of the respondents, was leftblank by some respondents, it was notpossibletosayhowmanywomenandhowmanymenparticipated in thesurvey.Thisisalimitationoftheresearch.However,thegenderdistributionoftherespondentscanroughlybeestimatedtakingthepercentageofthosewhorespondedtothefirstquestionintoconsideration.Among657peoplewhojoinedthesurvey,185peopleansweredthe

firstquestion.38,4%oftheserespondentswerewomen(71)and61,6%ofthemweremen(114).ThesurveywasgiveninSurveyMonkey and the choiceswere categorizedas"Yes","No"and"Maybe".

Thesecondmethodusedintheresearchwas the structured interview methodwhich was conducted with 48 people, 22of whom are women. The intervieweeswere from different positions in thesector.Mostof themwereseafarers.Someof the rest were employers while somewere just company workers at differentpositions.Allmale interviewershad someexperience of working with women. Eachinterview took approximately 20 minutessince 11 questions were asked and somedetailed responses were expected. Someinterviewees gave short answers whilesomeofthemgavedetailedanswerswhichincluded their own experiences. We tooknotes during the interviews, and after allthe interviewswere finished,weused thedata we obtained in the comments andexplanationpartsofeachquestion.Itisalsoused to support the findings part of thispaper.Thequestionswereclearandeasytounderstandandanswer,sotheintervieweesdidn’tcomeupwithsomeissueswhichmaystirethicalconcerns.Duringtheinterviews,whichwere face to face,weobserved thatsome of the interviewees were hesitantto clearly express their opinion for fearof offending the interviewers, who arewomen. This was another limitation thatwetriedtoovercomebyassuringthemthattheir names wouldn’t be revealed in thestudyand that thiswasscientificresearchwhich required correct answers. Theinterviewerswerefromdifferentpositionsinthesector.Mostofthemwereseafarers.Somewereemployerswhilesomewerejustcompanyworkersatdifferentpositions.Allmale interviewers had some experienceof working with women. Each interviewtook about 20 minutes on average since10 questions were asked and some

198

detailed responses were expected. Someinterviewees gave short answers whilesomeofthemgavedetailedanswerswhichincluded their own experiences. We tooknotes during the interviews, and after allthe interviews were finished, we usedthe data obtained through the commentsand explanation parts of each question. Itis also used to support the findings partof this study. The questions were cleareasy tounderstand and answer, so issues,whichmightstirethicalconcerns,werenotemergedbyinterviewees.

4. FindingsIn the following part, each question in

thesurvey,thenumberof itsrespondents,andthepercentagesoftheoptionschosenaregiventogetherwiththeresponsesinthestructuredinterview.

1. Do you think that the maritime industry is known enough in Turkey? Do you think necessary and promotional activities for the development of maritime culture in our country are carried out?

78% percent of 651 respondents whoanswered this question gave a negativeanswerwhile only 11% replied positively.11% of the respondents had either noidea or did notwant to comment on this.That result indicates that many of therespondents think thatmaritime industryis not well-known sector in Turkey.Interviews made on this subject indicatethattheparticipantsthinkthatTurkeyhasabigpotential in themaritime sector, butcannotmakeuseofitmuchenoughandthepromotionof themaritimesector ismadeby the maritime schools only. They alsoexpressthatthecadetswhoprefertogototheseschoolsusuallycomefromthecoastalareas. Besides the respondents who saythere isaslight increase in thenumberofpeopleprefertoworkinthemaritimesectordespite very limited promotion activities,therearethosewhoclaimmaritimecultureisgettinglostdaybyday. Moreover,some

respondents think the maritime sector isunder the control of the wealthy peopleonly. One of the interviewees said, ”Onlythe richpeople can takepart in sea-goingactivities. Since it requires a lot ofmoney,thepoorpeoplecannotparticipateinthese,even if they want to. It is too expensive.”Consequently, it is seen that the vastmajorityofrespondentsthinkthemaritimesector is not well-known in Turkey andpromotionalactivitiesforthedevelopmentofmaritimecultureinourcountryarenotcarriedout.

2. Is maritime business specific to men?28%oftherespondentsgaveapositive

answer to this question contrary to the65% who gave a negative answer. 7% ofthemwere indecisive. These figures showthat maritime is not seen as a men's job.However,thefactthattherearealotmoremeninthesectorthanwomenshowsthatwomen don't prefer this job. Statisticsshowthatthepercentageofwomeninthesectorisabout1-2%[22].

The data obtained from interviewsprovethatthereisanegativeperceptionforwomeninthesector.Althoughthesuccessof women in the sector is an importantfactortoeliminatethisperception,therearenotmanygoodrolemodelssincetherearenotmanywomeninthesector.Thosewhoclaimthatmaritimeisspecifictomensaythat technologicaldevelopmentseliminatethe differences deriving from gender, butactually, theydonot proveuseful becausethey do not change the fact that womenare more vulnerable than men, but someinterviewees have pointed on somethingthatcanbechanged.Theysaid“Itmaybehardatthebeginning,butthewomenwhoreally want to work in this sector will bepersistentandshewillbeabletodomostthingsthatshecouldnotdoatthebeginningbecause of not being as strong as men.Exerciseandhardworkwillhelpwomentohaveastrongandenduringbody.”Anotherintervieweesaid“Theeffectsofmenstrual


199


cycle on the physical working capacity ofwomenareclear.Somemenusethisasanexcusenottoemploywomenonboard.Theyknowthisisatemporarysituation,buttheydo not want to accept this.” Another oneadvised, “On-the-job training emphasizingthe benefits of women onboard may behelpful formentoacceptwomenasequalcolleagues onboard.” Despite all thesenegative perceptions, the statement thatthemaritimesectorisnotunderthecontrol

(a)

Figure 1. Percentage of replies for questions 1(a) and 2 (b)

(b)

ofmenisacceptedbyamajorityashighas65%,whichisagoodsignfortheexistenceofwomeninthesector.

3. Due to the physiological structure of women, that is because of the physical aspects of them, it is difficult to work at sea and onboard for her.

15% of the participants have no ideaaboutthistopic.Halfoftherestagreewiththestatementabovewhiletheotherhalfdon't.Maritime,whichhas longbeen thought tobemoresuitableformen[23],hasstartedtogetridofthisprejudicebydigitalizationandtechnologicaldevelopments[24].Thatthe percentages of the respondents whoagreeanddonotagreewiththisstatementare close to each other can be seen as animprovement. On the evaluation of thecommentsmadebytheintervieweesonthisstatement, it is seen that the success andefficiencyofthewomenworkingonboardwilldefinitelyeliminatetheprejudices.Oneof the interviewees who is a captain saidthat"Iworkedwithalotoffemaleonboardandwitnessedthattheycreatedapositiveawarenesstoagreatextent".Thestatementprovesthatifpeoplehaveachancetoworkwith women they will appreciate theirpositive contributions to life onboard. Onthe other hand, there are those who saythatprejudiceagainstwomenisveryhardtobreakdownandtherearestillsomejobsthat require physical strength despite theimprovements on the technical field. Thebiggesthandicapsforwomenaboutthisarethe pregnancy and child-bearing. Womenare away from the ship during theseperiodsandcannotgofarawayfromtheirchildren because of maternal obligations.For a woman with children waiting forherathome,goingbackonboardshipandworking as enthusiastically as before areveryhard,ifnotimpossible.

4. In the maritime profession, which is male-dominated, it is difficult for women to exist both onshore and onboard.

52%oftherespondentsagreewiththis

200

statementwhile 40% think the opposite.The maritime sector is hard to work in.Seafarersare farawaynotonly fromtheirfamilies and beloved ones for a long timebutalsofromthelandandnormalworkingconditions that a workplace on land canoffertothem.Therefore,workingatsea ishard for anyone,whethermenorwomen.When interviewees' comments on thestatementsaretakenintoconsideration, itis seen that there isnotabigdiscrepancybetween those who accept that workingon the land is as hard as working at seafor women and those who don't acceptthis. Some of the respondents say thatwomenshouldworkontheland,notatsea.However,most of them think thatwomenfacehardnessbothatseaandonlandandthey can overcome all the hardnesswhentheyaresupportedinagoodway.Asoneoftheintervieweesputsit,"Itishardtoworkonboard, but not too hard for women toovercome".Ontheotherhand,inmaritime,likewithallthemen-dominatedjobs,thereis amisperception and negative prejudiceagainst women. What should be done isthat men should be informed about thepositive contributions women can maketothesectorandaccepttheequalityofthetwo genders. Another comment made bytheintervieweesisthatwomenwhochoosetoworkonboardare thosewhohaveself-confidence andwho believe that they cansucceedasmuchasmencan.Womenwiththese characteristics face no problems incoping with the hardships and they canbe role models for the others. It seemsthat most people have firm ideas on theexistenceofwomeninthemaritimesectorsinceonly8%oftherespondentsexpressedtheydidnothaveanyideas.

5. In the maritime sector, efforts should be made to ensure that the number of women employed in management companies and onboard ships could be higher than men in maritime companies. Actions requiring affirmative action, such as a certain quota for

women and a 10% increase in salaries, are necessary to increase women's awareness in the maritime sector.

40%oftherespondentsgaveapositiveanswer,and43%said"no"while17%didnot have an idea on this statement. It isseen that the number of those,who thinkpositivelyaboutthis,arealmostthesameasthosewhothinknegatively.Althoughitmayseem right thatwomen should be given acertainquotabecauseofthehardshipstheyfaceforemploymentinthemaritimesector,itismorelogicaltotakeawaythehardshipspreventing them from achieving thepositions theydeserve rather than to givethemacertainquota.Whenthecommentsfrom the interviewees are reviewed, it isseenthatallocatingaquotatowomenand,especially,givingahighersalarytowomenarereactedveryseverelynotonlybymenbutalsobywomen.Besidesthosewhodefendthat such discrimination will shadow thestruggleofwomenforequality,someclaimthatitwillgetanegativereactionfrommen.Interviewees say that women who reallywant toworkonboardandwhoare readytodothisproperlyareappreciatedbytheircolleagues,buttherearethosewhowanttoabusetheprivilegestheymaygetastheremaybe ineverysociety. Intervieweesalsoexpress that even treating women fairly,let alone positively, will lead to positivedevelopments. However, the increase inthesalary isonepoint thatgets theworstreaction, and there are even those whoclaim that such a behavior can be called“labortheft”.

6. Maritime departments such as Maritime Business Administration, Maritime Transportation and Management Engineering, Naval Engineering, Marine Engineering, etc. can be introduced with the participation of the Academic Staff of Maritime Faculties in high schools.

The vast majority of the participants,that is 80% of them, approved the ideathatthisstatementconveys.Thenumberof


201


peoplewhodidnotagreewiththestatementwas as low as 5%while 15% of them didnot have any ideas. The fact that there aremore“YES”answerssignalsthatjobsinthemaritime industry should be introducedbetter to the people. When the commentsfrom the interviewees are taken intoconsideration,itisseenthatthepromotionof these jobs should be made realistically.That is why cadet candidates should beinformedabouttheseschoolsbythosewhohaveexperienceatsea,and,becauseofthis,whocanrevealthenegativesidesofthejobas much as positive sides. Another thingthat is pointed out is that the maritimesector should be promoted to the peoplewhentheyareyoungandreadytolearnandpracticenewthings.As itwasstatedbyaninterviewee"Theearlier is thebetter.Eventhechildrenatprimaryschoolshouldlearnaboutmaritime".Thiswillhelp themmakeaninformedchoicefortheirfuturecareer.

7. Reasons such as marriage and pregnancy cause women to leave the maritime profession early.

Duties like pregnancy and child care,which women undertake because of their

physicalstructure,causean interruption intheirwork-lifenotonlyinmaritimebutalsoinallsectors.Only12%oftherespondentsdonotagreewiththisideawhile63%ofthemthinkwomenleavefromtheirjobsbecauseofthesematernalduties,asFigure2(b)shows.Asforthecommentsfromtheinterviewees,theyshowthatthereisadissidenceonthissubject.Whilesomeofthemindicatethatthisisanaturalperiodthatcanbeexperiencedwithall the jobs, someothers say that thissubjecthassomethingtodowiththechoicesand priorities of women and those whowanttogoonwiththeircareercandothateven when the pregnancy period is overand the children are grown-up enough tostartschool.Oneofthemsays,"Bothparentshaveequalresponsibilityforchildren.Maleseafarersdon'tleavetheirjobbecausetheyhavetolookaftertheirchildren.Itshouldbethesameforthefemalewhoshouldgobackto their job onboard after the children aregrownupenoughtobetakencareofoneoftheparents."What’smore,theyexpressthatsometimes family life and having childrencanalsoaffectmenandcausethemtoleavetheircareersasseafarers.

(a) (b)Figure 2. Percentage of replies for questions 6 (a) and 7 (b)

202

8. Women's analytical and organizational skills are better than men.

Responses given to this statementshow that the participants have theperception that the dominancy of somecharacteristicschangesbygender,andtheythinkthatwomenhavebetteranalyticandorganizationalabilities.Ontheotherhand,interviewees emphasize that such kindof characteristics do not have anythingto dowith the gender butwith the socialand educational background, with thewayapersonisraised,orwithwhetherornot he has practical intelligence. Despitethis, if the facts that thesurveywas takenby the people in the maritime sectorand responses are based on their ownexperiences and observations are takeninto consideration, it can be said that theideawhichthestatementconveysiscorrecttoalimiteddegree.Anotherpointsignalingthis is the discrepancy between positiveandnegativeresponses,whichare45%and27%respectively.Ontheotherhand,28%of the respondents say that they have noidea.Thisisaportionwhichisclosetotheportionofthosewhothinkthatwomenarenotbetterthanmenregardingthoseskills.Basedonthis,itispossibletosaythatmostpeople in the sector think that women inthemaritime sectorhavebetter analyticalandorganizationalskillsthanmen.

9. Working in the maritime sector as a ship owner, port, shipyard, broker, freight forwarder is easier for women than working at sea.

Avastmajorityoftherespondents,thatis69%,agreewiththisidea.12%ofthemdonotagreewhile19%express that theydonothaveanidea.Thosewithnoideaonthisstatement aremore than thosewho don'tthink the statement is right. Intervieweesbelievethatworkinginthesefieldsiseasynotonlyforwomenbutalsoformen.Someof them comment on the statement bybearingthefactinmindthateveryjobhasitsownhardshipsandresponsibilitiesand

they express that the field towork in is amatter of preference and because peopledowhattheylikeeasily,workingatsea,thatisdoingtheworktheylike,isnothardforthem.Oneofthemsays,"Itmaychangefromculturetoculture,butinourculture,womenshouldbeathomeearlyintheeveningforapeacefullifeathome",emphasizingthefactthatculturalvaluesmaybeeffectiveforthecareerofwomen.

10. Negative experiences of women sailors on board (such as accidents, psychological pressure, mobbing, emotional intimacy, extreme emotionality etc.) have a negative effect on ship owners' prejudice regarding female seafarers' employment and the employment of female seafarers on board.

Figure 3. Percentage of replies for questions 9 (a) and 10 (b)

(a)

(b)


203


As Figure 3 (b) shows, the percentageof the respondents who agreed with thisstatement is strikingly high (71%). Thissignals the fact that women face a greatamountofprejudiceandthereisalongwaytogointhemaritimesectortobreakdownthis.Itisseenthatnotonlywomenbutalsomen agree with the idea this statementconveys and they think such behaviorsprevent women from being assigned inmaritime jobs. But some comments fromthe interviewees show that the hardshipsin question are experienced by not onlywomen but also men and these are validnotonlyinmaritimebutalsoinotherjobs.Whilewomenclaimthatpeoplepushthemaroundonpurposeandmenarepreferredby the employers especially for seagoingjobs,men claim that is not the case. Theysaywomendonotworkatseajustbecausetheydon'twanttoandtheyshouldn'tlookforsomeoneresponsibleforthis.

Analysis of FindingsData obtained from the survey and

interviews prove that there is a problemofperceptiontowardswomeninmaritimesector. This paper looks at this problemfrom the viewpoints of the stakeholdersand states what can be done by each ofthemtoeradicateit.

As a result of the research, it is foundthatalthoughwomenseafarersliketheirjobandtheywanttoworkatsea,prejudiceinsocietyandmisperceptionsofstakeholdersabout women in the sector prevent themfrom reaching their goal. To prevent thisandtohelpwomeninachievingtheirgoal,all the stakeholders, who are the womenthemselves, the men working with them,familieswhicharethebasicbuildingblocksofsociety,maritimeeducationinstitutions,andemployersinthesector,areexpectedtodo something. By using the data obtainedthroughthesurveyandtheinterviews,whatthestakeholdersareanticipatedtodointheprocessofeliminatingmisperceptionsand

prejudice for women are studied and theresultisgiveninthefollowingparagraphs:

Women seafarers are those whochoose this jobbearing the risks it bringsin mind. They are aware of the fact thatthere is a misperception towards themin the sector and they fight to beat this.They organize meetings, conferences,seminars, and establish networking tostrengthen solidarity among them. Sincethe misperception towards women iscommonplace in the sector, IMO decidedthe theme of World Maritime Day 2019as “Empowering Women in the MaritimeCommunity” and organized severalactivities on that day [25]. The activities,which bring all the stakeholders togetheron this issue, reveal that the prejudicewomen experience in the sector is theprejudice the women in the maritimesector can face more or less in the sameway as in everywhere in the world. It isalsounderstoodthat theseproblemsstemnotonly fromthemisperceptionsbutalsofrom social and cultural backgroundsand expectations in different countries.Because of these radical reasons, it is notexpectedthattheseproblemscaneasilybesolved,buttheremaybesomesolutionstothese such as mentoring and networking,theeffectsofwhichcanbe realized in thelong run. On the other hand, despite thehardshipswomenexperienceinthesector,theyrefusetobegivensomeprivilegesandstate that all they want is fair treatment.Theonlyexceptiontothisisthematernityperiod. Incasewomenwant togoback toserveonboardaftersomedivinerolesandresponsibilities they are given by naturesuchasmotherhoodorchildcare,itwillbehelpful to give them some privileges suchas being assigned at ashore units till thechildrengrowuptoacertainageorbeinggivensomehelpforchildcare.Thiswillbebeneficialforbothincreasingthenumberofwomeninthesectorandsatisfyingtheneedforefficientpersonnelthatthesectorneeds.

204

On the other hand, some intervieweesbelieve thatwomenshouldend theirdutyonboardandworkatashoreunitsforgoodfamilylife.

Menshoulddotheirsharetohelpwomenwiththeirfightagainstthemisperceptionsandbias they face in the sectorand judgethemwiththemoralandintellectualvalueswhich they obtained by working togetherwithwomennotwith thosewhichbelongtootherpeople.Whatisexpectedfrommenis not to generalize some bad examplesthatcanbefoundateverysocietytoallthewomen in maritime and appreciate thosewomenwhodotheirworkwell.Womenaremore emotional and vulnerable by naturecomparedwithmen. Menshouldnottakethese traits as weakness and instead ofgoingforjugularonlybecausewomenwanttoworkatamen-dominatedsector,whichis traditionally their own field, in theiropinion, they should try to make use oftheirstrength.

Families which are the basic unitsof social life are among the importantstakeholders who have a role to give theplace women deserve in maritime. Thecharacter of the people is shaped whenthey are young. If the families pass downnegative feelings and prejudice aboutwomen to their children, to the boys, thiswill influence them during their life. Thatiswhy the familiesmustplant the ideaofgenderequalityintotheirchildren'smindsandsupporttheirdaughtersaswellastheirsonsiftheywanttogotomaritimeschoolsandwork onboard ships. It should not beforgottenthateducationstartsinthefamily.

Maritime schools can take importantsteps to promote both the sector andschools correctly and tomake the humancapital stronger in the sector. Those whoare interested in sea are people with tieswiththeseaandthosewhomakeuseofseaboth tomake their living and as a hobby.Unfortunately, although our country issurroundedbyseaonthreesides,onlythe

people living at the seaside are familiarwith sea and that’swhy only the childrenwhohavegrownupattheseasidewanttobeseafarers.Therefore,ifthepromotionofmaritimeschoolsismadeinawaytoreachthe remotest parts of the country, morepeoplewill be awareofmaritimeas a jobfield,andmorestudents,thatismorefemalestudents,willknowaboutit.Animportantpoint here is that thosewho promote themaritimesectorshouldintroducenotonlythe good sides of it tomakemore peopleinterestedinit,buttheyshouldalsoincludethehardsidesofitnottomakethesepeopledisappointed later. That is how peoplewho do not know much about hardshipsin maritime can be prevented to attendmaritime schools and to be a burden onthe school’s first and then on the sectorsince they may, sooner or later, realizethefactthattheyarenotsuitabletoworkonboard,sotheywillwanttoworkonshoreorneglect theirdutiesbecause theydon’tlikethem.

Employers are also among thestakeholders who can take some stepsto help women for a better career in themaritime. Interventions such as applyingaquotaforwomenandmakingitpossibleforwomentoberepresentedwithacertainfraction in the sector are among theonesimplied in the survey, but the responsesgiven to the statements about these andthe interviews made in the frame ofthe study show that such interventionsare found damaging by both men andwomen. They indicated that instead ofsuch affirmative actions, there shouldn’tbeany interventions,neither formennorfor women, which means the negativeone should also be erased. When this ispossible,thevacantpositionswillbegiventothosewhodeservethem,andwomenwillnotbedeniedsomejobsjustbecausetheyarewomen.Providingsuchequalitywillbeprofitableforbothwomenandemployers,that is,womenwill finda job towork for


205


while employers will have the chanceto make use of their skills and abilities.Another thing expressed by intervieweesis that employers should do somethingto eliminate the glass ceiling barrier forwomen. If there are enough support forpregnancyandearlychildcareperiodsforwomen, they will not be prevented fromclimbingthecareerladderinthemaritime.

The last thing the interviewees haveemphasized is that all these stakeholdersshouldsupporteachotherandtheyneedtobeincooperationcontinuouslyandcloselywitheachothertoeliminatethebarriersforwomen in themaritimesector (Figure4).Today,technologicaldevelopmentsmadeiteasynotonlyforwomenbutalsoformentoworkonboard.Regardingthis,cooperationfor the prevention ofmisperceptions andprejudiceagainstwomenshouldbemadeand more women should be supportedto work onboard. This will be beneficialfor women to actualize themselves andwillhavepositiveeffectsonthesector,theeconomy, and the welfare of the country,which will make use of their skills andabilities.

Figure 4. Stakeholders to have a role to eliminate prejudice and misperceptions about women in maritime

AsisseeninFigure4,stakeholderswhohavethemostimportantrolesinchangingthe misperception and prejudice aboutwomeninthemaritimesectorarewomenthemselves,menwhoworkwithwomen,thefamiliesofthestakeholdersinthemaritimesector, educational institutions wheremaritimesectoremployeesaretrainedandeducated,andemployersinthesector.Thesustainingthewomenemploymentinthesector, their happiness, job satisfaction,and productivity heavily depend on theirrelationswiththesestakeholdersaswellasthe relations among themselves. It is alsovery important that all these, except forwomen themselves, should have positivethoughtsaboutwomeninthesectorfreeofprejudiceandmisperceptions.

5. Discussion and ConclusionSincethemaritimeisamale-dominated

and demanding sector, it is not easy for awell-educated,qualifiedwomanwhowantstowork in this sector to find a job as shelikes. Even if she finds one, shemay haveto leave it early because of somenegativeattitudes towards her. Maritime women,who are well aware of this, have beenstrugglingtocopewiththehardships,bias,andmisperceptionstheyface[1,26,27].

There have been many studies andactivitiestosupportthestruggleofwomenin getting the place they deserve in themaritime sector. For example, achievinggenderequalityandempoweringallwomenand girls have been the goals of IMO'sGender Program [5] and employment ofwomeninthemaritimesectorissupportedin the International Women’s Conference,2019 [14]. In addition, the participationofwomen inmaritime jobs is encouragedby various organizations such as IMO.As Tansey [3] points out, they were firstacceptedtomaritimeschoolsover30yearsago.Sincethenmanyconferences,seminarsand meetings have been conducted toincrease the awareness of people about

206

the women in maritime. Unfortunately,noneofthemhaveresultedinasignificantrise in the awareness for the existence ofwomen in the maritime sector, as Kitada[12]indicates.Theirchancetobeemployedis little in this sector, and to be promotedto the managerial positions, similar tomany other sectors, is next to nothing asindicated in the report by InternationalLabourOrganization(ILO)[10].

Theoretically, they are given a numberof rights, so they are supposed to faceless and less obstacles each passing year,but, in practice, as Ghosh & Bowles [15]and Kitada&Harada [17] point out theystill have difficulty in finding internshipsas students and finding jobs as seafarers.AlthoughgenderequalitywhichisstatedinhasbeenmadeaSDGbyIMO,theprogressisslowanditseemsthatitwilltakedecadesforwomentoattaintheplacetheydeservein the maritime sector. Eliminating thebarriersisnoteasyforwomen,becauseitisseenthattherearealotofmisperceptionsand prejudice againstwomenwhich stemfromthesocialandculturalstructureofthesociety.Insteadofacceptingwomenastheyare, thebelief thatwomencannotsucceedin maritime jobs and the belittlement oftheir skills and abilities cause irreparableharmtothewomenaswellastothesector.womenstatethattheywanttobeacceptedastheyare,thattheydon’texpectpositivediscrimination in theemploymentprocessbut want to be treated equally. Men areexpectedtotreatwomenthesameastheytreatothermen.Theyshouldneitherbullywomentocausethemtoleavetheirjobnorprotectthemjustbecausetheyarewomen.Theeliminationofprejudicethathasbeencreated by all kinds of events throughoutcenturies and copingwith thedevastatingeffects of the misperceptions caused bythemarenoteasy,butthestruggletogivethewomen the place they deserve shouldstartfromsomewhereandallstakeholdersshould do what is expected from them

during this struggle. It should not beforgotten that the most important actorsinraisingtheawarenesswomen’sequalityin society are families and education andtraininginstitutions.Forthisreason,equaltreatment for women and men is notlimitingthejobchoicesofwomen,andnotkeepingthemawayfromanyopportunitiesjust because they are girls should startin the family. Maritime schools should dotheir share and emphasize that maritime,whichistraditionallyknownastherealmofmen,offerscareerchoicesforwomen,too,andwomenhaveavoice inmaritime, too.Lastbutnot least,employers inthesectorshould be fair in the employment processand should not refuse candidates onlybecausetheyarewomenorhirecandidatesonlybecausetheyaremen.

As is seen, maritime women haveboth a glass ceiling above them and glassbulkheads around them which are madeof misperceptions and prejudice. Theseglass bulkheads together with the glassceiling cause women in the maritime tohave a harder career path and a harderself-actualization process in comparisonwith their colleagues in other sectors. Toclearthewaywomenwilltakeinmaritimeisnotsosimpleastobeachievedbyafewstakeholdersinashorttime,onthecontrary,it is a demanding long-term process thatrequirescooperationbyallstakeholders.Ifallthestakeholdersinthemaritimesectordotheirshareproperly,themaritimewillbeapreferableandpeacefulsectorforwomen.Opening doors to maritime to women,being fair to both genders, supportingwomentoreachtheplacestheydeserveinmaritimeandmakinguseof theskillsandabilitieswomencanbringtothesectorwillbothboosttheefficiencyandmoraleofthepeople, improve internal communicationandproductivity, andmakebothmenandwomencommitted to their job,whichwillallbenefit themaritimesector.Thesemaybethestepstobetakentogivethewomen


207


a space they deserve in the sector. utureresearchmay be aboutwhat can be doneto realize these, that is, which measurescan be taken in the short and long run tohelpwomenadvance in theircareer,workproductivelyandmakemostofthemselvesinthemaritimesector.

References[1] Martin, P., & Barnard, A. (2013).

The Experience of Women inMale-Dominated Occupations: AConstructivist Grounded TheoryInquiry. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 39(2), 01-12. http://d x . d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 4 1 0 2 / s a j i p .v39i2.1099.

[2] Ozdemir, P.,&Albayrak, T. (2017).Enhancing Quality in HigherEducation Through InternationalCollaboration:ProjectMENTORESS.InMuzafferYılmaz(Ed.),ICQH 2017 International Conference on Quality in Higher Education(pp.130-136).Sakarya:SakaryaUniversity.

[3] Tansey, P. (2000). IMO.Women on board. - Ten years of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) Women in Development Programme. Recourse document. Retrieved February2019, from http://www.imo.org/blast/mainframe.asp?topic_id=406&doc_id=1082

[4] Lim, K. (2019). IMO. World Maritime Day, 2019. RetrievedNovember 22, 2019, from http://www.imo.org/en/About/Events/WorldMaritimeDay/Documents/S G% 2 0m e s s a g e % 2 0 f o r % 2 0website.pdf

[5] IMO, (2019). Women in Maritime, IMO's Gender Programme. Retrieved January 02, 2020,from http://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/TechnicalCooperation/Pages/WomenInMaritime.aspx

[6] Tansey, P. (2015). Women at theHelm: 25 Years of IMO’s GenderProgramme.InKitada,M.,Williams,E.&Froholdt L.L. (Eds.),Maritime Women: Global Leadership (1stEdition, pp. 17-22). Heidelberg:Springer.

[7] Stevenson,C.J.(2015).SustainableDevelopment Issues in Shipping:Women, the Under-RepresentedHuman Resource. In M. Kitada.,E. Williams., & L. Loloma (Eds.),Maritime Women: Global Leadership (pp.255-265).Berlin:Springer.

[8] Mc Kinsey & Company (2018).Delivering through Diversity Report.

[9] Pastra, S.A., Koufopoulos, D.N.,& Gkliatis P.I. (2015). BoardCharacteristicsandthePresenceofWomenon theBoardofDirectors:The Case of the Greek ShippingSector. In Kitada, M.,Williams, E.& Froholdt L.L. (Eds.), Maritime Women: Global Leadership (1stEdition, pp. 17-22). Heidelberg:Springer

[10]International Labor Office (2019).ILO. A Quantum Leap for Gender Equality. Gender, Equality and Diversity & ILOAIDS Conditions of Work and Equality Department. Retrieved April 7, 2020, fromht tps ://www. i lo .org/wcmsp5/groups/pub l i c/ - - -dgrepor t s/ -- -dcomm/- - -pub l/documents/publication/wcms_674595.pdf

[11]ILO, (2019). A quantum leap for gender equality : for a better future of work for all.Geneva.

[12]Kitada, M., & Bhirugnath-Bhookhun, (2019). M. Beyondbusiness as usual: the role ofwomen professionals in maritimeclusters.WMU Journal of Maritime Affairs, 18(4), 639–653. https://do i .org/10 .1007/s13437-019-00178-8.

208

[13] World Economic Forum, (2020). The Global Gender Gap Report 2020. Geneva.RetrievedMarch22,2020,fromhttps://www.weforum.org/reports/gender-gap-2020-report-100-years-pay-equality

[14] World Maritime University, (2019).Conclusions of the Third WMUInternational Women’s Conference:“Empowering Women in the MaritimeCommunity” (EWMC 2019). Malmö.h t t p : / /dx . do i . o r g /10 . 21677/cr.20190828.

[15] Ghosh, S., & Bowles, M. (2013).ManagementofBerthsatSeaforSeafarerStudents.Australian Journal of Maritime & Ocean Affairs, 5(1),11-21,http://doi.org/10.1080/18366503.2013.10815726.

[16] Senbursa, N. (2020). A Review ofMaritimeWomen in The Global Arena.Journal of Maritime Transport and Logistics, 1(1),20-25.

[17] Kitada,M.,&Harada,J.(2019).Progressor regress on gender equality: Thecase study of selected transport STEMcareers and their vocational educationand training in Japan. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives, 1,100009.

[18] Doumbia-Henry, C. (2019) Forewordfor JOMA -EmpoweringWomen in theMaritime Community: TheWayAhead.WMU Journal of Maritime Affairs,18(4),521–524. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13437-019-00187-7.

[19]Kitada,M.(2010).Women Seafarers and Their Identities (PhD Thesis). CardiffUniversity.

[20] Nas, S. (2014). Profesyonel Türk KadınDenizcilerinin Kısa Tarihsel SüreciÜzerineBirAraştırma.Beykoz Akademi Dergisi, 2(1),29-53.

[21]BaşakA.A. (2015).Women’sRole in theTurkishandGlobalMaritimeIndustry.InKitadaM.,WilliamsE.,FroholdtL.(Eds.),Maritime Women: Global Leadership(pp.103-111).Berlin:Springer.

[22] UNTAC (2017). Review of Maritime Transportation.RetrievedNovember19, 2019, from https://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/rmt2017_en.pdf)

[23] Raunek, K. (2019) Life at Sea. The Brave Journey of Women Seafarers, RetrievedNovember14, 2019, fromhttps://www.marineinsight.com/life-at-sea/the-brave-journey-of-women-seafarers/)

[24] Demirel, E., & Ozdemir, P. (2019)Women Studies. In Prof. Dr. AykutIşman,Assoc.Prof.Dr.NesrinAkıncıCotok (Eds.), Women in Digital Age (pp.236-245). Istanbul ISSN 2687-1777

[25] IMO (2018) World Maritime DayTheme2019:"Empowering Women in the Maritime Community" RetrievedJanuary, 02. 2020, from http://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/P r e s s B r i e f i n g s / P a g e s / 1 3 -WMD2019themeC120.aspx

[26] Ozdemir, P. Albayrak, T. (2018).Barriers to Women’s Leadership inMaritimeandtheWaystoOvercomeThem.InEd.M.Grifoll,F.X.Martinezde Oses, M. Catells, A. Martin. 19th Annual General Assembly (AGA) of the International Association of Maritime Universities (IAMU). (1stEdition,pp.305-313) ISBN:978-84-947311-7-4International Center for NumericalMethods in Engineering (CIMNE),Barcelona

[27] Dragomir, C. Senbursa, N. (2019).Maritime Fair Transport. “Ovidius”UniversityAnnals,Economic Sciences Series,19(2),272-277.


209


Appendix: SURVEYAwareness of Maritime Women in Turkish Maritime Industry

1. YourGender Woman() Man()

2. DoyouthinkthatmaritimeindustryisknownenoughinTurkey?Doyouthink necessaryandpromotionalactivitiesforthedevelopmentofmaritimeculturein ourcountryarecarriedout? Yes() No() Maybe()

3. Ismaritimebusinessformen? Yes() No() Maybe()

4. Duetothephysiologicalstructureofawomanitisdifficulttoworkatseaandon boardforher. Yes() No() Maybe()

5. Themaritimeprofession,whichisamale-dominatedprofession,isdifficultfor womentoexistbothonshoreandandonboard. Yes() No() Maybe()

6. MaritimedepartmentssuchasMaritimeBusinessAdministration,Maritime TransportationandManagementEngineering,NavalEngineering,Marine Engineeringetc.canbeintroducedwiththeparticipationoftheAcademicStaff ofMaritimeFacultiesinhighschools. Yes() No() Maybe()

7. Inthemaritimesector,effortsshouldbemadetoensurethatthenumberof womenemployedinmanagementcompaniesandonboardcouldbehigherthan meninmaritimecompanies.Actionsrequiringpositivediscrimination,suchasa certainquotaforwomenand10%increaseinsalaries,arenecessarytoincrease women'sawarenessintheMaritimesector. Yes() No() Maybe()

8. Reasonssuchasmarriageandpregnancycausewomentoleavethemaritime professionearly. Yes() No() Maybe()

9. Women'sanalyticalandorganizationalskillsarebetterthanmen. Yes() No() Maybe()

10. Workinginthemaritimesectorasashipowner,port,shipyard,broker,freight forwarderiseasierforwomenthanworkingatsea. Yes() No() Maybe()

11. Negativeexperiencesofwomensailorsonboard(suchasseaaccidents, psychologicalpressure,mobbing,emotionalintimacy,extremeemotionalityetc.) haveanegativeeffectonshipowners'prejudiceregardingfemaleseafarers' employmentandtheemploymentoffemaleseafarersonboard. Yes() No() Maybe()

210

JournalofETAMaritimeScienceBaşar/JEMS, 2020;8(3):210-212

10.5505/jems.2020.33254

Antarctic Research Strategy of TurkeyErsan BAŞAR

KaradenizTechnicalUniversity,FacultyofMarineSciences,[email protected]; ORCIDID:https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1458-4102

Nearly95%ofAntarctica, theEarth’s fifth-largestcontinent, iscoveredwith ice.Oneof theuniquecharacteristicsof thisamazingcontinent is that it isboth thecoldestandthehighestregiononEarth.Thecontinent,withlotsofmysteriesandwondersyettobediscovered,hasbeenhometomanyscientificstudiesthroughouttheworld.Theunknownfactsofthecontinentareamongthekeypointsoftheglobalclimatechangeonourplanet.

Withadeclarationofpolicyin1957,TheInternationalCouncilofScientificUnionshasaimedtoincreasescientificresearchintheAntarcticregion.Alsoknownasthecontinentofscienceandpeace,Antarcticaisaregionwherescientificstudiescanbecarriedoutfreely,aswellastransnationalscientificcooperationboosts.

The Antarctic Treaty was signed in Washington in 1959 by 12 countries whosescientistshadbeenactiveinandaroundAntarcticaduringtheInternationalGeophysicalYearof1957-1958.Itenteredintoforcein1961andhassincebeenaccededtobymanyothernations.ThetotalnumberofPartiestotheTreatyisnow54.29ofthesecountriesare Consultative Parties, and 25 of them are Non-Consultative Parties. Turkey accededtotheAntarcticTreaty in1995andhasbeenoneoftheNon-ConsultativePartiestotheTreatysincethen.ConsultativePartiesaretheoneswiththerighttovoteatthemeetingsorganizedtomakedecisionsaboutAntarcticissues.

Many scientists from various disciplines have travelled to the continent to conductresearchactivitiesformanyyears.ThefirstTurkishscientisttovisitAntarcticaisDr.AtokKaraali,whowentthere in1959andcarriedoutsomeresearchon ionosphericphysics.Afterthat,Prof.Dr.ÜmranİnancarriedoutstudiesontheupperatmosphereofAntarctica,andProf.Dr.SerapTilavcarriedoutscientificstudiesinthecontinentin1980and1991,respectively.DuetothecontributionsofthesepioneeringTurkishscientiststoscienceinAntarctica, somegeographical regions in thecontinentwerenamedKaraaliRocks, InanPeakandTilavCirque. It isalsoknownthatmanyotherTurkishscientistshavegonetothe continent for scientific studies later on. Antarctic studies in Turkey continuedwithTurkey’s1stNationalScientificExpeditiontoAntarctica,organizedundertheauspicesofthePresidencyof theRepublicofTurkey in2017.Theseexpeditionshavebeen carriedoutregularlysincethenandwerenamedTurkishAntarcticExpedition(TAE)I,II,III,andIV,duringwhicha total ofmore than80 scientificprojects fromdifferent subject areaswerecarriedout.Settingouttocontributetoearthscience,TurkeyhasincorporatedmanyinternationalscientistsintoitsexpeditionsaspartoftheNationalPolarScienceProgramteamedupin2018.TheoutcomesoftheseexpeditionshavebeenpresentedtothescientificworldinbothscientificarticlesandprojectresultstocontributetoscienceinAntarcticainvariousdisciplines.

InordertomaintainthesustainabilityofthescientificstudiescarriedoutinAntarcticabyensuringtheircontinuity,TurkeyhasinitiatedactionstoestablishtheTurkishScientific

ACADEMICPERSPECTIVE

211


ResearchBase.WiththeTAEIandTAEIIexpeditionsin2017and2018,appropriateregionswhereTurkeycouldestablishbasesinAntarcticaweredeterminedthroughinvestigations.DuringtheTAEIIexpeditionin2018,thefirsttemporarysciencecampwasestablishedonRobertIsland,andscientistsconsistingof9peoplecarriedouttheirstudiesonthisisland.IntheTAEIIIexpeditionin2019,atemporaryScienceCampwasestablishedonHorseshoeIsland,wheretheScienceBasewouldbeestablished.Theactions toestablishaTurkishScientificResearchBase in thisregion in the followingyearscontinuedwith theTAEIVexpeditionperformedin2020.Turkeystillcontinuesactionstoestablishbaseswithmanystudies in different areas. Turkey has also established aweather station onHorseshoeIslandandthesurroundingislands,including3GlobalNavigationSatelliteSystem(GNSS)stations.Instantdataareobtainedfromsomeofthesestations,andthesedataaresharedwithscientistsfromothercountries.

Antarctica, where studies in different disciplines are carried out, attracts scientists’attention.Turkeycollaborateswithscientistsfromothercountriesbyincreasingscientificresearch and bilateral cooperation in the continent. Turkey also gives importance toestablishingapermanentscientificbaseinAntarcticabyincreasingthescientificstudiesandscienceexpeditionsmaderegularlyeveryyear.Inparallelwiththesestudies,itisabouttohaveasay in thecontinent's futurebymoving fromthepositionofNon-ConsultativePartiestoConsultativePartiesinAntarctica.

Considering the international policies that Turkey has developed recently, it is seenthatPolesareinthecentreofinterest.Thefactorsthatemphasizetheimportanceofpolarstudiesarenewperspectivesonclimatechange,energypolicy,andscientificstudies.

212

Prof. Dr. Ersan BAŞAR

Mr. Başar works as a Professor in the Department of Maritime Transportation andManagement Engineering at Karadeniz Technical University. In 2003, he defended hisdoctoral dissertation titled "Temporal and Spatial Distribution of Oil Spill after TankerAccidentsintheİstanbulStrait."Afterthisstudy,hecarriedoutstudiesonshipaccidentsand subsequent marine pollution in the Black Sea and the Turkish Straits System. Hehas many scientific publications on risk determination in ship accidents, oil pollution,and emergencymanagement. Besides, he did post-doctoral studies at British ColumbiaUniversity inCanada in2005,wherehecarriedoutresearchonoil-spillandemergencyresponsemethodsatsea.

Mr.Başarparticipated inTurkishAntarctic Expeditions I, II, III, and IV organized in2017-2020,duringwhenhecarriedoutscientificprojectsonmarinepollution.Inaddition,heservedasthecampleaderintheTAEIIexpeditionandastheexpeditionleaderintheTAEIVexpedition.HehasbeentotheAntarcticcontinentfourtimesaswellasanexpeditiontotheArctic.Hecarriedoutscientificprojectsduringthoseexpeditions.

Mr.Başar,whohasbroadexperiencesonlifeandsurvivalinnature,hasbeentheHeadoftheTurkishMountaineeringFederationsince2016andspeaksEnglishandRussian.

Başar/JEMS, 2020;8(3):210-212

213



I

Alper KILIÇ BandırmaOnyediEylülUniversity TurkeyAyşeAslıBAŞAK Mid-ShipGroupLLC USA

BekirŞAHİN KaradenizTechnicalUniversity Turkey

DidemÖZERÇAYLAN DokuzEylülUniversity TurkeyEmrahAKDAMAR BandırmaOnyediEylülUniversity TurkeyEnderASYALI MaineMaritimeAcademy USAGökçayBALCI UniversityofHuddersfield UKHüseyinELÇİÇEK SakaryaUniversityofAppliedSciences TurkeyİshakALTINPINAR BartınUniversity TurkeyMarufGÖGEBAKAN BandırmaOnyediEylülUniversity TurkeyMomokoKİTADA WorldMaritimeUniversity SwedenMuhittinBİLGİLİ GaziUniversity TurkeyNihanŞENBURSA OrduUniversity TurkeyOwenNGUYEN UniversityofTasmania AustraliaSeçilGÜLMEZ İskenderunTechnicalUniversity TurkeyÜnalÖZDEMİR MersinUniversity TurkeyYalçınDURMUŞOĞLU İstanbulTechnicalUniversity TurkeyYavuzHakanÖZDEMİR ÇanakkaleOnsekizMartUniversity Turkey

Reviewer List of Volume 8 Issue 3 (2020)

II

Volume 8 Issue 3 (2020) is indexed in

III


UCTEA - The Chamber of Marine Engineers

JEMS

Volume : 8Issue : 3Year : 2020ISSN:2147-2955UCTEA - The Chamber of Marine Engineers

JOURNAL OF ETA MARITIME SCIENCE

Journal of ETA Maritime Science

Volume 8, Issue 3, (2020)

Contents


133

(AR) The Moderating Role of Sea Service Period on the Relationship between Perceived Organizational Justice and Job Satisfaction; Evidence from Seafarers.Murat YORULMAZ, Gönül KAYA ÖZBAĞ

134

(AR) Analysis of Operational Performance of Crude Oil Refining andPetrochemical Jetties in Nigeria.Donatus. E. ONWUEGBUCHUNAM, Moses. O. APONJOLOSUN, Sodiq. O. BUHARI, Dotun OJO

150

(AR) Gender Discrimination Perception Among Maritime Students In Turkey.Volkan FİDAN, Esin GÜNAY, Gamze AKPINAR, Can ATACAN

162

(AR) Investigation of the Effect of Number of Longitudinal Rounded Grooves on Hydrodynamic Forces acting on Cylinders in Cross Flow at Re=10⁵.Oktay YILMAZ

178

(AR) Raising Awareness About Women in Turkish Maritime Industry.Nihan ŞENBURSA, Pınar ÖZDEMİR

194

Antarctic Research Strategy of Turkey. Ersan BAŞAR

210

Başar, E. (2020) R-S/V Betanzos at the Anchorage Area of the Horseshoe Island, ANTARCTICA

JEM

S -

JOU

RNAL

OF

ETA

MAR

ITIM

E SC

IENC

E - I

SSN

: 214

7-29

55VO

LUM

E 8

, ISS

UE

3 (2

020)