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• Ideational

• textual

experiential

logical

Text cohesion

Lexico-grammatical system

Clause transitivity & ergativity

Clause complex relations

metafunctional focus

√Metafunction

Context of situation

Field

Tenor

Mode

Interpersonal

semantics

lexicogrammar

Context of culture

cohesion

cementing a text

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Ideational meaning

Interpersonal meaning

Textual meaning

T e x t

i) What is cohesion;

ii) kinds of cohesive relations

componential cohesive relations;

organic cohesive relations

outline componential cohesive relations:

§ the concept of tie;

§ reference: referring expressions;

§ direction of reference:

text-internal (endophoric):

• anaphoric and cataphoric.

text-external

• (exophoric & homophoric)§ substitution and ellipsis;§ lexical cohesion

outline

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Using cohesive devices to form lexico-referential chains;

organic cohesive relations:§ adjacency pairs; § conjunction; § continuatives

a text - spoken or written - that is functioning for some purpose within some context discourse

a discourse (text) usually consists of a number of clauses.

t e x t

co

nsi

sts

of

semantic unit

grammatical units

c l a u s e sgroups

w o r d ssounds/letters

the linguistic “cement” we use to

connect clauses

in order to make our text cohesive

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we make our text cohesive

by using

a range of

cohesive devices

cohesive devices

referring expressions, e.g. pronouns

substitution -replacing words

with substitutes -one, do, so, not

ellipsis - leaving words out

conjunctions

lexis - using words that

are related - synonyms,

antonyms, hyponyms etc

pairing, e.g. Q. & A.

continuatives, e.g. well

componential organic

Classification of cohesive devices (Hasan 1985)

Link components (parts)

of messages (clauses)

Link whole messages (clauses)

The students arrived early and they studied hard.

A: What time did you arrive?

B: 9 o’clock

componential organic

• Referring expressions, e.g.

- personal pronouns;

- demonstratives; comparatives;

• Substitution & ellipsis

• conjunction;

• adjacency pairs

Classification of cohesive devices (Hasan 1985)

Lexical sense relations:

General: repetition; synonymy;

antonymy; hyponymy; meronymy

Instantial (text-specific):

equivalence; naming; semblance

continuatives

The cohesive devices - referring

expressions, substitutes, ellipsis, and

lexical selections – all link parts or

components of messages (clauses).

componential cohesive devicesComponential cohesive devices: linking components of messages

Mr Piggott lived with his two sons, Simon and

Patrick in a nice house with a nice garden, and

a nice car in the nice garage. Inside the house

was his wife.

“Hurry up with the breakfast, dear,” he called

every morning, before he went off to his very

important job.

Referring expressions Lexical relations

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Links between components of messages = ties

Mr Piggott lived with his two sons, Simon and Patrick in a

nice house with a nice garden, and a nice car in the nice

garage. Inside the house was his wife.

“Hurry up with the breakfast, dear,” he called every

morning, before he went off to his very important job.

His / he ties with Mr Piggott house ties with garden

Car ties with garage nice ties with nice

son ties with wife

Componential cohesion 1: Reference

i.e. referring expressions

37 Mr Piggot and his sons had to make their own meal.

38 It took hours

39 And it was horrible.

Identify the referring expressions

37 Mr Piggot & his (=Mr Piggot’s) sons had to make their

(= Mr Piggot & Mr Piggot’s sons’) own meal.)

38 It (=making their own meal) took hours

39 And it (=their meal) was horrible.

It (cl.38) ties with making their own meal (cl 37)

It (cl.39) ties with their meal (cl 38)

37 Mr Piggot and his sons had to make their own meal.

38 It took hours

39 And it was horrible.

his (cl.37) ties with Mr Piggot (cl 37)

their (cl.37) ties with Mr Piggot & sons (cl 37)

It (cl.38) ties with making their own meal (cl 37)

It (cl.39) ties with their meal (cl 38)

his (cl.37) ties with Mr Piggot (cl 37)

their (cl.37) ties with Mr Piggot & sons (cl 37)

The second member of the tie is called

the interpretative source

interpretative source

categories of referring expressions

Personal pronouns

demonstrative pronouns

definite article

temporal (time)

expressions

Locative (place)

expressions

Comparative expressions

he, she, it, they, them etc;

this, that, these, those;

the

now; then

here; there

same, another, similar,

different etc

componential cohesive devices

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personal pronouns in English

person

Speech roles

Other roles

speaker

addressee

speaker plus

speaker only I, me, my, mine

we, us, our, ours

you, your, yours

specific

generalised

singular

plural they, them

human

non-human

male

female

one, ones

he, him, his

she, her, hers

it, its

referring expressions

whereabouts is the meaning to which a referring

expression refers? It could be:

earlier in the text, e.g.

The doctor crossed the road. He was in a hurry.

The meaning to which a referring expression refers could be later in the text, e.g.

This is what I would like: a bowl of soup

referring expressions

cataphoric

The meaning referred to could be outside the text but unique within the context of culture, e.g.

The sun is very hot

today

referring expressions

homophoric

referring expressions

I’ll have a piece of that cheese!

exophoric

The meaning referred to could be outside the text within the context of situation, e.g.

summary of direction of reference

referring expressions

(reference)

text external text internal(endophoric)

referring backwards(anaphoric)

referringforward

(cataphoric)

in culture(homophoric)

in situation(exophoric)

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One and the same referring expression (a

personal pronoun or a demonstrative or

comparative expression) can be used

either exophorically or endophorically

Beware

Identify the referring expressions in the following fragment of dialogue

Mother now Stephen, do you want a sandwich for lunch Stephen yes

and some passionfruitMother Where is the passionfruit?Stephen Here it is.Mother ok .. right .. Peanut butter sandwiches? Stephen yeah .. Mother you go to the table

and I'll bring it in .. You sit here in Nana’s chair

track the interpretation of the referring

expressions (e.g. by colour-coding each

referring expression and its interpretation

Mother now Stephen, do you want a sandwich for lunch Stephen yes

and some passionfruitMother Where is the passionfruit?Stephen Here it is.Mother ok .. right .. Peanut butter sandwiches? Stephen yeah .. Mother you go to the table

and I'll bring it in .. You sit here in Nana’s chair

Identify the direction (from their interpretation) of

the referring expressions

Mother now Stephen, do you want a sandwich for lunch Stephen yes

and some passionfruitMother Where is the passionfruit?Stephen Here it is.Mother ok .. right .. Peanut butter sandwiches? Stephen yeah .. Mother you go to the table

and I'll bring it in .. You sit here in Nana’s chair

anaphoricexophoric cataphoric

cl Referring expression interpretation Phoric status

1 you

4 the (passionfruit)

5 it

8 you

the (table)

9 I

it

10 you

here

Stephen (1) anaphoric

exophoric

passionfruit (4)

Stephen (1)

anaphoric

exophoric

anaphoric

exophoric

passionfruit (4) + sandwich (1) anaphoric

Stephen (1) anaphoric

in Nana’s chair (10) cataphoric

Tracking referring expressions Tracking referring expressions in a text

In the following text:

• indicate the referring expressions;

• indicate the interpretative source of each of

these;

• indicate the phoric status of each referring

expression using arrows, e.g.

• anaphoric;

• cataphoric

• exophoric

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1 An Eagle was soaring through the air

2 when suddenly it heard the whizz of an Arrow,

3 and (it) felt

4 itself wounded to death

5 Slowly it fluttered down to the earth,

6 with its life-blood pouring out of it.

7 Looking down upon the Arrow [[with which it had been pierced]]

8 it saw

9 that the shaft of the Arrow had been feathered with one of its own plumes.

10 "Alas!" it cried,

11 as it died,

12 "We often give our enemies the means for our own destruction."

1 An Eagle was soaring through the air

2 when suddenly it heard the whizz of an Arrow,

3 and (it) felt

4 itself wounded to death

5 Slowly it fluttered down to the earth,

6 with its life-blood pouring out of it.

7 Looking down upon the Arrow [[with which it had been pierced]]

8 it saw

9 that the shaft of the Arrow had been feathered with one of its own plumes.

10 "Alas!" it cried,

11 as it died,

12 "We often give our enemies the means for our own destruction."

1 An Eagle was soaring through the air

2 when suddenly it heard the whizz of an Arrow,

3 and (it) felt

4 itself wounded to death

5 Slowly it fluttered down to the earth,

6 with its life-blood pouring out of it.

7 Looking down upon the Arrow [[with which it had been pierced]]

8 it saw

9 that the shaft of the Arrow had been feathered with one of its own plumes.

10 "Alas!" it cried,

11 as it died,

12 "We often give our enemies the means for our own destruction."

• the whizz of an arrow

D Th Q

= an arrow’s whizz

• the Arrow [[with which it had been pierced]]

D Th Q

• the shaft of the Arrow

D Th Q

= the arrow’s shaft

• the means for our own destruction

D Th Q

Segment the following text into ranking clauses and number each clause;

Indicate

• the referring expressions;

• the interpretative source of each of these;

• the phoric status of each referring expression using arrows, e.g.

o anaphoric

o cataphoric

o exophoric

Sun Damage

Now that summer is over, you may notice permanent damage to your skin

for the first time. Where you have enjoyed many previous summers

unscathed, the latest hot season may have been the final straw in damaging

the collagen tissue (this is what I call "the camel's back syndrome".)

Freckles and blotches are caused by overstimulation of the pigment cells.

These can be treated by bleaching agents used for hair removal or by a

ruby laser (at selected dermatologists). The damage to the collagen causes

wrinkles and these can be treated at home with glycolic acid and Retin-A

(both are available from pharmacies). Chemical peels are also effective.

These are done by paramedical technicians in a cosmetic surgeon's or

dermatologist's office. More worrying are any sores or blemishes which

persist despite three or four weeks of conservative treatment by creams or

antibiotics. These need to be tested by a doctor or completely removed and

examined under the microscope.

//

//

////

[[

]] //[[ ]]//

//

[[ ]]

// //// //

//

//

[[

]] // //

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1 Now that summer is over,

2 you may notice permanent damage to your skin for the first time.

3 Where you have enjoyed many previous summers unscathed,

4 the latest hot season may have been the final straw [[in damaging the collagen tissue]]

5 (this is [[what I call ]] "the camel's back syndrome".)

6 Freckles and blotches are caused by overstimulation of the pigment cells.

7 These can be treated by bleaching agents [[used for hair removal]] or by a ruby laser (at selected dermatologists).

8 The damage to the collagen causes wrinkles

9 and these can be treated at home with glycolic acid and Retin-A

10 (both are available from pharmacies).

11 Chemical peels are also effective.

12 These are done by paramedical technicians in a cosmetic surgeon's or dermatologist's office.

13 More worrying are any sores or blemishes [[which persist despite three or four weeks of conservative treatment by creams or antibiotics.]]

14 These need to be tested by a doctor

15 or completely removed

16 and examined under the microscope.

1 Now that summer is over,

2 you may notice permanent damage to your (=you 2) skin for the first time.

3 Where you (=you 2 ) have enjoyed many previous summers unscathed,

4 the latest hot season (=summer 1) may have been the final straw [[in damaging the collagen tissue (=skin 2)]]

5 (this (=the final straw…4) is [[what I call ]] "the camel's back syndrome".)

6 Freckles and blotches are caused by overstimulation of the pigment cells (=skin 2).

7 These (=freckles and blotches) can be treated by bleaching agents [[used for hair removal]] or by a ruby laser (at selected dermatologists).

8 The damage to the collagen (=skin) causes wrinkles

9 and these (=wrinkles 8 ) can be treated at home with glycolic acid and Retin-A

10 (both are available from pharmacies).

11 Chemical peels are also effective.

12 These (=chemical peels) are done by paramedical technicians in a cosmetic surgeon's or dermatologist's office.

13 More worrying are any sores or blemishes [[which persist despite three or four weeks of conservative treatment by creams or antibiotics.]]

14 These (=persistent sores or blemishes 13) need to be tested by a doctor

15 or completely removed

16 and examined under the microscope.

cl Referring Expression interpretation phoric

status

1 Now that summer is over cataphoric

2 you exophoric

your (skin) you (2) anaphoric

the first time cataphoric

3 you you (2) anaphoric

4 the (latest hot season) summer (1) anaphoric

the (final straw) in damaging the collagen tissue cataphoric

the (collagen tissue) skin (2) anaphoric

5 this the final straw (4) anaphoric

I exophoric

the (camel’s back..) exophoric

6 the (pigment cells) skin (2) anaphoric

7 these freckles & blotches (6) anaphoric

cl Referring Expression interpretation phoric status

8 the damage to the collagen (4) anaphoric

the (collagen) collagen (4) anaphoric

9 these wrinkles (8) anaphoric

12 These chemical peels (11) anaphoric

14 these sores or blemishes which persist anaphoric

16 the (microscope) exophoric

REs

cataphoric 3 = 16%

exophoric 4 = 21%

anaphoric 12 = 63%

Total 19

After flash floods, desert streams from upland areas carry

heavy loads of silt, sand and rock fragments. As they

reach the flatter area of the desert basins they slow down

and their waters soak quickly into the basin floor. Then the

streams drop their loads; first they drop the heaviest

material – the stones, then they drop the sand and finally

they drop the silt. Soon these short-lived streams become

choked by their own deposits and they spread their load in

all directions. After some time, fan or cone-shaped

deposits of gravel, sand, silt and clay are formed around

each valley or canyon outlet.

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After flash floods, desert streams from upland areas

carry heavy loads of silt, sand and rock fragments.

As they reach the flatter area of the desert

basins they slow down and their waters soak quickly

into the basin floor. Then the streams drop their

loads; first they drop the heaviest material – the

stones, then they drop the sand and finally they

drop the silt. Soon these short-lived streams

become choked by their own deposits and they

spread their load in all directions. After some time,

fan or cone-shaped deposits of gravel, sand, silt

and clay are formed around each valley or canyon

outlet.

1 After flash floods, desert streams from upland areas carry heavy loads of

silt, sand and rock fragments.

2 As they reach the flatter area of the desert basins

3 they slow down

4 and their waters soak quickly into the basin floor.

5 Then the streams drop their loads;

6 first they drop the heaviest material – the stones,

7 then they drop the sand

8 and finally they drop the silt.

9 Soon these short-lived streams become choked by their own deposits

10 and they spread their load in all directions.

11 After some time, fan or cone-shaped deposits of gravel, sand, silt and

clay are formed around each valley or canyon outlet.

Clauses

1 After flash floods, desert streams from upland areas carry heavy loads of

silt, sand and rock fragments.

2 As they reach the flatter area of the desert basins

3 they slow down

4 and their waters soak quickly into the basin floor.

5 Then the streams drop their loads;

6 first they drop the heaviest material – the stones,

7 then they drop the sand

8 and finally they drop the silt.

9 Soon these short-lived streams become choked by their own deposits

10 and they spread their load in all directions.

11 After some time, fan or cone-shaped deposits of gravel, sand, silt and

clay are formed around each valley or canyon outlet.