contribution of translation to the learning of english

Universidad Austral de Chile

Facultad de Filosofía y Humanidades

Instituto de Lingüística y Literatura

Lead Advisor:

MS. Andrea Lizasoain Conejeros

Contribution of Translation to the Learning of English Grammar for

English Language Communication Pedagogy Students at the Universidad Austral

de Chile

Seminario de Tesis para optar al Título de Profesora en Comunicación en Lengua Inglesa

y al grado de Licenciada en Educación

Universidad Austral de Chile

Karina Nathaly Solar Polanco

Daniela Roxana Velásquez Salazar

Valdivia, Chile

2013

Contribution of Translation to the Learning of English Grammar for English Language Communication Pedagogy

Students at the Universidad Austral de Chile

Acknowledgments

To my parents, for supporting me with unconditional love and wisdom throughout my life.

To my brother, for having encouraged me in hard times.

To the ones who have contributed to this case study.

To Andrea Lizasoain and Amalia Ortiz de Zárate for their guidance in this work.

Karina

“The most important thing is to enjoy your life—to be happy—it's all that matters.”

Audrey Hepburn

To my parents, for their unconditional love and support.

To my sisters, for their advise and support during frustrating moments.

To Andrea Lizasoain, for her important contribution to this project.

To my friends, for their enthusiastic words encouraging me to do my best.

To my pets, for their company and loyalty.

Daniela

“Our own brain, our own heart is our temple; the philosophy is kindness.”

Dalai Lama

http://www.goodreads.com/author/show/692403.Audrey_Hepburn



Table of contents

Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... 2

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 3

1. Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................................... 6

1.1 State of the Art .......................................................................................................................... 6

1.1.2 The Grammar Translation Method in Chile ................................................................... 8

1.1.4 Diagnostic Tests (2004-2010) ...................................................................................... 10

1.3 An Overview of Translation ................................................................................................ 12

1.3.1.1 Linguistic Perspective................................................................................................ 12

1.4 An Overview of English Grammar Learning ...................................................................... 20

1.4.1 Definition of Learning .................................................................................................. 21

1.4.2.1 Descriptive Grammar ................................................................................................ 21

1.4.2.2 Prescriptive Grammar ................................................................................................ 22

1.4.3.2 Grammar Rules versus Language Functions ............................................................. 25

1.5 Learning and Teaching of Grammar through Translation .................................................. 26

1.5.1 The Grammar Translation Method (GTM) .................................................................. 28

1.5.3 Translation Techniques as Enhancing Processes of Grammar Analysis ...................... 31

1.6 Identifying Grammatical Problems in English-Spanish Translations ................................. 33

1.6.1 Grammar versus Function ............................................................................................ 33

1.6.3 Word Order ................................................................................................................... 36

1.6.4 Language Agreement .................................................................................................... 36

1.6.6.1 Collocations, Idioms and False Cognates .................................................................. 37



2. Methodology: Methods and Procedures ................................................................................... 40

2.2.2.2 ILIN 155-Técnicas de Traducción ............................................................................. 43

2.3 Data Collection Methods ..................................................................................................... 44

2.3.1 Survey ........................................................................................................................... 45

2.3.3.1 Theoretical Lessons ................................................................................................... 47

2.3.3.2 Workshops ................................................................................................................. 47

2.4.1 Qualitative Analysis ..................................................................................................... 48

3.1.1 Use of Translation Techniques ..................................................................................... 50

3.2 Teachers’ Interview Analysis .............................................................................................. 58

3.2.1 Use of Translation Techniques ..................................................................................... 60

3.2.2 Analysis of Grammatical Features and/or Problems .................................................... 60

3.3 Classroom Observations Outcomes .................................................................................... 62

3.3.1 Lessons Observed ......................................................................................................... 63

3.4 Final Considerations ............................................................................................................ 76

Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 82

References ..................................................................................................................................... 86

Appendices .................................................................................................................................... 93

List of Figures and Tables

Table 1 Courses general description 44

Table 2.1 Main criteria under investigation 45

Table 2.2 General observation aspects 46

Figure 1.1 Answers statement 2 50













Figure 2 Survey overall results 58



Table 3 Written translation tasks 63

Table 4.1 Translation Task1 66

Table 4.2 Translation task 2 68








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Contribution of Translation to the Learning of English Grammar for

English Language Communication Pedagogy Students at the Universidad Austral de Chile

Abstract

The use of translation techniques contributes to the enhancement of English grammar

knowledge. By an extensive literature review, this research paper intends to determine the

important role that translation can play in the learning of English grammar for foreign language

learners. A case study was conducted in the translation elective courses given at the Universidad

Austral de Chile (UACh) throughout observations, surveys to students, and interviews to experts,

in order to test that relevance. This research followed three main criteria: (a) use of translation

techniques, (b) analysis of grammatical features and/or problems, and (c) enhancement of

writing, reading and/or speaking skills through translation. It was found that the use of

translation techniques does help foreign language learners to improve their knowledge of the

English language.

Key words: Translation, translation techniques, English grammar, language learning



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Introduction

Some public researches have reported that translation, as a teaching method, has been

looked down upon recently in Chile. One reason is the abuse of the Grammar Translation

Method (GTM) inside the English classes, the GTM lack of efficiency in the teaching-learning

process of English, and the comparison made with the Communicative Language Teaching

(CLT) approach (Guy Cook, 2007).

However, in spite of the disadvantages of the method, translation has been widely used

around the world as a common strategy to learn other languages, at least in the first stages of the

learning process of a foreign language (Machida, 2011, p. 740). This method was the most

popular for language learning and teaching since the 16th

century. It became the main method to

use in foreign and second language (FL/SL) learning and teaching in the 19th

century, once

translation became useful to comprehend and learn the grammar of the target language (TL).

This approach is used to teach foreign languages worldwide since it is focused on

learning vocabulary and grammar rules of the FL / SL by using a methodology that mainly

includes writing and reading activities. Furthermore, it has been affirmed that the action of

translating, as a pedagogical tool, can promote foreign/second language learning and that

translation activities provide many opportunities for the students to concentrate on form and

meaning. For example, in a recent study by Walter Kasmer (1999), it was found that a group of

students, who used translation as a learning tool, improved their vocabulary and participated in

consciousness raising endeavors regarding contextual and grammatical structures in their mother

tongue and in the FL. Kern (2008) discovered that the act of translating may improve learners’



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confidence in comprehension, since the foreign words become more familiar for the language

learners.

However, a gap in the implementation of the GTM in Chilean classrooms exists; this

issue is proved through the recent English proficiency results of Chilean students. Their poor

level of English demonstrates that the application of this teaching method in Chile has not shown

the same results mentioned by the latter authors’ investigations, which implies that Chilean

teachers of English are not aware of the effectiveness that translation techniques as a language

teaching and learning tool might have if used appropriately.

In spite of these facts, some Chilean institutions, such as the Universidad Austral de

Chile, have implemented translation as a language teaching tool in its educational program for

English Language Pedagogy students. The English teaching program at UACh consists of three

elective courses, which are designed to improve student’s vocabulary, raise awareness of

linguistic differences between English and Spanish, and provide students with knowledge about

translation as a pedagogical method for their future profession.

In this light, this paper seeks to answer if these translation courses contribute to the

learning of English throughout a case study, which analyzed the behavior of a group of 40

students with regards to the use of translation in the learning process of a foreign language

(English), discussing factors in relation to a real context in Chilean education. The first chapter

of this work includes the theoretical background to this study, which presents the state of art in

Chile according to the main topics of this research: Translation and English grammar learning.

Apart from this, the antecedents under investigation and the theoretical framework related to

translation and grammar learning are contained within it. Chapter two leads with the



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methodology of this case study, which describes the subjects, tools, and data analysis used.

Chapter three displays the results and discussion of the field research regarding three data

collection methods: Surveys, class observations and an interview applied to experts on

translation and language teaching. The discussion of the final results of this investigation

presents final conclusions regarding the learning of English grammar through translation in

Chile.



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1. Theoretical Framework

1.1 State of the Art

In Chile, it is recognized that having a good command of the English language permits

people to satisfy instrumental needs (Matear, 2008, p. 139). These instrumental needs are related

to obtaining better job opportunities, better salaries, scholarships, studies abroad, among other

advantages. In fact, Matear (2008) exposes that parents and teachers approve this idea by saying

that the learning of English is essential for “their children future educational development and

employment opportunities” (p. 137). Therefore, it is imperative for Chilean language learners to

understand and speak English for these kinds of expectations. However, Trabajando.com has

informed that a Chilean citizen who can speak English has better job opportunities than a

monolingual person (as cited in La Tercera, 2012, para.1). However, only the 45% of Chilean

students affirm that they are able to hold a conversation in English, and the 91% of young

Chilean professionals affirm that to know the English language is relevant for their professional

development (La Tercera, 2012, para.4). Besides, it has been proved that the 80% of Chilean

professionals have a deficient level of English (ibid.).

With regard to this scenery, the Chilean Ministry of Education has proposed to overcome

this situation. The Ministry intends to achieve the goal of becoming a bilingual country in the

near future. In fact, Larry Rother (2005) notifies that the main Ministry’s objective is that 15

millions of Chileans can master the English language in twenty years more (para.7); thus is, by

2015. Therefore, it is imperative that Chilean teachers of English apply the best teaching



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methods and efforts to help Chilean students to become bilingual; and consequently, satisfy these

instrumental needs.

The development of English teaching in Chile has been strongly influenced by several

teaching approaches and methods that have been evolving through the years in different places

around the world. One of these teaching approaches is the Grammar Translation Method (GTM).

However, it is a fact that the teaching methods recently applied in the EFL Chilean classes have

not shown efficient results among Chilean students, regarding their proficiency levels in the

subject of English (as displayed below in the English Proficiency Levels in Chile section). In the

case of the GTM, it can be a possibility that Chilean teachers of English are not aware of the

benefits of implementing different translation techniques inside the EFL classrooms. For this

reason, this research attempts to investigate the benefits of this method and to perceive the

influence that translation can have on the English grammar learning among EFL students in

Chile.

1.1.1 Current Teaching Practices in the World

Nowadays, the most acclaimed teaching method worldwide is the Communicative

Language Teaching approach, which dates back the late 1960s in England (Richards & Rodgers,

2001, p.153). This approach encouraged practicing the language through basic structures in

meaningful situations; consequently, the main aim of the CLT approach is to communicate.

Richards and Rodgers (2001) support this approach by stating the following:

- Language is a system for the expression of meaning.



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- The primary function of language is to allow interaction and communication.

- The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses.

- The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features,

but categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse

(p. 161).

According to Sandra J. Savignon (2002), the CLT approach not only must be centered on

communicative interaction, but it should also consider “both knowledge and ability for language

use” (p. 2). This statement means that a language learner needs to learn a language before

expressing it in a communicative manner. As it was mentioned before, the methods of this

approach are not focused on grammatical and structural aspects; then, their search for interaction

does not pursue accuracy–thus leaving an important aspect of language aside–as the classical

Grammar Translation Method does.

1.1.2 The Grammar Translation Method in Chile

The GTM was first used in the world as a way of teaching dead languages like Latin and

Ancient Greek (Remenyi, 2007, p. 250). This method is focused on the learning of the grammar

rules of a second or foreign language (its morphology and syntax), and, at the same time, this is

centered on the enhancement of reading and writing skills (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p. 6).



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Through this method, the grammar rules learned are then applied through language learning

activities when translating a “Source Language (SL)” text into a “Target Language (TL)” text1.

Even though the GTM has been criticized as an “easy, quick and economical” teaching

method (Elizabeth, 2004, p. 52), it is also true that translation has several benefits for the

teaching of foreign languages. As it is well-known, the large number of students in the Chilean

classrooms, and sometimes, the few hours dedicated to the study of English as a foreign

language are aspects that require the use of a teaching method with the characteristics of the

GTM. However, this method not only fits those kinds of needs, but it also promotes the learning

of languages among students. Joseph Mukalel (1989) affirms that people who train their

language learning process under the Grammar Translation Method “are known for their flawless

writing, good handwriting, good spelling and good knowledge of the details of English

Grammar” (p.55). Therefore, if the GTM has been the most used teaching method in Chile, it

does not mean that the negative results of proficiency English tests, among Chilean students, are

because of its implementation in the lessons, but maybe because of its effectiveness.

1.1.3 English Proficiency Levels in Chile

The level of English Proficiency of Chilean students has been measured by some tests

over the last years, reporting poor results. Some of these reports are the diagnostic tests and the

EPI report.

1 Abbreviations are from John C. Catford, 1965, p. 20.



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1.1.4 Diagnostic Tests (2004-2010)

In 2004, a diagnostic test was used to measure English proficiency levels of Chilean

students by the Ministry of Education. This test measured reading and listening skills of English

language students, and it was designed by the University of Cambridge Local Examinations

Syndicate (UCLES) ESOL (English for speakers of other languages). Most of the test takers did

not reach the Cambridge ESOL examinations basic level of English; consequently, two extra

levels had to be created in order to place the Chilean results: Pre-breakthrough and lower

breakthrough (as cited in Peña & Gutiérrez, 2011, p. 6). Furthermore, in 2010, when the first

SIMCE Test was applied using the TOEIC Bridge Exam, designed by the Educational Testing

Service, which also assesses listening and reading skills, the results showed that just 11% of the

students in 11th

grade understood simple and short everyday English expressions (Educarchile,

2011, para.1). To sum up, these tests show that Chilean students manage a very low English

performance level; and there is more evidence of this sad reality.

1.1.5 EPI Report

The EF EPI English Proficiency Index (EPI) measures the average English proficiency of

a country, and compares English skill levels among adults in 44 countries from Europe, Asia and

Latin America, where Chile is ranked number 36, below Argentina, Mexico, Brazil and Peru

(Education First, n.d.). This fact is because Chile obtained the lowest level of proficiency in this

test (“very low proficiency”) out of four better levels (very high proficiency, high proficiency,

moderate proficiency, low proficiency).



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1.2 Antecedents

This research is a case study, which seeks to find out if translation contributes to the

learning of English grammar through a case study applied in the major of English language

pedagogy at the Universidad Austral de Chile. It also aims at enriching current techniques used

by teachers who follow the Grammar Translation Method by answering the question “how is

translation a contribution to English grammar learning?”

1.2.1 General Objective

The general objective of this case study is to investigate the contribution of translation to

the learning of English grammar in a real context with EFL university students.

1.2.2 Specific Objectives

In order to achieve the general objective under study, two specific objectives were stated:

● To identify the advantages of the use of translation in the English grammar learning.

● To study the different translation techniques used by the students in the EFL courses that allow

the learning of English grammar.



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1.3 An Overview of Translation

As the main objective of this research is to find out if translation is a contribution to

English grammar learning, the concept and process of translation will be defined through the

following pages.

1.3.1 Definition of Translation

1.3.1.1 Linguistic Perspective

The first explanation of translation is centered on a linguistic perspective. This point of

view is defined by Catford (1965), who affirms that “translation is always performed in a given

direction: ‘From’ a Source Language (SL) ‘into’ a Target Language (TL)” (p. 20). According to

this theory, translation may be defined as “the replacement of textual material in one language

(SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL)” (Catford, 1965, p. 27), taking into

account that a (textual) equivalent is any TL text that is observed to be a similar reproduction of

a specific SL text. For example, the Spanish textual equivalent of the SL text “my son is six’ is

“mi hijo tiene seis” (ibid.). This perspective also clarifies that a translator will always find

similar options and manners to translate an original text; however, s/he will have to choose the

best one for her/his final translation. This phenomenon in translation is called “binary choice”

(Jakobson, 1975). Binary choice means that a translator faces different possibilities when

translating a text, and from these possibilities, s/he has to make a decision (Jakobson, 1975, p.

73). For example, in the next phrase: “El hombre mató al buey,” the translator has at least two

different options of translation into English: The man killed the bull or the bull was killed by the



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man (Jakobson, 1975, p. 334). In this example, the translator had to choose either the passive or

the active grammatical function to express the original idea of the SL text. For instance, a

translator, or anyone who translates, has to do binary choices; for example, they have to choose

between past and present (killed vs. kills); perfect or past (has killed vs. killed); progressive or

not progressive (is killing or was killing vs. kills, killed) and successively (ibid.).

1.3.1.2 Semantic Perspective

A second definition of translation is given through a semantic point of view. This

perspective focuses on the necessity and the importance of translating meaning rather than

language structures. This hypothesis begins with John. R. Pierce (1962) who declares that

without meaning, everything is lost in a message (p. 140). In this case, a poem, a hymn, a joke,

etc. will produce little effect on the reader if s/he does not comprehend the language and/or the

primary context of the SL text (ibid.). For this reason, a translator must relate the meaning of

words with the intention of the original author, and s/he must know what the author means in

her/his text (ibid.). In this regard, Catford (1965) defines meaning as “the total network of

relations entered into by any linguistic form—text, item in text, structure, element of structure,

class, term in system—or whatever it may be” (p. 35). Here we find meanings determined by

formal and contextual relations of lexical aspects (ibid.). In this case, a TL text has a TL meaning

and a SL text has a SL meaning (ibid.). Valentín García Yebra (1984) contributes to this idea by

pointing out that the translation process always consists of two phases: The comprehension of the

original text and the expression of its message (p. 30). In the first phase, the translator searches



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for the sense of the original text, while in the second phase s/he looks for the expressions and

words to reproduce the original in the target language (ibid.).

According to Peter Newmark (1981), in a translation “the translator attempts, between the

bare syntactic and semantic constrains of the TL, to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of

the author” (p. 22). In this way, awareness of English grammar would facilitate students’

understanding of the workings of the language (Borg, 1999). On the whole, comprehension in

translation is indispensable, and the meaning of words is one of the main factors which lead a

reader to experience a specific kind of feeling. Following that line, the school of interpreters and

translators (ESIT) is working on these issues since 1957 in Paris (Université Sorbonne Nouvelle

Paris 3, 2013, para. 1). The reputation of the ESIT among professionals and researchers in

translation goes beyond the borders of France, thanks to its pedagogical approach based on the

importance of the interpretation of meaning in translation.

1.3.1.3 Communicative Perspective

A third definition of translation is based on a communicative perspective. This

perspective refers to the importance of communication between the SL text and the TL text in

translation, taking into account that “the key elements in any communication system are an

information source, a transmitter, a signal, a receiver, and a destination” (Shannon & Weaver,

1949, p. 56). With regards to this point of view, Philippe Schlenker (2006) mentions that “in

order to act either as a source and transmitter or as a receiver, [the translator] must have a great

deal of information stored as part of his linguistic competence; that is, [he] must know a lot about

[both] languages” (p. 3 ). In addition, Newmark (1981) contributes to this perspective by



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claiming that translation “is a craft that consists in replacing a written message in one language

by the same message in another language” (p. 7). In this definition, Newmark proposes a

communicative translation method in which “the translator attempts to produce the same effect

on the TL readers as was produced by the original on the SL readers” (p. 22). The focus of this

view is to transmit the author’s original message to the target community. The way in which the

text will be translated comes in secondary place; the main emphasis is that the original message

must be understood. However, in order to accomplish effective comprehension among different

texts, Eugene Nida (1981) supports that the study of the different communication factors is

essential to obtain an adequate concept of translation. These factors are: The language level

(ritual, formal, informal, and/or colloquial), language styles (e.g. formal: Professors, priests,

lawyers), paralinguistic messages (e.g. voice projection, intonation differences, tone, fluency),

extra-linguistic messages (gestures, body movements that go with the verbal communication),

orthography, and the use of verbal and non-verbal signs in a text (e.g. the use of the concept

“cross” in Christianity represents the death of Christ; it is not literal) (pp. 19-20).

Surprisingly, for the admirers of the Communicative Language Teaching approach, Duff

(1994) holds that translation promotes language learning since it “develops three qualities

essential to any language learning: Accuracy, clarity, and flexibility” as opposed to the CLT

approach, which principal objective is to communicate a language rather than speaking it

correctly (as cited in Kavaliauskienë & Kaminskienë, 2007, p. 131). Therefore, translation can

serve as a tool to improve and polish language skills among FL learners (ibid.). In this sense,

translation is not only defined as a vocational skill practiced by professionals, but it is also

defined as an aid to language learning.



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Consequently, some important concepts will be defined in order to see how language is

analyzed in the process of translation. For instance, a person who translates must consider and

recognize the different types of translation when analyzing the text to be translated, and the

different techniques used in this process.

1.3.2 Translation Types

This research considers two main types of translation: Literal and free translation,

because the central problem of translating has been always whether to translate a text literally or

freely (Newmark, 1998, p. 106). On the one hand, Newmark (1998) says that literal translation is

when “the SL grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL equivalents but the

lexical words are again translated singly, out of context” (p. 46). In other words, a literal

translation is a “word-for-word translation” in which the “SL word- order is preserved and the

words translated singly by their most common meanings, out of context.” A literal translation of

it is raining cats and dogs is están lloviendo gatos y perros (even though, this expression means

that it is raining heavily instead of raining animals). In this example, one can see that this type of

translation only pays attention to reproduce the linguistic construction of the SL text; the SL

context and meaning of this sentence have little importance. On the other hand, Newmark (1998)

defines free translation as “the spirit, not the letter; the sense, not the words; the message rather

than the form; the matter, not the manner” (p. 45). Thus, this type of translation reproduces “the

content without the form of the original” and “it is a paraphrase much longer than the original”

(p. 45). For example, a free translation of it is raining cats and dogs is llueve a cántaros (it is a

translation that reproduces just the meaning of the SL context, not the linguistic construction).



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Therefore, a language learner who translates and/or a translator must also consider which of

these types of translation they are going to use.

1.3.3 Translation Techniques

Apart from these translation types, in the process of translation, it is necessary to solve

problems in language, regarding the transference of a message through certain techniques. In this

perspective, Esteban Torre (1994) and Lawrence Venuti (2004) describe these technical

procedures.

A technique is “a way of carrying out a particular task, especially the execution or

performance of an artistic work or a scientific procedure” (Oxford, 2013, para. 1). The first

technique of translation is transposition, which consists in the modification of the grammar

category of a part of speech of the SL in the TL text (Venuti, 2004, p. 127). For example:

“There’s a reason for life” is translated as “hay una razón para vivir” (ibid.). In this example, the

noun life in the SL text was changed by the verb vivir in the TL text. A second technique that can

be used in the process of translation is addition. This tactic refers to the addition of linguistic

elements of the SL text (p. 136). For instance, the sentence “we are dancing to the accordion” is

translated as “bailamos al son del acordeón” (ibid.). A third technique is called omission, which

implies a synthesis of linguistic elements of the SL text (p.137). To illustrate this, the original

expression “the commitee has failed to act” is translated as “la comisión no actuó” (ibid.). The

fourth technique is borrowing, which refers to the action of integrating the same foreign words or

terms in the TL text or translation (Venuti, 2004, p. 129). To exemplify, tequila and tortillas are

Mexican Spanish words borrowed by the English language, and web and internet are borrowings



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from English to Spanish (ibid.). A fifth technique is calque (or loan translation), which consists

in a literal translation of a foreign word or expression (Torre, 1994, p. 125). To demonstrate this,

the word online is translated as en línea the phrase full time is translated as tiempo completo; and

peak hours is translated as horas pico (in Spain). A sixth translation technique is called

modulation in which the point of view of the original text changes (Torre, 1994, p. 128). In this

way, a modulation of safe and sound is sano y salvo (instead of salvo y sano); and neither head

nor tail is modulated as ni pies ni cabeza (instead of ni cabeza ni cola) (Torre, 1994, p. 129).

Apart from these techniques, Andrea Lizasoain (2009) suggests that translators must also be

aware of false cognates, numbers (e.g. 7,500 vs. 7.500) and passive voice, which must be

avoided in Spanish.

1.3.4 The Translator as a Language Learner (Linguistic Abilities)

In order to see a translator as a language learner, it is essential to understand what the

concept translator means. According to Oxford (2006), a translator “is a person whose work is to

express the meaning of speech or writing in a different language” (p. 1632). “The ancient Greek

word for translator-interpreter is Hermêneus, [which] means to interpret foreign tongues, explain,

expound, put into words, express, describe, write about” (Barinas Translation Consultants, 2009,

para. 2). Therefore, a translator is a person who analyzes the language in its written form: A

person who works with the grammatical issues of a language. In this respect, Jean Delisle and

Judith Woodsworth (1995) emphasize that “translators have invented alphabets, helped build

languages and written dictionaries,” and what is more, “they have contributed to the emergence

of national literatures, [and to] the dissemination of knowledge” (p. 10).



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The translator’s occupation implies many different duties regarding linguistic use

according to what different authors have specified. Valentín García Yebra (1984) remarks that

the translator has to deepen into both languages (SL-TL) in the translation process (p.19).

Therefore, it can be assumed that a superficial knowledge about languages is not sufficient to

translate a message correctly. He also points out that the translator must have the comprehensive

and expressive capacity through the knowledge and proper usage of the lexis, morphology and

syntax of each language, and s/he (the translator) must be acquainted with the theme(s) related

to the TL and SL texts (ibid.). Consequently, a translator is practicing her/his linguistic

knowledge constantly. In the same sense, Steven Rendall (1997) makes reference to Walter

Benjamin, who pointed out that an accurate translation is a “natural connection, a vital

connection with the original text,” because a translation must express the essence of its source,

being a “representation of its significance” (p. 154). Nida (1981) states that a translator must

recognize four basic types of speech: Narration, description, exposition and/or dialogue (p. 27).

Besides, he says that a translator must pay attention to the type of audience s/he is translating to.

Newmark (1981) also proposes that before choosing an adequate translation method, in order to

start analyzing and making generalizations about the SL text, the first translator’s job is to

understand the SL text (p. 20). This idea suggests that the translator must pay attention to four

specific conditions: To understand the intention of the original author and the SL text; to know

and recognize the type of reader; to recognize and analyze the setting of the text; and to pay

attention to the quality of the writing by respecting the “good writing” of the SL text, or improve

it when it is poor (p. 21). Therefore, a translator must concentrate on the entire speech of a text in

order to start translating adequately.



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These last notions show that a translation learner will improve the language analysis

skills at the end of her/his major. As a matter of fact, Derrida and Venuti (2001) had a great

admiration for translators because they “are the only ones who know how to read and write” (p.

174) at the same time. And what is more, “in most fields, the best translators are distinguished by

their ability to make suitable word choices and to craft graceful sentences in the target language”

(Cross, n.d., p. 19). This idea implies the fact that a translator could be an expert in language

matters, because s/he must have the capacity to manipulate the language through the linguistic

knowledge in the best way, in order to transmit a message in a faithful manner. For this reason, a

language learner practices her/his language proficiency through translation. As García Yebra

(1984) says, theory and practice are, in effect, inseparable in this discipline, because we learn

how to translate by doing it (p. 16).

1.4 An Overview of English Grammar Learning

As the process of translation requires an effective and erudite understanding of

languages, a language apprentice can use translation as a learning activity to immerse him/herself

in the language education practice. As a matter of fact, a language student who practices the art

of translation should know how to work with the grammatical features of the languages s/he is

translating.



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1.4.1 Definition of Learning

As a consequence, it is important to clarify that this study is centered on the concept of

learning given by Stephen Krashen’s acquisition-learning hypothesis. This theory establishes

that learning is “a conscious process of getting the ability to perform a second language” (Dorsh,

2010, p. 1). Therefore, translation is part of learning since it also represents an explicit grammar-

focused process especially practiced by adults, as opposed to the concept of acquisition, which is

implicit learning (ibid.). Consequently, if the translator does not have a proper command of the

correct grammar usage, s/he would not be able to translate efficiently. As John Pierce (1962)

affirms, “the knowledge of grammar allows us to detect and to analyze structural problems in the

language, and to establish the type of relationship between words in a phrase or sentence” (p.

141).

1.4.2 Definition of Grammar

The concept of grammar has been defined through two main theories: Descriptive

grammar and prescriptive grammar theories. The understanding of these philosophies leads the

language learners to the study of traditional grammar. These types of grammar will be defined

below in order to perceive the connection they have with translation and language learning.

1.4.2.1 Descriptive Grammar

This kind of grammar is observed and recorded by linguists to know how language is

used in function. In this type of grammar, linguists describe language as it is used in real life



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situations; in other words, they tell what speakers actually do and not what they must say or write

(Schlenker, 2006, p. 3). Therefore, these descriptions show how language speakers express their

mental grammar, which consists in the unconscious knowledge of grammar rules that a language

user innately has (ibid.). In this sense, these descriptive rules show what Noam Chomsky (1986)

has stated in his theory of Universal Grammar (UG), which is “construed as the theory of human

‘Internalized-language’ (I-language), a system of conditions deriving from the human biological

endowment that identifies the I-languages that are humanly accessible under normal conditions”

(p. 23). The I-language is the “notion of structure in the mind of the speaker which is definite

enough to guide him in framing sentences of his own” (Chomsky, 1986, p. 22). In this premise,

Chomsky (1986) proposes that every person has an innate knowledge of language rules, and that

the brain is intended to allow humans to use grammar for the use of languages (ibid.). Some

examples of descriptive rules of grammar would be: “Some English speakers end a sentence with

a preposition,” “some English speakers split infinitives” and “some English speakers use double

negatives for negation” (Schlenker, 2006, p. 3). As it can be seen, these examples show

descriptions of the use of language in order to understand the mental grammar of a speaker.

1.4.2.2 Prescriptive Grammar

This definition of grammar represents the fundaments of formal linguistic rules for

further language learning and teaching; fundaments that lead us to the traditional grammar

theory. Schlenker (2006) points out that prescriptive grammar “categorizes certain language uses

as acceptable or unacceptable according to a standard form of the language” (p. 3). Some



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examples of this kind of grammar would be: “Never use double negatives” (I don’t have nothing

vs. I don’t have anything), “never split an infinitive” (to boldly go where no one has gone before

vs. to go boldly where no one has gone before) (ibid.). These examples imply the idea that when

we talk about a formal and proper use of a language, English specifically, we are saying that we

are following these prescriptive rules in our speech. Pierce (1962) affirms that the complete

grammar of a language must express entirely every grammatical restriction (p. 131).

1.4.3 Traditional Grammar

As it has been mentioned above, the translation of a text implies the idea that the person

who performs this action must have a clear understanding of the correct use of the language s/he

is translating; therefore, s/he must have previously studied the prescriptive rules of a language to

carry out this task. Contemporary linguists have elaborated a definition in relation to traditional

grammar, which presents linguistic rules to speak a language correctly, telling how language

users should speak. They have introduced a “collection of specialty areas and theories designed

to correct problems with traditional grammar” (Goldman, n.d, p. 2). He states that this theory

“analyzes the parts of a well-formed sentence” (p. 3). This principle gives language students

elementary understandings of the accurate language construction, which can help to improve

their linguistic skills (written, oral, listening skills) (ibid.). According to the linguist Joseph

Galasso (2002), the study of traditional grammar is sub-divided into two disciplines: Syntax and

morphology (p. 3). On the one hand, “morphology is the study of how words are formed out of

smaller units called morphemes” (ibid.). For example, the word teacher (noun) is derived from

teach (verb), which is generated by smaller morphological units as the suffixes (teach + er =



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teacher). On the other hand, “syntax is concerned with how words are strung together to form

larger units of expressions such as phrases, clauses, and (full) simple sentences” (ibid.). To sum

up, traditional grammar is the basis to express and construct a language correctly by following

formal language rules. Therefore, the combination between the study of traditional grammar and

the analysis of it through translation can lead foreign language learners to the improvement of

their linguistic skills.

1.4.3.1 Sentence Formation

The most important process in the study of traditional grammar and in the process of

translation is the construction of sentences. In language learning, we understand grammar as “the

study and practice of the rules by which words change their forms and are combined into

sentences” (Harmer, 1987, p. 2). According to Bowen, Martin, and Stockwell (1965), sentences

are “grammatical patterns consisting of a sequence of slots” in which “substitutions of various

appropriate lexical units can be made” (p. 2). These authors explain this definition by saying that

the patterns of this unit are similar to a dress pattern, which are made of a diversity of materials,

colors, shapes, etc. (Bowen et al., 1965, p. 18). In the sentences, we find lexical units that “refer

not only to words, but also to parts of words, such as “–s, –ed, –in ’ and so on” (ibid.).

Furthermore, one sentence can have different options to express the same meaning in English;

“they gave John a book,” “he was given a book (by them),” and “a book was given to him (by

them)” (Bowen et al., 1965, p. 36). In this case, Harmer (1987) states that grammar “is the way

in which words change themselves and group together to make sentences” (p.3). For instance,

the grammar of a language is the phenomenon that occurs to words when they become plural or



25

singular, positive or negative, etc., or when a speaker chooses what word order is going to be

used for making questions or joining two or more clauses to make just one sentence (Harmer,

1987, p. 1).

Belinda Maia (1996) affirms that the sentence is the main unit of translation. She

supports the idea by saying that “written language has to organize, control and concentrate the

information of several clauses, or communication units, into sentences” (p. 4). This activity is a

highly sophisticated process in which “everyone knows how one can return over and over again

to a sentence to ‘polish it up’ [because] sentences of this kind are what occupies the minds of

most translators in the normal process of translating, and it is time to make a systematic analysis

of them” (ibid.). Besides, the sentence is the unit that expresses most of the wholeness of ideas in

the texts (p. 7). In this sense, it can be concluded that a language learner practices her/his

knowledge on sentence formation in the foreign language through the translation process.

1.4.3.2 Grammar Rules versus Language Functions

Nevertheless, some people have the feeling that teaching the grammar rules of a

language does not necessarily leads EFL learners to the language usage. Harmer (1987) reports

that this opinion is based on the idea that functions of language should be primarily taught

instead of standardized grammatical rules. However, the same author argues that “the problem

[of this idea] is that the sentences that perform functions are made of grammatical elements” (p.

5). There is now a general feeling that students do need to learn how to perform the functions of

language, but they need a grammatical basis first (ibid.). In this case, functions cannot be taught



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without the learning and/or teaching of grammar. For example, Harmer (1987) affirms that our

knowledge of grammar tells us that the word walk changes to walked in the past tense, “and it

will also tell us what to do if we want to put the phrase not many into the sentence there are

oranges in the shelf (there are not many oranges in the shelf)” (p.3). Consequently, a translator

has to know the grammar rules as a priority to express language functions. In conclusion, the

comprehension of grammar does not reveal all the secrets of language, but it allows language

learners to increase their language knowledge first to produce and express a discourse in the

target language properly (Pierce, 1962, p. 132).

1.5 Learning and Teaching of Grammar through Translation

In the course of this research, it could be implied that translation is a representation of a

communicative act accomplished through the understanding of language and its grammar.

Therefore, if the translator does not have a full understanding of grammar, s/he will have several

problems to communicate the SL message: S/he could not be able to comprehend the SL text as

it is supposed to, s/he could not be able to read the SL naturally, s/he could not manage

difficulties with language structures, s/he could not be able to identify every grammatical feature,

and neither could s/he be able to express the language fluently. Therefore, grammar learning in

translation is indispensable.

Newmark (1991) indicates that in the advanced or final stage of language teaching,

translation that is done from SL to TL and from TL to SL is known “as the fifth skill and the

most important social skill” (p. 13), considering that it makes communication possible between

strangers. He explains that translation from TL to SL facilitates the expansion of language



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knowledge and its consolidation. Vanessa Leonardi (2010) considers that translation should be

taken as a fifth skill in a way of supplementing the other four skills in order to incorporate a

much more comprehensive approach (p.25). The social implications involved in translations, and

the demanding characteristics required to develop this process (in terms of managing the two

languages implicated in the translation) are features that immerse the translator in a rich

communicative environment.

One unknown word and/or phrase without an equivalent in the translated language can

cause a notable impression to the translators when they have to use their comparative thinking

(Atkinson, 1993, p. 134). The analysis made during the process of translation, and the need to

find out a way to solve problems, facilitate a significant learning. To solve problems, translators

can resort to different techniques such as borrowing, omission, addition, and modulation.

Going further, Daniel Gile (2009) explains that students who attend professional

translator programs or courses have ideas that are strongly associated with language

comprehension, with grammatically correct writing in the foreign language, and with

translinguistic equivalences that they have been practicing for several years (p. 26). In context,

we can attempt to associate Gile’s idea to the reality of English Pedagogy’s students who take

translation courses. In Chile, during school, many students are familiarized with the Grammar-

Translation Method in which some translinguistic equivalences are learned. In addition, during

the university period, students practice those equivalences and learn some others. To support the

previous thoughts, Walter Kasmer (1999) explains the following:

Through the usage of bilingual immersion, co-teaching, bilingual text usage, or a

combination of approaches such as Weschler’s “Functional-Translation Method”, a



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teacher can also increase a student’s confidence and security levels. In addition,

consciousness raising aids the student’s ability to recognize similarities and

dissimilarities between the L1 and L2; culture, language structure, use of specific and

general vocabulary, and the order of presentation of information. (p.19)

This last statement is related to the idea that translation “allows conscious learning and

control of the foreign language” (Shiyab & Abdullateef, 2001, p. 4). As translation allows the

analysis of grammatical problems, the students learn to be aware of their errors, a fact that

“improves students’ ability to monitor and self-correct their use of language” (Borg, 1999, p.

158).

1.5.1 The Grammar Translation Method (GTM)

Richards and Rodgers (2001) define this method as:

A way of studying a language that approaches the language first use through detailed

analysis of its grammar rules, followed by application of this knowledge to the task of

translating sentences and texts into and out of the target language. (p. 5)

The GTM has the following characteristics: It mainly focuses on reading and writing

skills, because little attention is paid to speaking and listening (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p. 6).

Second, vocabulary is learned through bilingual word lists, memorization and dictionary study

(ibid.). Thirdly, in this teaching system, the sentence is the “basic unit of teaching and language

practice” and “accuracy is emphasized” (ibid.). Fourthly, the form of instruction here is the

mother tongue of the language learner which “is used to explain new items and to enable



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comparisons to be made between the foreign language and the student’s native language” (ibid).

The GTM features show that this method has certain advantages in the learning of

English grammar language, a fact that promotes its use worldwide. Elizabeth (2004) points out

that the GTM facilitates the teaching of a foreign language through the comparison of linguistic

patterns of both languages (SL and TL), thus promoting a clear and firm learning of the foreign

language (p. 52). Besides, in the act of translation, “the fundamental principle of proceeding

from known to unknown is followed throughout;” and the awareness of language rules acquired

allows the students to avoid any type of mistakes (ibid.).

The characteristics of the GTM mentioned above may be the reason why it is popular

worldwide. In fact, although this teaching system has few advocates nowadays, it “is still widely

practiced” (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p. 7). The fame of the GTM tends to be related to these

advantages: It is approachable to a great quantity of language learners, “less time consuming”

and promotes the reading activities with understanding (Elizabeth, 2004, p. 52). Furthermore, the

GTM is “easy to manage” because it requires little teaching labor. For instance, an activity

focused on this method is “easy to test” as students’ comprehension can be measured without

difficulties. In the same line, this method is a “facilitator for learning many items of English by

comparison with mother tongue,” permitting a better comprehension of the FL (Elizabeth, 2004,

p. 53).



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1.5.2 Overt versus Covert Grammar Teaching

In consequence, language students need to be given details of grammar rules if they are

going to learn English successfully. In this sense, if they manipulate the foreign language to

transfer a message from one language to another, it is essential to know some teaching tips to

practice the grammar in FL classrooms. Thus, grammar can be learned covertly and overtly

during classes of translation. On the one hand, covert grammar teaching is “where grammatical

facts are hidden from the students, even though they are learning the language” (Harmer, 1987,

p. 3). For example, in a class, some students can be asked to work on an information gap activity

or on a reading passage, in which new grammar is introduced, but the students’ attention will be

drawn to the text or to the activity, not to the grammar rules. With this type of grammar in the

teaching process, teachers help the students to practice their language knowledge, but they do not

draw attention to the grammatical structures of the language openly (ibid). On the other hand,

overt grammar teaching means that “the teacher actually provides the students with grammatical

rules and explanation,” in other words, the information is explicit (Harmer, 1987, p.4). In this

sense, with overt teaching, the grammar rules of the language are openly seen by the students,

but with covert teaching the students need to work with new language and the teacher hopes that

they will subconsciously engage grammatical information, which will allow them to learn the

language in a natural way (ibid.). When students translate a text, they can practice both kinds of

grammar.



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1.5.3 Translation Techniques as Enhancing Processes of Grammar Analysis

The analysis of English grammar, as a fundamental process in formal foreign language

teaching and learning, can be achieved by using translation techniques. The word “analysis” can

be defined as “the examination and evaluation of the relevant information to select the best

course of action from among various alternatives” (InvestorWords, 2012). As techniques are

implemented for the purpose of solving problems to achieve a specific goal, objective or plan, it

is important to take advantage of them to analyze the features of grammar language with the

purpose of choosing the right technique or method to carry out the translation of the structures.

Eugene Nida and Charles Taber (1982) explain that there are two different systems for

translating a text considering grammatical analysis. The first one consists in setting up rules

which are applied strictly, showing what should be done in each item or combination of items in

the source language, in order to select the best corresponding form in the receptor’s language (p.

33). On the other hand, the second system consists in the analysis of the text in terms of

grammatical relationships and the meaning and combination of words; then, the message is

transferred in the mind of the translator; and finally, the message is restructured from one

language to another making the message fully acceptable in the receptor language (ibid.). In spite

of the differences between these two systems of grammatical analysis, both have the necessity of

using techniques to reach their final goal of translating. In this manner, apart from the translation

techniques mentioned in the section 1.3.3, there are also other procedures called “discovery

techniques” which can also enhance the grammar analysis in language teaching.



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1.5.4 Discovery Techniques in Translation for Grammar Teaching

Moreover, it can be implied that the students of translation courses put into practice

discovery techniques to understand new language items. As students read the information and

solve problems presented through the development of a written text in the translation process,

they find out how grammar is used (Harmer, 1987, p. 29). Besides, these techniques involve the

students’ reasoning processes in the task of grammar learning, and through these

accomplishments, teachers make sure that they concentrate copiously on their task by using their

cognitive capacities. One of these discovery techniques is “text study”, in which students

discover new language by concentrating on how language is used in the text and on the kind of

language used in a certain context. In this task, the students read texts, do comprehension

exercises and discuss the extract of texts (Harmer, 1987, p. 30). In this way, by means of “text

study,” the learners see the grammar in action (ibid.). Another discovery technique is “problem-

solving” (ibid). Harmer (1987) says that “this technique encourages students to talk about

grammar and to analyze its properties” (p. 37). At this point, students become aware of how the

grammar of English works. This encourages them to discover what is wrong and they try to

explain the reasons why some language constructions are wrong. It is important to note that these

techniques, in translation courses and in language teaching, are student-centered; the teacher is

not the only person who tells the students what grammar is about, because they can realize about

that information by themselves (ibid.). Harmer (1987) also points out that the use of discovery

techniques can be highly motivating and extremely beneficial for the students’ understanding of

English grammar (p. 40).



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1.6 Identifying Grammatical Problems in English-Spanish Translations

In the process of translation, translators and language learners always face problems in

the translated texts. English grammar is principally problematic for language learners because of

the difference between the foreign language (in this case, English) and the mother tongue

(Spanish) (ibid.). An example of this difference is given by Spanish and English adjectives:

Tengo zapatos azules versus I have blue shoes; me dio dos gatos pequeños versus he gave me

two small cats (Harmer, 1987, p. 13). Here, we can observe that English adjectives usually come

before nouns, not after them. Also, we can notice that English adjectives do not usually change

when they apply to masculine or feminine words or in the case of plurals. Moreover, the fact that

English grammar rules are full of exceptions is summed up to this problem (Harmer, 1987, p.14).

As a matter of fact, “it is not always easy to translate the new words,” therefore, “learners’

translations also frequently contain errors of syntactic and lexical decoding and encoding”

(Vermes, 2010, p. 89).These problems represent language mistakes and errors which are mainly

produced by fossilization and interference between the SL and the TL.

1.6.1 Grammar versus Function

People who learn languages (specifically, those who work on English-Spanish/Spanish-

English translations) are faced to a high number of complications, especially with the grammar

of the language, which can be problematic and confusing. Harmer (1987) states that the first

difficulty is because of the confusion created between the concepts of language form (grammar)

and function. This confusion can be caused because a single linguistic form (verb, noun,

adjective, preposition, etc.) can have many functions, and “the same form can be used to mean



34

many different things” (Harmer, 1987, p. 10). For example, if we think of a circumstance in the

future, we will find that the same idea can be expressed in many different ways: I’ll see her

tomorrow, I´ll be seeing her tomorrow, I’m seeing her tomorrow, I’m going to see her tomorrow,

I’m to see her tomorrow, and I see her tomorrow. However, if the language user has an adequate

knowledge of grammar rules, s/he will notice slight differences among the different functions of

the sentence construction. For example, the second sentence suggests that the meeting tomorrow

has been certainly arranged, whereas the third sentence suggests that it is a plan, although it does

not represent a definite arrangement as the second one. Finally, the last sentence implies that the

arrangement is completely obligatory and official (ibid.).

1.6.2 Cultural Realities

The understanding of cultures and its social context is another problem found in

translation and consequently in language learning. According to Nida (1981), a translator should

carry out several processes in order to translate efficiently and one of them is to recognize the

cultural context of the text that will be translated; not only the context of the original

communication, but also the cultural context of the receptor (p. 18). For instance, this author (in

one of his conferences) gives the example of the word justification which has several meanings

depending on the different context where it is used; it has one meaning for a theological’

seminar, another for printing, and a third one for an accounting office (p.18). This means that a

translator must transmit the optimal meaning from the original concept in the translation to the

receptor’s cultural background.

According to Nida (1981), to understand the cultural and social context in translation, it is



35

necessary to study the languages. For example, in order to understand the context of the bible,

translators must learn rhetoric to know that red symbolizes sin and white symbolizes purity

(Pierce, 1962, p. 40). Regarding religious aspects, for Latin American people, there is little or no

problem to understand these meanings, because for our culture the color red implies death or

danger, and white symbolizes chastity. However, in some places in the East, the color red

represents happiness, joy and marriage; and the color white represents death. Pierce (1962)

affirms that in every culture, certain words and phrases have a certain common effect upon the

receptors, as visions, sounds, and facts which are associated with their cultural background (p.

140). As a consequence, the person who translates must recognize and know how to

communicate the same social sense through an adequate language use.

One may say that all these cultural differences are tricks of the trade. The mix of two

different cultures allows the comparison among languages. Moreover, all the grammar devices

used in translation are going to depend on the cultural differences or similarities between both

dialects. The context of the grammatical forms has a strong influence on their meanings. Toury

(1995) defines translation as “communication between messages integrated in a given linguistic-

cultural system; that means they are regulated by norms and through them a society controls the

importation and exportation of its culture” (as cited in Mallol, 2006, p. 137). This is what we

make when translating, we import and export culture.



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1.6.3 Word Order

Word order is another complication that learners find in translation when they must build

sentences. According to Bowen et al. (1965), word order implies that “each pair of sentences has

exactly the same words in it” but “the difference in the order of words signals the difference in

meaning” (p. 2). For example, “‘milk chocolate’ is a different lexical unit from ‘chocolate milk’

” (ibid.). The same happens with the phrases tengo algo que hacer (I have something to do)

versus tengo que hacer algo (I have to do something) (ibid.).

1.6.4 Language Agreement

Another problem in translation and language learning is language agreement. This means

that the word order of a sentence must show a “grammatical concord” between the small units of

a sentence in order to form a message satisfactorily (Bowen et al., 1965). For example, the

language learners, especially those who start learning a foreign language, usually make mistakes

with tense agreement; she walks by me versus she walk by me (ibid.).

1.6.5 Sentence Length

Sentence length represents a complication in translation and in language learning as well.

In this case, a language learner and a translator must be capable of considering the sentence

length of the SL text versus the TL text. As Maia (1996) illustrates, [if a Spanish] writer has

constructed a 115 word sentence, one will naturally need considerable knowledge and control of

English to put all the information into one English sentence-and, of course, one could say the

same of the [Spanish] writer in relation to [English]. However, if one tries to break it up, one



37

may lose the thematic thrust of the message, and also run the risk of making the translation even

longer by having to repeat lexical and syntactic structures which have been ellipted in the

original. Similarly, joining up the shorter English sentences of the English academic tradition to

make a more ‘respectable’ [Spanish] text is not as straightforward as it might seem. (p. 7)

1.6.6 Vocabulary

Other difficulty in translation is choosing the most appropriate lexis to reproduce the SL

text. “We do not first have thoughts, ideas, feelings, and then put them into a verbal framework;

we think in words by means of words” (Pyle, 2009, p. 1). This thought about the importance of

words is reinforced by Chomsky (1957), who states that “words and idioms are as indispensable

to our thoughts and experiences as are colors and tints to a painting” (as cited in Pyle, 2009, p.

1). Hence, translation could be beneficial for learning vocabulary because learners produce

through it, and what is more, they are required to face problematic words and structures (Laufer

& Girsai, 2008, p. 698).

1.6.6.1 Collocations, Idioms and False Cognates

Besides words and idioms, we may think about other complicated issues for students

translating from TL to SL, which are collocations and false cognates. Firstly, Michael McCarthy

and Felicity O’Dell (1997) define idioms as “fixed expressions with meanings that are not

always clear or obvious” (p. 148); for example, “to feel under the weather” means “to feel

unwell” (ibid.). Secondly, according to Ola Zur (2012), “a collocation is a combination of words



38

that is used together frequently” (para. 14). It is actually a common phrase. For example, make a

mistake is a collocation which literally means hacer un error in Spanish. This last expression is

not used in the last language because Spanish talkers say cometer un error instead of hacer un

error. In this case, it would be grammatically wrong to say commit a mistake in English.

Moreover, language learners will have to know that they cannot make a literal interpretation of

this expression in translation. On the other hand, students also have problems with false friends

or false cognates. These are foreign words (in this case; English words) that are confused with

the mother tongue (Spanish) expressions because they have a similar sound and composition. For

example, abstract is not the same as abstracto, and to achieve is not archivar.

The role of grammar in learning a language is crucial. Thus, if we want to use translation

as a pedagogical tool, grammar cannot be ignored. Shiyab & Abdullateef (2001) state that

translation is a process in which meaning is transferred between two languages considering

“textual, grammatical and pragmatic meanings,” in which linguistic and non-linguistic features,

such as thought, situation, cultural knowledge, intention, and use are taken into account (p.1).

However, considering the complexity of grammar, it is impossible to expect students to manage

this area in a perfect way. Larry Selinker points out that “errors are indispensable to learners

since making errors can be used as ‘a device the learner uses in order to learn’” (as cited in Mei

Lin Ho, 2003, para. 4). Errors improve students’ performance since when they realize that they

have committed them, they are learning consciously. In consequence, translation is a method that

allows this activity in language learning:

[since it helps students become] aware of parallels and contrasts between English

grammar and that of their first language [,which] often allows them to understand the



39

grammar under study more rapidly and it also makes students aware of the source of

foreign languages errors caused by first language interference (Borg, 1999, p. 159).



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2. Methodology: Methods and Procedures

This research is a case study that was conducted in order to identify the benefits of

translation in the learning process of English grammar among EFL university students. For this

purpose, surveys to students, interviews to experts, and class observations were applied as data

collection instruments in two translation courses of the English Pedagogy Major at the

Universidad Austral de Chile.

The data collection instruments were carried out during the second semester of the year

2012. The observation guideline employed in this research was taken and adapted from the

teaching practice observation guideline format used by the English Pedagogy School of the

Universidad Austral de Chile (see Appendix D). This guideline was used to determine how the

students perceived the teaching and learning of English grammar in terms of the techniques

learned in the courses of translation. On the other hand, a survey was applied to the students of

both courses of translation at the end of a class, in November 2012, to evaluate students’

opinions regarding the importance of translation to language learning.

In the beginning of December, an interview was applied to two English teachers of the

English Pedagogy Major. They were interviewed in order to know their perspectives and

opinions regarding the main topics of this study, as experts on translation and foreign language

teaching, taking into account that both of them have been in charge of translation courses. Once

these tools were applied, their results were analyzed through qualitative and quantitative traits.

Immediately after specifying the types of data analysis, the results and discussion of this case

study are exposed.



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Thus, taking into consideration the advantages of the theory of translation to the learning

of English grammar, and the existing contradiction between the Grammar Translation Method

and the Communicative Language Teaching Approach, relevant data was collected through these

instruments of investigation. The purpose of this case study is to see whether the use of

translation techniques can be beneficial for the learning process of English grammar or not;

especially, when they are applied efficiently inside the EFL classrooms.

2.1 Case Study

This research has been developed through the case study method. This method provides

the researchers with the sufficient data to draw consistent conclusions. David Nunan (1992)

affirms that the case study “utilizes a range of methods for collecting and analyzing data, rather

than being restricted to a single procedure” (p. 74). At the same time, this type of study permits

to work with contemporary issues in a real context (Yin, 1994, p.12), hence, this method

responds to the need of understanding the current Chilean reality with respect to the EFL

teaching and learning phenomenon. Besides, in a case study “one selects an instance from the

class of objects and phenomena one is investigating (for example, ‘a second language learner’ or

‘a science classroom’) and investigates the way this instance functions in context” (Nunan, 1992,

p. 75). In this case, this method is capable of giving the researchers accurate data for a specific

purpose of investigation. For instance, several tools were applied in this study to examine a

current issue (the importance of translation to the learning of English) in a real context (two

university EFL classes) to obtain reliable results.



42

2.2 Subjects and Context of the Study

One of the aims of the Universidad Austral de Chile (UACh) is to instruct students in a

globalized context, especially for academic purposes, such as exchange scholarships. Hence, one

of the university’s duties is to promote students to learn English as a foreign language. This

study was carried out inside this university, specifically in the English Pedagogy Major at the

Philosophy and Humanities Faculty. Two teachers of English, experts on translation issues, and

40 university students of the English Pedagogy Major, who took translation courses, were the

subjects of study. The two professionals were interviewed regarding the main aspects of this

research project, while the 40 students were surveyed and observed. Seventeen students of the

major belonged to the course Técnicas de Traducción (ILIN 155) and 23 belonged to the course

Introduction to Translation (ILIN 129). Students’ ages ranged from 18 to 22 years old and they

were students of second, third and last year of the major. In this sense, their level of proficiency

in the English language went from intermediate to advanced levels. The group of students took

the elective courses of translation during the second semester of 2012.

2.2.1 English Pedagogy Major

The main focus of the English Pedagogy Major is to teach, promote, and foster the

linguistic competences of the English language among its students, so they become efficient

teachers of English as a foreign language in the future. For this purpose, several courses related

to these main objectives are offered to the students. Moreover, in a way of fostering the study of

the English language, some elective courses are related to translation, such as the ones observed

in this research.



43

2.2.2 Translation Courses

The subjects under study belonged to the following elective courses of the English

Pedagogy Major:

2.2.2.1 ILIN 129-Introduction to Translation

It is a theoretical and practical elective course. The purpose of this elective is to

familiarize the students with the practice of translation and promote the acquisition of new

vocabulary through the translation of simple-level texts from English into Spanish.

At the end of this course, the students are intended to widen their vocabulary, be

familiarized with the theory and practice of translation, be able to translate simple-level texts

from English to Spanish correctly, and improve their punctuation and orthography in both

languages.

The ILIN 129 end-of-course profile is to gain the next competences:

Examine the varieties of the English language related to temporal, spatial, sociocultural,

and ethnic factors seen from a local, regional, national and transnational perspective.

Use formal English language in oral and written forms.

Use the new technologies of information as tools of investigation, communication and

pedagogy.

2.2.2.2 ILIN 155-Técnicas de Traducción

This elective is also a theoretical and practical course. The purpose of this course is to

improve the abilities of the students regarding translation matters through the development of



44

workshops. In these workshops the students have to acquire new vocabulary, be familiarized

with translation techniques, and put into practice the contents learned throughout the classes, by

translating medium-level texts from English into Spanish. At the end of this course, the students

are intended to widen their vocabulary, use translation techniques in order to make accurate

translations, identify different types of texts, know and recognize style differences between

English and Spanish; and finally, they are intended to improve their punctuation and orthography

in both languages.

Table 1

Courses general description

Description Introduction to Translation Técnicas de Traducción

(ILIN-129) (ILIN-155)

N° students 23 17

Theoretical hours p/week 1 1

Practical hours p/week 1 1

Language level required Language III Language V

(students of 2nd

yeara) (students of 4

thyear

b)

Note.a b

Correspond to the English Pedagogy Mayor’s Curriculum.

2.3 Data Collection Methods

For the purpose of gathering evidence to support this research project, tools such as

surveys, interviews and observations were applied. These tools were chosen considering the

advantages they provide to the collection of reliable information. The collection was based on

three main criteria under study, which are detailed in Table 2.1. Results were later analyzed

following the different aspects of each criterion.



45

Table 2.1

Main criteria under study

Criteria Aspects of each criterion a.- The use of translation techniques for

language learning

Techniques: Transposition, addition,

omission, borrowing, calque, and modulation.

Strategies: Linguistic, semantic and/or

communicative perspectives, GTM, overt and covert

grammar teaching, discovery techniques (text study

and problem solving).

b.- Grammatical features and/or problems

analyzed in translation tasks

Cultural realities, language agreement,

word order, word choice, sentence length,

punctuation, vocabulary.

c.-Enhancement of writing, reading, or/and

speaking skills

Types of reading, writing, or/and speaking

activities through translation tasks.

2.3.1 Survey

The use of surveys has the purpose of collecting representative, systematic and reliable

information from the subjects, considering that these did not require private information that may

have influenced students, affecting their answers (Pratt & Loizos, 1992, p. 59). The surveys

were anonymous for participants to feel free to answer openly to questions without apprehension

(Stawarski & Phillips, 2008, p.4). The tool was applied to 33 students taking courses of

translation (ILIN-129 and ILIN-155). These surveys had the purpose of discovering how they

perceived the role of translation courses in relation to the learning of English grammar. A group

of 13 statements was included in this survey, which was handed out during class time (see

Appendix A). Here, the students had to answer whether they agreed (YES), disagreed (NO) or

partially agreed (MED) with these declarations.



46

2. 3.2 Teachers Interviews

Semi-structured interviews were applied as a way of gathering information from

translation teachers (see Appendix B and C). “Semistructured interviews invite interviewees to

express themselves openly and freely and to define the world from their own perspectives, not

solely from the perspective of the researcher” (Hancock & Algozzine, 2006, p. 40). According to

Margaret Harrell and Melissa Bradley (2009), a positive characteristic of interviews is that they

allow the collection of information related to practices, beliefs, opinions, and experiences (p. 24).

In this case, two experts were interviewed: Andrea Lizasoain (the current teacher of Técnicas de

Traducción and Introduction to Translation, and professional translator English-Spanish), and

Amalia Ortiz de Zárate (Literary Translation teacher with a PhD in Gender Studies, Translation

and Theater). The interview consisted of five questions which were asked during a meeting

previously arranged by the researchers and the experts.

2.3.3 Observations

Observation as a data collection tool has the advantage of being reliable in terms of

seeing directly what people do rather than trusting in what subjects say they do (CDC, 2008, p.

2). Furthermore, physical documentation was analyzed, which was provided by the teacher in the

lessons, such as translation tasks. Observations were conducted through an observation guideline

(see Appendix D) in order to perceive students’ responses to the different activities proposed by

the teacher. For example: How pupils showed the knowledge learned in relation to translation

techniques; and the way translation can explicitly (or implicitly) affect the learning or

strengthening of English grammar among students. This tool of investigation was applied in each



47

of the two courses of translation (ILIN 129 and ILIN 155). Furthermore, the courses were

observed during two sections: During the theoretical lessons and during workshops (in which

translation tasks were analyzed by students). Seven classes of 90 minutes each were observed,

which took place on Mondays during the months specified in Table 2.2.

Table 2.2

General observation aspects

Courses N° of observations Months Data collection tools a Materials Used

ILIN 129 5 September 1 Observation guideline Audio-

October recorder

November Computer

Journal

Pens

ILIN 155 2 November 1 Observation guideline Audio-

recorder

Computer

Journal

Pens

Note. a

The first part of the observation guideline was used for theoretical lessons and workshops and the second part was used

for the analysis of written translation tasks (see Appendix D).

2.3.3.1 Theoretical Lessons

This section of the courses consists in the theoretical part of the classes, the time when

the teacher explains the contents to the class. This section took approximately 45 minutes.

2.3.3.2 Workshops

In this section, the students have to put into practice what they previously saw and

discussed during the theoretical lessons by translating pieces of authentic English texts into

Spanish (translation tasks). In this part of the courses, the students discussed, analyzed and

commented English grammatical problems found in the tasks as a group.



48

2.4 Types of Data Analysis

The recollected data in the practical part of this research was analyzed and described

through qualitative and quantitative methods.

2.4.1 Qualitative Analysis

The qualitative analysis of data allowed the researchers to generate, construct, and

interpret the hypothesis of this investigation through the application of observations, surveys and

interviews. These qualitative tools were applied as they are “concerned with understanding

human behavior from the actor’s own frame of reference” (Nunan, 1992, p. 4). The results of this

type of analysis were mainly exposed through the use and display of tables.

2.4.2 Quantitative Analysis

With this type of analysis, the researchers looked for understanding the students’

opinions, regarding the main aspects under investigation, through the use of a statistical

modeling of comparison. According to Nunan (1992), a quantitative analysis seeks for causes

and/or facts of a social phenomenon with regard to the subjects under study by providing a

numerical value to variables (p. 4). For this reason, graphs were used in order to display and

analyze the results of the surveys implemented in both courses.



49

3. Results and Discussion

For the purpose of offering clear and complete information about the results shown by the

different data collection tools, the outcomes were analyzed in a quantitative and qualitative way,

providing graphs as well as a discussion about what these results may infer.

3.1 Students’ Surveys Results

The survey was applied during class time and it took around 5 minutes to be answered.

None of the two courses of translation had full attendance during the implementation of this

survey. In ILIN 129, the surveys were carried out on November 12th

, and 20 out of 23 students

answered them. Meanwhile, in ILIN 155, just 13 out of 17 students attended the lesson on

November 19th

when the surveys were applied, so 33 surveys were applied.

As mentioned before, the survey consisted of 13 statements, in which students had to

answer whether they agreed with these declarations (YES), disagreed with them (NO), or

partially agreed with them (MEDIUM) (see also Appendix A). Each statement is connected to

one of the main criteria under investigation: (a) use of translation techniques (b) analysis of

grammatical features and/or problems, and (c) enhancement of writing, reading and/or speaking

skills through translation. The qualitative analysis of the data was made by considering the

overall result of the survey.

The quantitative analysis of this survey is represented by several graphs which display

the results of each survey’s statement regarding the specific criterion. Each graph displays the

student’s answers to the 13 statements. The amount of answers is denoted by colors. The color

blue represents the affirmative answers (YES), the color red refers to the negative answers (NO),



50

and the color green means that the students are in a neutral position (MEDIUM) (see Figures 1.1

to 1.13).

3.1.1 Use of Translation Techniques

The survey’s statements which correspond to this criterion are statements number 2, 3, 9,

10 and 11 (see Appendix A). The surveys’ outcomes showed some important data that was

represented by the percentage of subjects who answered the surveys. The majority of students

(79%) said that they corrected their mistakes thanks to what they learned in the translation

courses, while a high number of subjects (76%) expressed that they learned to deal with

language problems using translation techniques. (see Figures 1.1-1.4).

Statement 2: Students correct grammatical errors and mistakes through the awareness of

translation techniques learned in the course.

As it can be seen, most students think that translation techniques help them to correct

their grammar in English (79%).

Figure 1.1. Answers Satement 2

Yes

No

Medium

79%

18%3%



51

Statement 3: Students learn to deal with language problems through the translation

techniques introduced in the courses.

This graph shows that a high number of students deal with language problems using

translation techniques learned in translation courses (76%).

Statement 9: Students perceive that the use of their mother tongue in the class lowers

their affective filter.

The figure reflects a diverse opinion regarding the use of the mother tongue lowering the

affective filter in class. Students’ responses are divided among the three different options (yes,

no, and medium), taking into account that the majority of them are not really sure about this

declaration (39%).

Figure 1.2. Answers Statement 3

YES

MEDIUM

7624%


YES

No

Medium

36%

24%

39%



52

Statement 10: Students see the teaching of explicit grammar in translation (GTM) as a

positive method to enhance their knowledge of the English language.

As the figure shows, most students see the teaching of explicit grammar as a positive

method to enhance the knowledge about English language (76%).

Overall results show that the majority of students have a positive opinion about the use of

translation techniques learned in the translation classes; they agree about their effectiveness

because they can solve language problems and they can complement their English learning

through their use.

3.1.2 Analysis of Grammatical Features and/or Problems

The statements referred to this criterion are 1, 6, 7, 8, and 12 (see Appendix A). In

addition to the previous data described, a high majority of students (88%) responded that they

tested their grammar knowledge when translating; meanwhile, just few subjects (12%) said that

they applied this strategy in a partial way. Most subjects (61%) believed that the analysis of

grammatical features in translation courses improved their performance in language courses.

Only 1 person (3%) totally disagreed with this point, and some others (36%) said that this

analysis improved their performance fairly. In relation to the use of the mother tongue in the


YES

No

Medium

76%21%

3%



53

classroom, and the lowering of the students’ affective filter (through the GTM), less than a half

of the subjects (36%) considered that their affective filter lowered when their mother tongue was

used in classes. Some others (24%) disagreed with this statement; while the rest of the students

(40%) expressed that their affective filter was partially affected in a positive way when they used

Spanish in the courses. Considering the last statements, a high number of students (76%)

answered that explicit grammar in translation positively affected their knowledge of English

language (see Figures 1.5 – 1.9).

Statement 1: Students use and learn new English slangs, clichés, and jargon when looking

for Spanish equivalences.

A high number of students (84%) agree that they use and learn English slangs, clichés,

and jargon when translating in the courses.

Statement 6: Students learn/practice main punctuation rules of English and Spanish.


YES

No

Medium

76%

21%3%


Yes No84%

16%



54

The figure reflects that students practice punctuation rules of the TL and the SL when

translating in the courses.

Statement 7: Students test their grammar knowledge when facing a new text to translate.

As it can be seen, most students (88%) test their grammar knowledge when developing

translation tasks in the courses.

Statement 8: Students believe that the analysis of grammatical features, such as

vocabulary, word order, and sentence length, practiced in the translation courses, improve their

performance in language courses.

More than a half of the students (61%) believe that the analysis of grammatical features

affect positively their performance in language courses.


YES

Medium

88%

12%


YES

No

Medium

61%

36%

3%



55

Statement 12: Students consider that the translation techniques learned in the courses help

them to work with grammar features more effectively.

The graph shows that most students (67%) consider that translation techniques learned in

the courses help them to deal with grammar features in an effective way.

The results show by the graphs reflect that a high number of students agree that the

translation activities of the courses allow the analysis of grammatical features, and/or problems,

as a positive impact on the learning of English as a foreign language.

3.1.3 Enhancement of Writing, Reading and/or Speaking

The statements of this criterion are numbers 4, 5, 6 and 13. In these statements, it could

be seen that the totality of students considered that they learned new vocabulary when translating

different pieces of information. More than half of the subjects (58%) incorporated the vocabulary

learned in the courses to their life as students. Finally, a high majority (88%) answered that

translation improved cognitive and linguistic skills, and only 4 people (12%) believed that this

statement did not reflect their reality (see Figures 1.10 – 1.14).


YES

No

Medium

67 %

30%

3%



56

Statement 4: Students learn new vocabulary.

The graph shows that the totality the students think that they learn new vocabulary when

translating.

Statement 5: Students incorporate new vocabulary learned in the translation lessons to

their English language performance (orally or/and in written form).

More than a half of the students (58%) consider that they incorporate new vocabulary

learned in the translation courses to their English performance, especially in language courses.

Statement 6: Students practice main punctuation rules of English and Spanish.


YES

No

Medium

58%39%

3%


YES

No

Medium

76%

21%3%


YES100%



57

Most students (76%) think that they practice punctuation rules when translating in both,

English and Spanish language.

Statement 13: Students believe that translation enhances cognitive and linguistic skills

among learners, especially reading and writing (problem-solving, mental agility, and memory).

The figure reflects that the majority of students (88%) consider that translation enhances

cognitive and linguistic skills, especially reading and writing, among English language learners.

Therefore, the surveys’ results show the positive view that students have about translation

and its effects over the enhancement of writing, reading and/or speaking skills.

To sum up, results showed that in general terms, most students agreed that translation

actually contributes to the learning of English grammar or at least it enriches the knowledge

about it in the course ILIN 129 Introduction to Translation. In ILIN 155,Técnicas de Traducción,

outcomes illustrated that most of the students also agreed with the idea that translation courses

have characteristics that affect positively to the way they practice and learn English grammar

language in the rest of their major experience.

The figure below shows the overall survey’s results of both courses of translation. The

variable (N°) in the vertical line represents the amount of students’ answers, and the variable Q


YES

Medium

88%

12%



58

in the horizontal line stands for the 13 questions of the survey. In this graphic the students’

answers are symbolized through three different bars: The bars in green represent the students

who answered MED (medium), the bars in red signify the amount of students who answered NO,

and the bars in blue denote the affirmative responses YES. This graphic clarifies that the

affirmative response (YES) was chosen as a majority, regarding the 13 questions, taking into

account that every affirmative response is referred to the contribution of translation to the

learning of English grammar.

Figure 2. This graph reflects the students’ overall response from

Introduction to Translation and Técnicas de Traducción. N°S= Number of students. Q= Survey’s questions

3.2 Teachers’ Interview Analysis

The interviews to experts were applied on the 3rd

and 7th

of December with the purpose of

gathering information from people who know about translation and who have direct implications

for the translation courses of the university. The experts who answered the interview were two:

Dr. Amalia Ortiz de Zárate, the literature, theater, Research Methodology, and translation course

teacher, with an expertise on literary translation; and the professional translator,



59

Psycholinguistics, Applied Linguistics and translation courses teacher, MS. Andrea Lizasoain,

with expertise on technical translation. This consultation consisted of the next five questions (see

Appendix B and C):

How do you perceive the teaching of explicit grammar in English language

learning?

Do you consider the learning of English grammar as a goal to achieve in

translation classes?

How do you perceive that your students practice their English grammar

knowledge in the translation tasks that you give them? For example, can they

analyze details of the English grammar (such as spelling, word order, language

agreement, problems of meaning, word choice, sentence formation, and

punctuation) through the use of translation techniques?

Do you see the analysis of these grammatical features as a contribution to

students’ performance in language courses?

Do you notice that they improve their reading and writing skills somehow when

they translate?

The interviews, as well as the rest of the data collection tools, were designed based on the

main criteria in which the investigation is based on. Consequently, the results are classified based

on each criterion:



60

3.2.1 Use of Translation Techniques

The professional translator, Andrea Lizasoain, expresses that during the time she has

been teaching translation courses, the most popular translation technique used among students

tends to be transposition, which works with the changes in parts of the speech. Furthermore, she

considers that addition plays an important role in the process of translation tasks, when students

realize that in Spanish they have to add many words in order to transmit the message. In relation

to whether students use or not translation techniques in order to analyze grammatical features,

this professional states that they actually do this, although they do not always realize they

develop this process. Dra. Amalia Ortiz de Zárate did not refer to translation techniques.

3.2.2 Analysis of Grammatical Features and/or Problems

According to Dr. Amalia Ortiz de Zárate, the use of explicit grammar in English language

learning is necessary for pedagogical students because they have to know how to teach grammar

and language. She also expresses that in translation classes one should happen to learn English

grammar because one needs to know certain features of Spanish grammar and English grammar

in order to translate correctly. When she is asked about students’ practice of English grammar in

translation courses, she says that the questions and the worries they have about translating from

one language to another show their practice, considering that these worries are related to

grammar issues, such as verb form and noun phrase formation. Besides, she considers that

students analyze details of grammar, such as word order, even though sometimes it is an

unconscious process. She considers the analysis of grammatical features as a reinforcement to



61

put into practice in language courses. On the other hand, MS. Andrea Lizasoain says that explicit

grammar is overlooked because of the Communicative Language Teaching approach

acclamation; however, she disagrees with this view because when you teach grammar implicitly

you leave some students aside (the ones who need to know the grammar rules in order to

understand how the language works). In relation to the aims of the courses, she considers that

translation courses have, as an aim, the learning of English grammar. She pursues this goal by

comparing the grammar of English and the grammar of Spanish, although it doesn’t work for

every kind of students: Many students are aware of these differences, which make them

understand how the language works. She declares that her students practice English grammar by

analyzing differences between Spanish and English. To achieve this task, she makes them focus

on the way a message is structured in English so that they think of the way they are going to say

it in Spanish; consequently, they realize that English and Spanish work differently. The translator

explains that transferring is part of the human learning process. She justifies the previous

comment saying that when you learn something about one area, you transfer it to another area. In

theory, students should transfer what they learn in the translation courses to the language

courses.

3.2.3 Enhancement of Writing, Reading and/or Speaking Skills through

Translation

The expert Amalia Ortiz de Zárate declares that students improve their reading skills

when translating because they realize certain features that they did not realize before. Regarding

the writing skills, she says that some students show an improvement in this area. Andrea



62

Lizasoain expresses that she has seen how students improve their reading and writing skills. At

the beginning of the translation courses, students develop poor translations, but they finish

writing right translations because they learn to decode the messages at the end of the courses.

Based on research, the translator explains that whenever we learn something in one language, we

transfer it to the next one. According to her opinion, it has been shown that if you improve your

writing skills in English you should do it in Spanish as well. She affirms that if one indicates

students explicitly to transfer the knowledge from English to Spanish or vice versa, they do it.

3.3 Classroom Observations Outcomes

The observation process displayed relevant data. In general aspects, the lessons of both

courses were guided by the same teacher. Students and the teacher made use of both languages

(English and Spanish) in every class observed. However, English was always the most

predominant. Besides, the lessons of both courses were mainly centered on reading and writing

skills in first place, while listening and speaking came in secondary place. What is more, the

participants were interested in every task, and they had an active participation in the classes.

They asked questions, answered the teacher’s questions, and worked enthusiastically in most of

the activities. Most of the times, the theoretical lessons took place at the beginning of the classes,

and new theoretical contents related to the course were introduced to the students. At this stage,

sometimes the students were tested through little comprehension quizzes about texts related to

translation. During workshops, translation tasks were accomplished through the use of different

translation techniques and physical utilities (computers, internet connection, desks, a data

projector, and bilingual dictionaries). In this sense, as the students were guided to work on



63

translations, they were advised to pay attention on language matters such as: Punctuation,

spelling, language agreement, correct sentence formation, word order, text’s length, and

correction of meaning; specifically, formal and correct use of the foreign and mother language.

Therefore, in every single translation, the students had to understand the sentence formation of

the original text, and at the same time, they were expected to re-construct the same ideas of those

English sentences into Spanish correctly. For this reason, they had to be careful with the use of

syntax, morphology and lexis of both languages. Five written translation tasks were analyzed and

observed in these workshops (see the section Written Translation Tasks in Appendix D), which

are specified in Table 3:

Table 3

Written translation tasks

Note. The written tasks were given to the students by the teacher in each workshop.

3.3.1 Lessons Observed

Specific features were observed in each of the seven observations during this case study.

The aspects under observation are specified through seven tables, which display examples of text

translations made by the students during the translations tasks of each class. Each example shows

Courses Written translation tasks

Introduction to translation ILIN-129 Long Road to Universal Education

Chocolate Toffee Crunch Bars (Recipe)

Getting Lost in Translation

Técnicas de Traducción ILIN- 155 Happiness

Status of the Artist



64

the analysis of the observation criteria, which consists in: (a) The use of translation techniques,

(b) the analysis of specific grammar features, and (c) the existence of reading and writing

activities in the student’s work of each class.

The tables used in this section display the main results obtained during the class

observations. Tables 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.5 and 4.6 consist in three columns. The first column

specifies the criteria analyzed in each lesson, the second column shows the aspects of the

criterion observed, with respect to some examples of translations carried out by the students

during workshops. These examples are specified in the third column by lowercase letters (a, b, c,

d, and e). Each example has its own TL equivalent, taking into consideration that the SL is

English and the TL is Spanish. Tables 4.4 and 4.7 contain only 2 columns. The first one shows

the criterion observed in those lessons and the second column clarifies the characteristics of the

analyzed criterion.

Class 1:

- Course Observed: Introduction to Translation

- Month: September

- Part of the class observed: Workshop

The students had to translate the English text “Long Road to Universal Education” into

Spanish. Four examples of the translations done by students are specified in Table 4.1 to show

the student’s work in this class. In terms of translation techniques, they showed their problem

solving abilities, and considered the main translation perspectives (linguistic, semantic and

communicative)–although not being aware of this–for accomplishing their final translations.



65

They could write proper equivalents and analyze several grammar features through the examples

shown in Table 4.1.

They also showed to understand the importance of language form, meaning and

significance of a translation to transfer a message clearly. Furthermore, through the translation

examples taken in this class, it could be seen that students read the English text comprehensibly

and they read their translations drafts several times before achieving an adequate translation.

Once they had finished reading the English texts, they had to show comprehension of the main

ideas, by answering random questions asked by the teacher.

At the same time, the reading comprehension of the text was determined by the students’

translations of the original material; this means that when students translated wrong, it was due

to incomprehensibility of a foreign word, concept or context.

Regarding writing skills, the students had to correct errors and mistakes in their

translation drafts and they were always asked to make use of formal written Spanish. They

always had to be careful with the punctuation, spelling and use of capital letters. For example, in

the case of punctuation, the students had to know that quotation marks in English must be placed

after a period. This situation is the opposite in Spanish, in which the quotation marks must be

placed before a period.



66

Table 4.1

Translation Task 1

Criteria Aspects of each criterion Translation examples

(sentence formation)ᵃ Use of translation

techniques

Use of translation

strategies

Grammatical features

analyzed

Reading and/or

writing activities

Addition: In (a), (b), (c) and in (d)

Literal translations: In (a) , (b), (c) Free translation: In (d)

Covert grammar teaching: (a), (b), (c) and (d)

Focus on linguistic, semantic and communicative

perspectives: In (a), (b), (c) and (d) Discovery Technique: Problem solving in (a), (b), (c)

and (d)

Word order: In (b) position of adjectives. Word choice: In (b) “de New York” instead of

“Newyorkina”

Functions: Expressing belonging [use of apostrophe in

(c)] Sentence length: In (d) use of an extra comma, and

addition in TL text.

Vocabulary: In (d) “that comes to”

Punctuation rule: In (d) “classroom.” v/s “aula”. Language agreement: In (a), (b), (c) and (d)

Implicit reading comprehension activities and formal

written tasks

a.- “the learning path” =ᵃ el camino del

aprendizaje (not la ruta al aprendizaje or

la ruta aprendida)

b.- “her fellow New York Democrat”= su

colega demócrata en Nueva York (not su

colega Newyorkina demócrata)

Other similar examples: “a U.S.

government objective.”

c.- “the World Bank's president” =

presidente del Banco Mundial

d.- “That comes to $ 1,200 per class of 40 children to pay for the teacher, books and

classroom.”= Eso se convierte en $1.200

dólares necesarios, para que cada clase

de 40 niños pueda pagar un profesor, los libros y el aula.

Note. Letters in parenthesis (a), (b), (c) and (d) correspond to the examples of translations shown in “Translation examples” column.

Underlined words and phrases specify each criterion aspect observed. ᵃExamples from Translation Tasks. ᵃTL equivalent result.

In this illustration, it can be seen that every criterion was implicitly analyzed and that the

students solved grammatical problems, mainly, by the use of addition as a translation technique.

Class 2:


- Month: September


In this class, the students had to translate the English text “Chocolate Toffee Crunch Bars” into

Spanish. The main difficulties they found in this task were related to vocabulary; therefore, they



67

had to use more translation techniques to make a correct transfer of the message. In this task,

they used text-study as they had to understand the difficult and unknown expressions. In text-

study, they looked for extra information on the internet by searching images of the unknown

words and by looking for some definitions of the foreign unknown expressions (e.g., crackers

and crunch). Students also learned and practiced the meaning of the concepts borrowing and

addition [emphasis added] through words like chip, toffee and bowl. The written activity in this

class was to write a recipe in Spanish, and the reading comprehension activity was implicitly

present when the students had to understand the SL text to translate it into Spanish. The fact that

the students could not translate a passage correctly was a result of lack of comprehension and/or

lack of expertise to decode a message in the target language.



68

Table 4.2

Translation task 2



techniques

Use of translation

strategies

Grammatical

features analyzed

Reading and/or

writing activities

Borrowing: In (a)

Calque: In (b)

Transposition: In (c) (finely=finas) Modulation: In (c) and (d)

Addition: In (d)

Literal translation: In (a) and (b) Free translation: In (c) and (d)



perspectives: In (a), (b), (c) and (d) Discovery techniques: Problem solving and text-study

in (a), (b), (c) and (d)

Cultural reality: Comparison between Chilean cooking

expressions and American ones

Function: Writing a recipe Language agreement: In (a), (b), (c) and (d)

Word choice: In (a), (b), (c) and (d)

Word order: In (c) and (d)

Vocabulary: In (a) and (b)

Implicit written activity: How to write a recipe.

Reading a recipe

a.- “chip,” “crackers,” and “toffee” =ᵃ

chip, crackers and toffee

b.- “bowl” = bol

c.- “1/2 cup finely chopped walnuts” = ½

taza de nueces picadas finas

d.- “Chocolate Toffee Crunch Bars” =

Barritas Crujientes de Chocolate y

Caramelo.

Note. Letters in parenthesis (a), (b), (c) and (d) correspond to the examples of translations shown in “Translation examples”

column. Underlined words and phrases specify each criterion aspect observed. ᵃExamples from Translation Tasks. ᵃTL equivalent result.

Class 3:


- Month: September


In this class, the students worked on the text “Getting Lost in Translation.” The most

complicated issues for the students in this class were to know how to use the transposition

technique, because the students had many alternatives to do this. For example, the expression

getting lost in translation had many alternatives to be translated; the question was how do I



69

decide to use the most correct translation for this expression? And the response was always

determined by the three main perspectives of translation (linguistic, semantic and

communicative) which were implicit in every decision the students had to make. The teacher’s

guidance was always essential because she advised the students how to use each technique and

strategy.

Table 4.3

Translation task 3



techniques

Use of translation

strategies

Grammatical

features analyzed

Reading and/or

writing activities

Borrowing: In (d) “internet”

Calque: In (b) “online” =“en línea”

Transposition: In (a) “getting lost” Modulation: In (a) and (d)

Addition: In (d)

Literal translation: In (b) Free translation: In (a), (c) and (d)


Focus on linguistic, semantic and

communicative perspectives: In (a), (b), (c) and (d)

Discovery techniques: Problem solving in (a),

(c) and (d)

Language agreement: In (a), (b), (c) and (d)

Word choice: In (a), (c) and (d)

Word order: In (a), (c) and (d)

Vocabulary: In (a) Punctuation: In (d) difference between English

and Spanish numbers (7,500 and 7.500) and

addition of a coma.

Sentence length: Addition [specially in (d)]

Implicit reading comprehension activities and

formal written tasks

a.- “Getting Lost in Translation” = perdidos en la

traducción

b.- “BBC NEWS Magazine”= Revista BBC

NEWS (word order)

c.- “Online translation tools” = Herramientas de

traducción en línea

d) As a result of officials trying to save money by

getting the internet to do a translator’s job, a total

of 7,500 brochures had to be binned= Debido a

que los funcionarios, en su afán por ahorrar

dinero, utilizaran internet para reemplazar el

trabajo de un traductor, un total de 7.500 folletos

fueron botados a la basura.

Note. Letters in parenthesis (a), (b), (c) and (d) correspond to the examples of translations shown in “Translation examples”

column. Underlined words and phrases specify each criterion aspect observed. ᵃExamples from Translation Tasks. ᵃTL equivalent result.

Class 4:



70


- Month: October

- Part of the class observed: Theoretical lesson and workshop

In this class, the observers mainly focused on the theoretical lesson, in which students

answered a written quiz regarding the text “Definition of Translation” by the author Hurtado.

The students and the teacher discussed the aspects read in the text. In the practical part, the

students had to answer eight written questions regarding their last translation task.

Table 4.4

Translation task 4

Criteria Description

Use of translation techniques Understanding the importance of the translated text’s

function or aim.

Considering the main idea of the original ST (text-study).

Perceiving secondary ideas of the ST.

Choosing the correct dictionary in the translation

process (problem solving).

Analysis of grammatical features Word order, word choice, language agreement,

sentence length and vocabulary (sense and meaning problems).

Reading skills The students learn reading techniques to start translating a text (whether to read the whole text

before translating, or reading while translating)

Writing skills The students were advised to make use of formal

English language in the quiz. They had to be careful

with English grammatical errors and mistakes.

Class 5:


- Month: October




71

In this class the students had to translate the text “Status of the Artist.” At this stage, the

students show more confidence in their translations. This is seen as they already know when and

how they have to use the translation techniques. Even though they still make mistakes in the

transference of some sentences, they do not give up and try to correct their mistakes in the best

way possible. In this translation, the students learned the difference regarding writing numbers

differently, depending on the fact if these numbers refer to English or Spanish (e.g., $13,000 vs.

$ 13.000). They also learn new vocabulary regarding business, for example “net annual income.”



72

Table 4.5

Translation task 5



techniques

Use of translation

strategies

Grammatical features

analyzed

Reading and/or writing

activities

Transposition: In (a), (b) and (c)

Modulation: In and (b)

Addition: In (a), (b) and (c)

Literal translation: In (d)

Free translation: In (a), (b), and (c)

Covert grammar teaching: (a), (b), (c), (d) and (e) Focus on linguistic, semantic and communicative

perspectives: In (a), (b), (c) and (d)

Discovery techniques: Problem solving in (a), (c) and

(e)


Word choice: In (a), (c) and (d)

Word order: In (b), (c) and (d) Vocabulary: In (d)

Punctuation: In (c) interrogative marks and in (e)

numbers

Sentence length: Addition in (c)


written tasks

a.- “Status of the Artist” = La situación

de los artistas

b.- “Firmly rooted in the society around

them.= Arraigados con firmeza en la

sociedad que los rodea

c.- “Are artists rewarded fairly compared

to other groups in society? = ¿son los

artistas retribuidos de manera justa en

comparación a otros grupos de la

sociedad?

d.- Net annual income = ingreso bruto anual

e.- $13,000; $11,079; $11,444= $13.000;

$11.079; $11.444



Class 6:

- Course Observed: Técnicas de Traducción

- Month: November




73

In this class, the students checked a translation of a previous test, in which they had to

translate the English text “Happiness” into Spanish. In this task, it is manifested that students

make use of free translation and learn new English expressions (e.g., collocations). Additionally,

at the time of communicating a long text adequately, they choose this last strategy and addition

as a translation technique. Especially, students show their capacities to build a new text with

their own extra chosen words. From short original texts, they can transfer the same original idea

to the TL text through the use of longer and new words and punctuation.



74

Table 4.6

Translation task 6



techniques

Use of translation

strategies

Grammatical

features analyzed

Reading and/or

writing activities

Transposition: In (a), (b)

Modulation: In (a), (b) “enjoyment” = “disfrutar”

Addition: In (b) “tiene,” (d) and (f)

Literal translation: In (f)

Free translation: In (a), (b), (c) and (d) Covert grammar teaching: (a), (b), (c), (d) and (f)


perspectives: In (a), (b), (c) and (d)

Discovery techniques: Problem solving in (a), (b), (c), (d) and (f); text-study in (c)


Word choice: In (a), (b), (c) and (d)

Word order: In (a), (b) and (d)

Vocabulary: In (c) Punctuation: In (d) difference between English and

Spanish numbers (7,500 and 7.500) and addition of a

coma.

Sentence length: Addition in (d)


written tasks

a.- “There is some logic in this

phenomenon” = Este fenómeno tiene algo

de lógica

b.- “The human capacity for enjoyment is

great” = El ser humano tiene una gran

capacidad para disfrutar

c.- “Redeem rewards”= conceder

recompensas (not redimir recompensas)

d) “Reward areas in the brain seem to be

greater than areas that produce unpleasant

experience and most people tend to feel

good most of the time” = Las áreas de

recompensa del cerebro parecen ser más

grandes que las que producen experiencias

desagradables, y por lo mismo, la mayoría

de las personas suelen sentirse bien la

mayor parte del tiempo. In this example, the

amount of words changed from one text to

the other *(26 words versus 47 words).





75

Class 7:

- Course Observed: Técnicas de Traducción

- Month: November

- Part of the class observed: Theoretical class

Finally, in this class the students read the text “Diferencias Léxicas y Morfológicas entre

el Inglés y el Español” by the author Mariana Orozco in order to learn about the main linguistic

differences between English and Spanish for future translations.

Table 4.7

Translation task 7

Criteria Description

Use of translation techniques Theoretical explanation of lexical and

morphological differences between English and

Spanish.

Cohesion features differences between English

and Spanish.

Difference in punctuation rules between English

and Spanish

Unique stylistic features of English and Spanish

Analysis of grammatical features Examples of difference in the use of adjectives,

articles, suffixes, nouns, verbs, personal pronoun,

possessives, phases and sentences, punctuation

rules between English and Spanish

Therefore, several facts could be noticed and proved through the observation of these

classes. Regarding the enhancement of writing skills, the students were careful with the length

construction of sentences; displayed effective spelling and capitalization; used adequate word

choices (with accurate/precise nouns, verbs, adverbs and adjectives); and, at the same time, they

compounded effective sentences and clauses. In terms of translation tactics, the language learners

made use of the different translation techniques to solve language problems (meaning and



76

grammatical equivalences in their translations). They worked on correcting errors that seriously

affected meaning in the translations, by testing their grammar knowledge when facing a new text

to translate. With regards to syntax, they apparently could recognize parts of speech within

sentences or phrases (when one word is either a noun, adjective, adverb, etc.). The students also

practiced and learned some punctuation differences between English and Spanish. Finally,

concerning reading skills, the students could read the English texts efficiently before doing their

final translations, and by doing this, they could test their own reading comprehension

performance in English (see Appendix D).

3.4 Final Considerations

The survey overall results showed that a high number of students had a positive

perspective of how translation techniques and general features affect their learning of English

grammar. As their language level goes from intermediate to advanced levels of proficiency, they

may be enhancing their knowledge about the language besides of learning new things in the

courses. In general, the students consider that the GTM is a positive method that helps them to

learn explicit grammar, enhancing their knowledge of English language (76%). Their answers

actually showed that they are aware of the fact that contents studied during the translation

courses have direct effects on their English cognitive and linguistic skills (88%). This fact is

proved when the students answered that they tested their grammar knowledge when they

translated an English text into Spanish (88%). Also, the students affirmed that they learned new

vocabulary (100%), and that they actually learned and practiced main punctuation rules in

English and in Spanish through translation (76%). What is more, most of them agreed with the



77

idea that translation techniques learned in the courses helped them to work with grammatical

features (67%); fact that contributes to their English performance in their language courses

(statement 8). Therefore, considering that students agreed with the contribution of translation to

the learning of English grammar, it may be fair to acclaim the process of translation as an

enhancement of EFL learning, in terms of grammar features, such as word order, sentence

length, and vocabulary.

It was also shown that most of the students agreed that the use of the mother tongue in the

classroom did not have major effects in lowering their affective filter, so they preferred to

continue speaking in English, as in the rest of the courses in the major (statement 9). This might

be related to the fact that nowadays the Grammar Translation Method is not well considered, as

in most schools its implementation is mainly made in Spanish, so students end up speaking

nothing of English at all, as the diagnostic tests of 2004 - 2010 have shown.

According to the results shown by the interviews to experts, the analysis and comparison

of the two languages (SL and TL) are crucial to practice and learn grammar features when

translating. When students use translation as a learning tool, they practice the process which

leads them to compare “grammar, vocabulary, word order and other language points in English

and the student’s mother tongue” (Kavaliauskienë & Kaminskienë, 2007, p. 2). Consequently,

translation seems to be very effective for pedagogical purposes.

Through the observations, several advantages of the courses of translation to the learning

of English grammar were seen. One of the advantages is that in both courses there seemed to be

a mixture between the Grammar Translation Method and the Communicative Teaching

Approach.



78

The GTM was present in these lessons for the reason that the teaching methodology had

the next characteristics: First, the lessons of Introduction to Translation and Técnicas de

Traducción had the main emphasis on teaching the grammar rules through translation passages

activities from one language (English) to the other (Spanish). Second, students showed that they

learned vocabulary in the target language when they translated directly from the mother tongue

in the courses. Third, the students directly translated the readings in the target language, and

then, sometimes, they discussed the texts in their native language in every translation task, taking

into account that little or no attention was given to their pronunciation as “literary language” was

more important than spoken language (Richards, J. & Rodgers, T., 2001).

However, some aspects of the translation method were not seen in these lessons, such as:

The great use of the mother tongue, the vocabulary taught in the form of vocabulary lists, and the

lack of importance in the contents of the SL texts. On the contrary, in translation courses students

used more the foreign language than the mother tongue, they did not learn vocabulary by doing

extra lists; they just learned new words by doing translation tasks. In other respects, the students

had to give great importance to the context of the texts as they had to transmit effectively the

original message. Apart from this, one of the ideas of the Grammar Translation Method is that

their tasks are “easy to test” (Elizabeth, 2004, pp. 52-53). On the contrary, it was noticed that this

latter idea is not totally true in the case of translation courses of the major, because every task

given by the teacher was a complex activity to analyze and test.

At the same time, some characteristics of the Communicative Language Teaching

approach were observed in these courses. First of all, the students communicated messages and

expressed their ideas through interaction in the FL. Secondly, the professor introduced authentic



79

texts in the lessons and the students worked with them. Thirdly, the students and the teacher were

focused on the English language learning process apart from translating in the courses. Lastly,

learners’ personal experiences were important contributions to the problem solutions in every

translation task that they were given (Richards, J. & Rodgers, T., 2001).Therefore, it can be said

that the teaching methodology of both courses had a mixture between these two language

teaching methods.

In addition to the previous facts, the students not only enhanced their grammar

knowledge on the foreign language, but they also corrected grammar in their mother tongue.

Apart from this, the courses helped them to improve their writing skills and reading

comprehension in both languages. These circumstances helped the students to be efficient

communicators in English and in Spanish; a characteristic that is essential in the field of

pedagogy, especially in the bilingual teaching methodology, as they become more aware of

grammar rules in both languages.

In their study, Hiroe Kobayashi and Carol Rinnert (1992) found that the use of translation

by Japanese college students improved their level of writing skills. On the contrary, students who

wrote only in the FL had a lower level of writing skills (as cited in Liao, 2006, p.196). In relation

to communicative skills, translation makes possible the development of “interpretation,

negotiation, and expression of meaning, basic abilities for communication” (Koppe & Kremer,

2008, p. 6). Furthermore, Duff (1994) explains that these communicative skills improve

flexibility, accuracy, and fluency among learners (as cited in Kavaliauskienë & Kaminskienë,

2007, p. 131). Consequently, all the characteristics above enhance the knowledge of the



80

languages and emphasize the importance of translation, a process considered by some authors as

a fifth skill (Newmark, 1991; Leonardi, 2010).

What is more, the courses of translation promoted a “flawless writing, […], good spelling

and good knowledge of the details of English and Spanish Grammar” (Mukalel, 1989, p.55), as

observations showed. This last detail makes the students enhance their capacity of showing

accuracy, clarity, and flexibility in both languages in order to speak, write and read correctly and

formally. Furthermore, it was noticed that translation was naturally applied by students; they

seemed to feel comfortable practicing this teaching method. In addition, when the students had

the capacity of using binary choice in the translations, they seemed to enhance their language

capacity to reproduce English and Spanish texts more easily, as they felt familiarized with the

differences that exist between English and Spanish.

Apart from these aspects, the students showed comprehension of meaning, context and

function of the language when they translated. It could also be noticed that the students had to be

aware of the language level, extra-linguistic messages, orthography, and the use of verbal and

non-verbal signs and codes in both languages. Moreover, they used the translation techniques

learned in the courses in order to identify and solve problems in the translations tasks. In this

sense, the students always had to compare the English language with the Spanish language.

Therefore, these facts demonstrate that the translation courses are a contribution to the learning

of English grammar in these aspects.

As a conclusion, the influence of translation on English language learning tends to be

inevitable. Selinker (quoted in Escutia, 2005, p. 3) expresses that the equivalent words and

phrases in both languages have a significant role in the competence of the foreign language,



81

especially because they allow comparison, which is considered one of the first strategies of

learning. Students also think that translation is a necessary process, they “believed that the

adoption of translation had positive effects on their English reading and vocabulary learning”

(Hsieh, 2000, as cited in Liao, 2006, p. 196).

To sum up, the translation courses do contribute to the learning of English grammar, first

because they combine at least two teaching methodologies: One that is commonly used in Chile,

with which students are already familiarized–the Grammar Translation Method;–and the most

popular approach in the world nowadays–the Communicative Language Teaching Method. This

enhances the four traditional language skills – writing, reading, listening and speaking–and also

the so called “fifth skill” (Newmark, 1991, p. 13): the translation skill.

Besides, these courses improve grammar awareness through (a) the use of translation

techniques for language learning, (b) through the analysis of grammatical features and problems

found in translations tasks and (c) through the implicit speaking activities and explicit reading

and writing tasks. These activities not only contribute to the learning of English grammar

through the awareness of errors and mistakes, but they also help foreign language learners to

write formal texts, to be conscious of their reading comprehension, to be adequate

communicators when transferring a message from one language to the other, to use their own

mother tongue correctly, to find out problems, and solve them by themselves. What is more,

these activities can contribute to their future profession as teachers of English, as they can teach

the same translation techniques to their students in order to learn how to solve language

problems and to transfer a message effectively from English to Spanish.



82

Conclusion

The cognitive process developed when translating promotes the analysis of different

grammatical structures in the TL and the SL; consequently, it allows the comparison between

two languages. This process contributes to the learning of English, because students can

communicate a message effectively from one language to the other when they are aware of the

grammar construction of both languages (SL and TL). When students know the differences

between English and Spanish through translation, they are able to comprehend the unknown

words of the foreign language, managing some difficulties of vocabulary and transferring of

meaning. When translating, students can also identify several grammatical features and express

language fluently, making communication possible between foreigners and/or strangers. In fact,

it has been affirmed that translation permits conscious learning of the foreign language and

makes students believe that they have certain control of the TL. Consequently, students learn

how to monitor and self-correct their foreign language through this conscious learning. In this

regard, let us remember that translation has been considered as a “fifth skill” (Newmark, 1991;

Leonardi, 2010); a supplementary skill for the other basic skills (reading, writing, listening and

speaking).

Moreover, according to Andrea Lizasoain (2012), researchers say that people tend to

transfer what they learn in one area to other areas (see Appendix C). According to this study, it is

possible that what students learn in translation courses is transferred to what they are studying in

other courses, such as language courses, working as a reinforcement to the learning of English.

Generally speaking, this study proved that the translation techniques learned in the translation



83

courses at UACh influence positively the learning of English language among pedagogy

students.

Given that in Chile most teachers still make use of the GTM, it was found that the

method has some advantages. It is a fact that translation courses included some of the

characteristics of the traditional GTM. This method is mainly used in the mother tongue

(Richards & Rodgers, 2001); whereas, during the translation courses observed in this case study,

Spanish was spoken occasionally. Besides, the way of teaching of the GTM, mainly represented

by the contents learned by heart, such as the vocabulary and verb lists, was not present in the

translation courses. However, students did learn vocabulary lists implicitly. The teacher and the

students participated actively during class time, allowing discussion, comparison, analysis and

learning.

The method developed in the translation courses may be considered a communicative

way of teaching as well, which gives importance to the whole process of analyzing and

comparing information, which is achieved thanks to the appropriate use of a variety of

translation techniques. The communicative perspective in translation establishes the importance

of communication between the SL text and TL text. It affirms that a translator must know a lot

about languages and s/he must have an adequate linguistic competence in both languages in

order to communicate a message correctly. To be a good communicator of the original message

when translating, the students also have to be aware of the language level, language style,

orthography, fluency, tone, and the use of verbal and non-verbal signs in the SL texts they have

to translate to the TL.



84

Accordingly, translation can be perfectly used for pedagogical purposes. As a matter of

fact, “the translated text serves as a tool of improving the language learner’s foreign language

proficiency” by testing language knowledge (pedagogical translation) (Vermes, 2010, p. 83).

When translating, students practice their knowledge about the TL and the SL. Moreover,

sometimes they need to face some problems during this process; a reality that leads them to

analyze this situation and the different grammatical features involved in it. As a matter of fact,

students test their knowledge about the language when they analyze grammar features and

vocabulary; activity that allows the reinforcement of their foreign language performance.

In order to explore the different options of an appropriate use of translation in the EFL

classroom, we should discuss one of the main issues that impede the suitable implementation of

this process in Chile. The GTM is applied in our schools by teachers who do not have the proper

knowledge about translation techniques. If they managed the knowledge about translation as

translation teachers manage it, or at least as students of the translation courses finish managing it

at the end of the semester, they would promote effective communication of the foreign language.

By teaching translation techniques, teachers of English could promote effective reading

comprehension of the SL texts among their students, they could teach the students how to solve

language problems by themselves, they could promote instances of discussion regarding the

language problems found in translation tasks, and they could teach how to self-monitor language

correctness, making students transfer and understand a message effectively from the SL

(English) texts to the TL (Spanish) texts. Therefore, it may be suggested to continue

investigating how translation can be applied in Chilean schools, and even trying to achieve a

communicative way of teaching translation for the purpose of learning English as a foreign



85

language. For example, would it be possible and effective to try to apply the same techniques

studied in the translation courses in Chilean schools? Hopefully, the findings of this investigation

serve as a tool for further studies, and influence positively the minds of researchers whose

desires are related to the improvement of English teaching in Chile.



86

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Appendices

Appendix A

Survey

Course name: ……………………………………………………..........................

Date: …………..…………

Thank you for taking the time to complete this survey by Karina Solar and Daniela Velásquez.

Your feedback is important to us to develop our thesis project called Contribution of Translation

to the Learning of English Grammar for English Language Communication Pedagogy Students

at the Universidad Austral de Chile. The lead advisor of this project is Prof. Andrea Lizasoain.

This survey should only take about 10 minutes. Your answers will be completely anonymous.

Please feel free to ask any question. Thank you very much!

WHEN TRANSLATING IN CLASS YOU…

1. Use and learn new English slangs, clichés, and jargon when YES NO MED

looking for Spanish equivalences.

2. Correct grammatical errors and mistakes through YES NO MED

the awareness of the translation techniques learned in the

course.

3. Learn to deal with language problems through the translation YES NO MED

techniques introduced in the courses.

4. Know new vocabulary. YES NO MED

5. Incorporate new vocabulary learned in the translation lessons YES NO MED



94

to your English language performance (orally or/and written).

6. Learn/practice main punctuation rules of English and Spanish. YES NO MED

7. Test your grammar knowledge when facing a new text to translate. YES NO MED

8. Believe that the analysis of grammatical features, such as vocabulary, YES NO MED

word order, and sentence length, practiced in the translation course,

improve your performance in language courses.

9. Perceive that the use of your mother tongue in the class lowers YES NO MED

your affective filter.

10. See the teaching of explicit grammar in translation as a YES NO MED

positive method to enhance your knowledge of the English language.

11. Use peer-editing to check your translations. YES NO MED

12. Consider that the translation techniques learned in the course help YES NO MED

to work with grammar features more effectively.

13. Believe that translation enhances cognitive and linguistic skills, YES NO MED

especially reading and writing, among learners (problem-solving, mental agility, and memory).



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Appendix B

Interview

1. How do you perceive the teaching of explicit grammar in English language

learning?

2. Do you consider the learning of English grammar as a goal to achieve in


3. How do you perceive that your students practice their English grammar

knowledge in the translation task that you give them? For example, can they analyze

features of English grammar, such as spelling, word order, language agreement problems

through the use of translation techniques?

4. Do you see the analysis of these grammatical features as a contribution to


5. Do you notice that they improve their reading and writing skills somehow when

they translate?



96

Appendix C

Interview Transcription 1

1st Participant: Miss Andrea Lizasoain

Interviewers: This is the interview number 2 of the case study The contribution of translation to

the learning of English grammar for English language pedagogy Students at UACH. Today we

are with the teacher Andrea Lizasoain.

Hello Andrea, how are you?

MS. Andrea: Very well, thanks

Interviewers: Can you tell us what your profession is at the university?

MS. Andrea: I am a professional translator, I’m not a teacher, but I work as a teacher here. I

teach since I studied linguistics first, I teach psycholinguistics, applied linguistics and I am also

in charge of the translation courses here. This major follows two lines as you know: Grammar

techniques and translation. And I am the main teacher in the translation classes.

Interviewers: Well Andrea, this interview consists of five questions, so we will start with the

first: How do you perceive the teaching of explicit grammar in English language learning?

MS. Andrea: Ok, as you know, in general, nowadays grammar is overlooked. With the

Communicative Approach people tend to think that teaching grammar explicitly is wrong, but I

don’t agree with that. When you don’t teach grammar explicitly you leave a kind of student

aside, because there are students who actually need the grammar rules in order to understands

how the language works, so, I think that teaching grammar explicitly is important, although it

shouldn’t be the only way to teach a language. It should be part of teaching a language.



97

Interviewers: Do you consider the learning of English grammar as a goal to achieve in


MS. Andrea: Well, since this is a teaching major, not a translation major, I think that the

students learn the grammar of English, not translation, because this is a teaching English

program, you see? So, I think if my focus was to teach how to reach the perfect translation,

which would be wrong. So, I repeat, the focus of all these courses is to teach English grammar.

And I do that by comparing the grammar of Spanish and the grammar of English. Although that

doesn’t work for every kind of student, there are some students who are very aware of the

differences between languages and this differences help them to understand how English works.

That’s why I focus on those differences.

Interviewers: The third question is: How do you perceive that your students practice their

English grammar knowledge in the translation tasks that you give them? For example, can they

analyze features of English grammar, such as spelling, word order, language agreement problems


MS. Andrea: Well the question is, how students practice their knowledge of the English

grammar, right?

Interviewers: Yes

MS. Andrea: Well, I think that they do it by analyzing. Well, I’m going to go back to the

previous answer. I told you that sometimes I focus on the difference between Spanish and

English because that helps students to realize how English works, right? So, sometimes I make

them focus on the way a message is structured in English, so that they think of the way they are

going to say that in Spanish and they realize that English and Spanish work differently. So, I



98

have told them how to do that and I know that they do it by themselves later because in the

discussions that we have in class sometimes they tell me: In English this works like this, and in

Spanish it doesn’t. I think that the main technique they use to work on the grammar of English is

transposition. Remember that transposition works with changes in grammar, in changes of part

of speech.

Interviewers: And maybe addition too, or not?

MS. Andrea: Yes, they realize that in Spanish sometimes they have to add many words in order

to transmit the message. I think they actually use the translation techniques, although they

sometimes don’t realize that they are doing it in order to analyze the grammar of English

Interviewers: Do you see the analysis of these grammatical features as a contribution to


MS. Andrea: I think that it is part of human learning process to transfer this part of this process.

So, hopefully when we learn something in some area we transfer that knowledge to another area.

We have noticed here at the university, and we have discussed it with some teachers that

sometimes students have difficulties in transferring knowledge, because, for example, we teach

them something in the paragraph and then when they have to write an essay they don’t apply

what they have learned in the paragraph, you see? So, in theory, they should transfer what they

learn in the translation courses to the learning language courses. I haven’t seen it, I haven’t like

pragmatically seen it, but I think that they do it, and I hope that they do it.

Interviewers: Finally, the last question: Do you notice that they improve their reading and

writing skills somehow when they translate?



99

MS. Andrea: Well, yes. I have seen it, pragmatically. I have seen the process. I can compare two

things: The process beginning a course, a particular course, the first translation is always awful

and then, they finish writing great translations. So, I can say that their reading comprehension, as

well as their writing skills improves. When I have worked with students who have taken the

three courses, I have also seen the same process. At the beginning, they start with awkward

translations, and sometimes they have difficulties understanding texts, but with guidance they

end up understanding any kind of text because they learn how to decode them and they also end

up translating very good texts.

Interviewers: A little detail, these abilities are meant to be improved in English and in Spanish,

right?

MS. Andrea: Yes. Going back to the previous question, I mentioned transfer. Research says that

whenever we learn something in one language, we also transfer it to the next one. And it have

been shown that, for example, if you improve your writing skills in English, you should transfer

that knowledge to your writing skills in Spanish. Well, research says so, but, here at the

university, I haven’t seen it, because sometimes students need to be told explicitly that they need

to transfer that knowledge, they do no do it by themselves. But, if you tell them explicitly: Look

you have learned this in English; you have to transfer it to Spanish as well! They do it.

Interviewers: Ok, thank you very much Andrea.



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Interview Transcription 2

2nd

Participant: Miss Amalia Ortiz de Zarate

Interviewers: This is the interview number 1 of the case study The contribution of translation to

the learning of English grammar for English language pedagogy students at UACH. Today we

are with Professor Amalia Ortiz de Zárate.

Interviewers: How do you perceive the teaching of explicit grammar in English language

learning?

Dr. Amalia Ortiz de Zárate: I consider that teaching explicit grammar in English… well, that

depends on the target students, for example, if we are talking about students who are going to be

teacher in the future, I think explicit grammar must be somehow necessary because they have to

learn how to teach grammar or how to teach language in the future, but if we are talking about

high schools or primary schools children, I think that teaching explicit grammar is not at all

necessary.

Interviewers: Do you consider the learning of English grammar as a goal to achieve in


Dr. Amalia Ortiz de Zárate: Should be, because you need to know certain features of English

grammar. I mean, not maybe a goal for translation classes but you should learn, you should

happen to learn English grammar in translation classes because you need to know certain

features of Spanish grammar and English grammar in order to translate correctly, ok? First at all.

I mean (it is like) the first step in any translation is to know which language features can be

translated into their patterns of the target language features, ok?

Interviewers: How do you perceive that your students practice their English grammar

knowledge in the translation tasks that you give them?

Dr. Amalia Ortiz de Zárate: Well, I perceive that they practice certain grammar knowledge, I

mean not that much in my portion of the course, because as I said I teach them literary

translation so I’m mostly worried about the sense of the text and how to produce the same effect

in the target language, in this case from English to Spanish, but I perceive that many of the times

the questions they ask and the worries they have about translating from one language to another I

related it to grammar issues, for example, how to translate a certain verb form pattern from



101

English into Spanish and how to translate it correctly, and sometimes they know the verb pattern

in English but they do not know exactly the verb pattern in Spanish, so, they need to know both

languages very accurately in order to translate. Some other times, for example, the problem is, I

don’t know, a noun phrase and they are trying to move it from English into Spanish and they

need to know somehow that what they are moving from English into Spanish is a noun phrase

because in that way they will be able to put it in the correct form in the target language.

Interviewers: Can they analyze details of the English grammar (such as spelling, word order,

language agreement, problems of meaning, word choice, sentence formation, and punctuation)


Dr. Amalia Ortiz de Zárate: Yes, of course, I mean, actually, they should do it. Sometimes it is

unconscious, I mean it is not that obvious that they are using those patterns that they are

analyzing, for example the word order. For (instance) if they are working on word order in

English and they translate it literally in to Spanish, sometimes that doesn’t work, so they have to

be able to change their patterns from English into Spanish. Ok? As I said before they must know

both patterns. If they don’t know both patterns they will probably fail in the translation at the

very beginning, afterwards, if they want to polish their translation they can work more with the

sense, but at the beginning they need to work with the structure

Interviewers: Do you see the analysis of these grammatical features as a contribution to


Dr. Amalia Ortiz de Zárate: Yes, I think it is reinforcement, maybe it is not the only way to

learn the grammar pattern, actually it is not the only way to learn the grammar pattern, but it’s

definitely a reinforcement for them in their language courses

Interviewers: Do you notice that they improve their reading and writing skills somehow when

they translate?

Dr. Amalia Ortiz de Zárate: The reading skills, definitely. The writing skills, some of them.

The problem is that they are translating from English into Spanish, so, sometimes, the writing

skills in English don’t need to be improved, but what they definitely improve are the reading

skills, because they now realize about certain features that they haven’t realized before.

Interviewers: Ok, thank you very much Amalia.

Dr. Amalia Ortiz de Zárate: You’re welcome.



102

Appendix D

Observation Guideline

Course observed:…………………….. Month:…………………….

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE OBSERVER.

- Arrive before established time.

- Observer must be located where s/he may have a wide visual area.

- Avoid any activity that may distract students.

Theoretical lessons and workshops: Students…

1. Practice their English grammar knowledge orally and YES NO MED

written.

2. Discuss English syntax, morphology and lexis with their YES NO MED

peers/classmates.

3. Learn to deal with language problems through the YES NO MED

translation techniques introduced in the courses.

4. Analyze differences and similarities between English YES NO MED

and Spanish.

5. Test their grammar knowledge when facing a new text YES NO MED

to translate.

6. Peer-edit their written tasks in order to improve their YES NO MED

English grammar use.

7. Should manage different writing styles through the YES NO MED

development of written tasks (in essays, poems, recipes, etc.).

Analysis of written translation tasks

1. Use adequate word choices with accurate/precise nouns, verbs, YES NO MED

adverbs and adjectives.



103

2. Display effective spelling, capitalization, and punctuation. YES NO MED

3. Correct their grammar errors and mistakes when they find one. YES NO MED

4. Solve language problems (meaning and grammatical YES NO MED

equivalences).

5. Recognize parts of speech within sentences. YES NO MED

or phrases (when one word is either a noun, adjective, adverb, etc.)

6. Work on correcting errors that seriously affect meaning in the YES NO MED

translations.

7. Compound effective sentences and clauses. YES NO MED

(in their final written translations).

8. Learn/practice main punctuation rules of English and Spanish. YES NO MED

9. Test their grammar knowledge when facing a new text to YES NO MED

translate.

10. Are careful with the length construction of sentences. YES NO MED