contribution to lichen-flora of northern europe. (continued)

LICEEX-FLORA OF NORCIIERN EUROPE. 301

Tribe.

XV. Graphidei

CVI. Pyrenocarp

Qenus.

3. Lecidea ......

34. Graphis ..... 35. Arthonia ... 3G. Endocarpon . . 37. Verrucaria ...

38. Endococcus .

Specics and variety. I I

146. contigua, Fr. . ............. ' 60. form crustulata, Ach. .. 61. var. flavicunda, Ach. ..

147. confluens, Ach. ........... . I 148. lapicida, Fr. ..............

t62. var. cleclinms, Nyl. .... %3. subform ecrusbcea, Nyl. t 64. var. ochromela, Ach. ..

,149. polycarpa, Flk.. ........... '150. lithophila, Ach.. ...........

t65. form ecrustacea, .. t66. form ocliracea, Ach. .. t67. vnr. pallido-cinerea, Flk.

151. tessellata, FZk. ............ 158. amylacea, Ach. ............ ,153. areolata, ScLrer.. ........... 154. nglrea, Smrf. .............. 155. fusco-atra, Ach.. ........... 156. lactea, Flk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

t68. form hypothallinn, Nyt. 157. intumescens. f t k . .......... 158. atro-alba, FZot. ............ 159. petraea, Flot. .. ., .......... ?160. excentrica, Ach.. ........... 1161. geminata, N o t . ............ 162. dbo-atra, Hffk ..........

69. var. epipolia, Ach. .... 163. disciformis, B.. ...........

t70. var. insignis, hbg. .... lM. coniops, Whlnb. ..........

t71. form obscurior, NyZ. .. 165. myriocarpa, DC. .......... 166. saxatilis, Schm. ..........

tlC7. xanthococca, Smrf. ........ t72. form ecrustacea, NyZ. ..

168, sanguinaria, Ach. .......... 169. galbula, Earn. ............ 170. alpicola, Schrer.. ........... 171. geographicn, Schm. ........ 172. ritrinella, Ach. ............

f173. Diapensiz, Th. 8%. ........ t174. Berengeriana, Mass. ........ t175. sarcogynoicles, Korh. ...... 170. scripta, Ach. ..............

159. ininiatum, Ach.. ........... 180. Eethiobola, Whlnb ........... 181. maura, Whhb. ............ 182. epidermidiis, Ach. .........

73. oar. grisea, Schrer. .... 183. gemmifer, Tayl. ..........

177. astroidea, Ach. ............ 178. variims, Dnu ...............

Totals ........... VOL. IS. 2

celsni -

d .- a.

m h

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* ..

.. .. ..

.. .. ..

.. .. ..

.. ..

.. * * * .. .. .. .. .. *

. a ..

. a ..

., .< ..

* *

- 2 -

- 5 .- Y .- 1 2 -.

..

,. .. ,.

,.

,.

,. .. ,.

.. ..

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.. .. .. .. ..

.. ..

.. .. .. .. .. ..

.* ..

. I .. ..

.,

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Torway. -

m .- x m __

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,t *

* * * * .. * * * * .. * ..

* *

* * * * * * * * * * *

_- 14 -

892 DR. LAUDER LINDSAT OW THC

In 1658 I examined all thc lichens in the followiug public hcr-

1. The Hookeriaii Herbarium, Kern- ; 2. The Herbarium of the British Museum ; 3. The h imean Herbarium of the Linnean Society ; and 4. The Herbarium of the University of Edinburgh, which in-

cludes the Menziesian and the Grevillian Herbaria ; as a-ell as several large private herbaria, but with very little fruit as rcgards lichens from Iceland, FarG, or Norway. Those from Iceland and Far0 were under half a dozen ; while those from Nor- way did not excced thrce dozen, were mostly contained in the Hookerian Herbarium, and were the fruit of the collection of the indeEcttigal~lc Sommerfelt (in his ' Itineraria ' of 1826). The Eew Herbarium contains sundry specimens labelled as presented or collected by Wahlenberg (BOG), and Acharius (1809). No localities, however, are given. The presumption is that they are mostly, if not all, Swedish ; but whether or not this be the case, the absence of any note of locality renders it impossible t o cite them for present purposes of comparison. Of those lichens of undoubted Norm-egian origin which are t o be found in the Kew Herbarium, thc mqjority are already enumerated (in my foregoing list). But there are a fern not therein included, which I hereto append :- 1. ~ r c c c ~ ~ y ~ a tigigikaaris, Pers. On pales, ijsterdal (SonzmerjZt,

Un. Itiiz. 1826). 2 . SpkczrophoronfiagiZe, Pers., which I regard as a mere form,

always sterile, of 8. CoruZloides, Pers. Saxicolous, near Friedrichsvaern.

'' Norway," in abundant fruit. Appears to me only a form of 8. posckale, Lnur.

Dovrefjeld (Xrnrf. U. I.).

bariq :-

3. Stereocaulon codloidps, Schreb.

4. IS. denudatzcm, Fllr. 5. Alectoria ocliroteuca, Ehrh., var. sarmentosa, Ach. Corticolous,

on trunks ofpines near Christiania (8wrf: 77. I.). IIas iiiuch the aspect of an ochroleucous condition of A.jubnta, L.

G . A. diwergeizs, Acli. Summits of the Dovrefjeld (Xmrf. U. I.), sterile ; Lapland ( Walilenberg).

7. E v e m i a ftcrficracen, Mann. Corticolous,woods near Christiania (8m$ U. I.) : fruit very large.

8. Cefraria odontella, Ach. Saxicolous, Dovrefjeld (Xmrf. U. I., fide Rev. ChurcAilb Babington).

9. P7r~tys.ma trisfe,;CVeb. Saxicolous, 011 dpine roclw, Island of OtterG (A'iiWJ 7: I.).

LICIIEN-FLORA O F NORTHERN EUROPE. 398

10. -Vqhronza arcticum, L. Alps of Lapland (Xolaizder, in Z e r - bnrizmz, British Museum).

11. Umbilicaria nrctica, Smrf. Saxicolous, on alpine rocks, Island of Ottero, Nordland (Xmv$ U. I.).

12. Pannnria triptophylla, Ach. Corticolous, near Christiania (Ism$ L? I;).

13. 8yimmnria cvassa, DC. Terricolous, Christiania (Smrf. U. I.). 14. Lecanora varia, Ach., vor. syntmicta, Ach. Corticolous, on

pales, Guldbrandsdal (XmrJ: U. L). 15. L. fuscmta, Schrad., var. sinopica, Sm. (E. Bot. t. 1776). Saxi-

colous, most abundant on ferruginous roclrs ; on aluminous and ferruginous slate, near Christiania (Smrf. U. I.).

Kongsvold alld other parts of the Dovrefjeld.

1 G . Lecidea globifera, Ach.

17. L. cupvea, Smrf. I S . L. arcficn, Smrf. On the highest mountains of Nordland

(&w$ U. Z). 19. L. cal-neoyallida, Nyl. Corticolous, Nordland (Ismrf. U. I.).

Comparing my present list of Icelandic Lichens with that which I published in 1861, and which enumerates a111 lichens collected in Iceland by various botanists up to that; date, the most striking result is, that, as rcgards the number of species and varieties, the former is fully as large as the latter ; in other words, my week's collection around Reykjavik equals the collections of all previous botanists in all other parts of the island. Such a result merely indicates the great imperfection of our present knowledge of the Lichen-flora of Iceland. My own collection amounts to 83 species (including well-marked varieties and forms) : the list gives in my ' Flora' of 1861 enumerates 52. The latter includes 52 lichens which were not found by myself, and which fall to be added to my list of 53. This gives 135 as a total of the'lichen-flora of Iceland, so far as it is at present known with any degree of exactitude. This, however, is probably far short of the real total, many species, varieties, and forms remaining to be added by the research of future travellers 1.

Sneehltten (Smrf. U. I.).

* I have since found the following species and wrieties (which are not in- rluded in the above-mentioned enumerations of Icelandic Lichcns) rcsorded in Fries's Lich. Arctoi [wide foot-notes, p. 3661 :-

1. Lqtqgium muscicoZum, Sw., Vahl. 2. Nezwopogon meluxanthus, doh. [Lichen subphurews, Fl. Isl.], Vahl. 3. A!cctorinjtibnfu, L., var. chalybeiformis, L., Steenstrop. 4. A. ochroleisca, Ehrh., var. cincinnafrr, Fr., Steenstrnp.

2 D 2

396 DR. LAUDFll LIHDShY ON TIIE

The following are the lichens not found by myself, but recorded in my ' Flora ' as having been collected by the numerous botanical travellers who have during the last century visited Iceland :-

1. Collema nigrescens, Ach. 2. Sphmophoron fragile, Pers. 3. Stereocaulon tomentosum, Laur., and var. incrzutatum, F11~ 4. l'hamnolia vermicularis, L. (Vahl). 5. Usnen barbata, Fr., var. hirta, L. 6. Alectoria jubatn, L. 7. A. oe~roleuca, Ehrh., and var. sarmentosa, Acli. 8. Euernia furfiiracea, Mann. 9. E. przcnastri, L. 10. Ramalina calicaris, Ach., and vnrs. frnxinea, L, and furi-

11. Plat?pnn I"a?dzcnense, L. 12. Nephromium tomentosum, Hem. 13. Peltigera aphthosa, Hffm. [Steenstrup]. 14. P. venosa, Hffm. 15. P. rufescens, Hffm. 16. Solorina saccata, L. [Steenstrup]. 17. 8. crocea, L. 18. Sticta pzdmonacea, Ach. 19, N. scrobiculnta, Scop. 20. Parnaelia physodes, L. 21. P. olivacea, L. 22, P. stygia, L. 23. Physcia candelaria, Ach. 24. P. ciliaris, L. 25. Ugnbilicaria pusttdata, Hem.

nacea, L.

5. Ranzalina polyvwrphn, Acli., Valii. 6. limbilicaria arctica, Ach., Morck. 7. Parnaetia encaiista, Sw., Steenstrup. The P. arctica mentioned, on Dr. Nylander's authority, at p. 379 does not

Probably the lichen referred to really belongs occur in Tli. Fries's L. Arct. either to P. encausta or P. nlpicola, Th. Fr. L. Arct. 57.

8. Physciu obscura, Ehrh., Steenstrup. 9. Pnnnaria prcetermissa, Nyl. Scand. 124 & 290 [P. Icpidiotn, Ih . Fr. L.

10. Lecidea decipiens, Ehrh., Steenstrup. 11. L. fusco-btea, Dicks.~[Caloplaca, Th. F'r, L. Arct. 1211, V&1. 12. Urceolariu scrziposa, Ach. This number added to 135 gives 147 as tho preaenC total recorclecl Lichen-

Arct. 741.

flora of Iccland.

LICHEX-FLORA OF NOETHERN EUROPE. 395

26. u.polyphylla, L. [Steenstrup], and var. deusta, Ach. 27. U. vellea, Ach. 28. U. hirszita, Ach. 29. Pannaria triptop7,7~ylla, Ach. 30. Placodiam mworurn, Hffm., and vars. obliteratzcnz, Pers.

31. Psoronia hypnorum, Hffni. 32. Urceolaria scruposa, Ach. 33. Lecanora calcarea, Ach. 34. L. tartarea, Ach. 35. L. ventosa, Ach. 36. L. sulphurea, Ach. 37. L. verrueosa, Laur. [Steenstrup]. 38. Lecidea fusco-ntra, Ach. 30. A. decolorans, Fllr. 40. L. atro-alba, Flot. 41. L. sanguinaria, Ach. 42. L. arctica, Smrf. 43. Endocarpon miniatuna, Ach. 46. E. ?Lepaticuna, Ach. 45. Verrucaria tephroides, Ach.” Though not found by myself in Iceland, about 4.5 per cent. of

the foregoing lichens occur in nip Norwegian collection. Of the total of 83 species and varieties collected by myself, 53 (or 63 per cent.) are not mentioned in my ‘ Flora,’ and are presumably, there- fore, new to the Lichen-flora of Iceland, though they are for the most part more or less common in Scandinavia and Northern Europe generally.

The only lists of Fiiriiese lichens with which I am acquainted are those of Laxidti- and Sir Walter Trerelyau:. The whole df the lichens enumerated by Landt amount only to 2 i ; some of these are merely varieties of other species ; all are classed under the old a,nd comprehensive genus Lichen. The following were not found by myself, though they occur in Landt’s catalogue :-

(Lecanora bbulata, Smrf.), and miniaturn, Hffm.

1. Nostoc comnaune, Vauch. (Trcinella Nostoc, E. Bot. t. 461). 2. Xphmrophoron coralloides, Pers. * 45 species (including cases where thc type is relircsentecl only by avariety).

7 varieties and forms in addition to tiic type. - 52 total.

t ‘ A Description of the Fir6 Islands,’ 1810, p. 194. $ “ On the Vegetation and Temperature of the Fir6 Ialauda,” Ediib. Kow

Philosoph. Journ. vol. xviii. [1835] p. 154.

396 DR. LAUDER LINDSAY ON THE

3 fragile, Pers. Stereocaulom paschale, Laur

5 . Alectoria jzcbata, L., var. chalybeiformis, L. 6. Evernia furfuracea, Maun. 7. Ramalina caticaris, Ach., and var. farinacea, L.

wlous *. 8. Peltigera aphthosa, HEm. 9. P, cawina, Hffm.

10. Umbilicaria proboscidea, DC.

Both saxi-

Old corn-fields. “ Yarasipa ” of the Fi- rtiese.

Abundant on the road between Leynum and Kollefjord, Stromti. This is an interesting example of a subalpine lichen occurring at a low elevation in an insular position.

11. Spzcanaaria gelida, L. (Lichen Hecle , Gum.). “ High up on the hills, on small loose stones.”

12. Parmelia sadatilis, h h . , var. omphalodes, L. 13. P.physodes, L. 14. P. encausta, Sm. 15. P. olivacea, L. 16. Physcia cilia&, L. 17. P. stelliris, L. 18. Lecanora calcarea, Ach.

L. cinerea, L. 19. Lecidea geographica, L. Sir Walter Trevelyan’s list, again, contains a further number nf

seventeen species which occur neither in my collection nor in Landt’s enumeration, viz. :-

1. Colbenaa fEaccidum, Ach. 2. C’. syongioswm (probably LicWcn spongiosz~s, Sm. Eng. Bot.

t. 1374, which is a \ariety of Sblorina saccafa, L., Nyl.

Avariety, I think, ofthu conimon

‘

Scalld. 92). 3. Leptogiwn lacertm, h. 4. l’hananolia vernaicularis, L. The occurxence of this Alpine

lichen at a comparatively low level and in an insular position is noteworthy.

5. Usnea barbata, Fr., vnr. I~irta, L. 6. Rmnalina calicnris, Ach., var. fastigiata, P.ers. 7. Peltigera polydactyla, Hffm. 8. P. venosa, Hffm. * The forms here mentioned are much more probably R. scopulorum or R.

polymorpha j but it is obviously impossible to determine such a point without acccss to the authcnticatcd liclicns reforrcd to b7 Lqndt,

LICHEN-FLORA O F NORTHXRN EUBOl’E. 507

9. 8olorina crocea, L. 10. Parnaelia lmaatn, L. 11. Physcia aquilc~, Ach. 12. Uhbilicaria cylinclricn, L. 13. Pamaria nauscorum, Ach. 14. Leciclea fusco-lzcten, Diclis. 15. L. co@?icens, Ach., pr. p. 16. L. viritlescens, Ach. 17. Endocarpon naiiaiatunz, Ach. It has to be remarked, in regard to the lists quaked from Landt

and Sir W. C. Trevelyan, that inasmuch as the names assigned by these authors depended on external or naked-eye characters done, without microscopical examination and reference to the nature of the spores, it is impossible to guarantee the accuracy of the modern synonymy offered. This has been already illus. trated in the case of what was called by the earlier lichenologists Colle?na sponyiosum; and it may be further illustrated by such names as Pannaria muscorunt, Lecideu, con$uens, L. viridescem, and L. fusco-ktea in Sir W. C. Trevelyxn’s list, which may have been really different (though allied) lichens, and each of which may have included more than one species. In the absence of microscopical examination it is impossible to distinguish from each other many of the lower or crustaceous lichens, which have very similar external characters ; from which it follows Ohat lists drawn up without reference to the characters of the spores at least, are certain to omit many species that would otherwise be inkludecl ; in other words, they are inadequate or imperfect representntivce of the special Lichen-flora they are designed to illustrate.

The liclicns I collected about Thorshavii niiiount to ...... 26 Tha additional iiuinber contained in Landt’s list is ...... 21 I n d in Sir Waltcr Trovelyan’s ................................. 17

Giving a total of .............................. 64 -

There can be no doubt, however, that this total by no means represcnts adequately the Lichen-flora of Fiiro. Tho 1ist.s of Landt and Trevelyan are disproportionately small as regards thc very lichens which are sure to predominate in such a country- that is, crustaceous, minute and obscure species, liable t o be over- looked, and requiring careful microscopical examination for their discrimination and determination. As in the parallel case of Ice- land, I have no hesitation in affirming that large additions remain to be made to the FBroese Lichen-flora, especially in the direction

DE. LAUUER LIXDj3hY ON THE 30s

just indicated ; and I may go further and venture to predict that when we possess a full and accurate knowledge, on the one hand, of the Lichens of Iceland and Faro, and, on the other, of those of Shetland, Orkney, and the Hebrides, there will be found to be a close resemblance or alliance between them.

Of my Thorshavn collection there are twenty lichens not mentioned by Landt, and fifteen not enumerated by Trevelyan.

As was to be expected, there is a close correspondence or re- semblaiice between the Lichen-floras of Iceland, Faro, and Nor- way on the one hand, and of Britain on the other. It would undoubtedly be. much closer, however, between that of Scotland- with its outlying islands the Hebrides, Orkney, and Shetland- and of these more northern islands or countries, had we the proper meaiis of forming a comparison. But no separate, recent, full and accurate list of the lichens either of Scotland, Norway, Iceland, or Fir0 has yet been publidzed. Of the whole list of my collections in Iceland, Fiiro, and Korway, upwards of two-thirds are British. The British Lichen-flora is considerably poorer than that of the Scandinavian peninsula, if we can depend on compa- risons based on data furnished by works so dserent as Mudd’s ‘ Manual ’ (1861), as representing Britain, and Nylander’s ‘ Li- chenes Scandinavise ’ (lSGl), as representing Sweden and Nor. way *.

But in order to an accurate comparison, the lists of Scandina- v i m and British lichens would require to be drawn up by the same author j for no two lichenologists take the same views of species and varieties, some regarding as species what others consider only varieties or forms. Hence in the hands of two different authors the same lichens will be wry differently stated numerically ; from which it follows that we cannot safely contrast statistical data of such a character drawn from one work with those of another.

Proportionally or comparatively the British should be richer * But in neither work, and more especially in Nylander’s, are the species and

the dominant varieties distinguished or catalogued in such a way as to render it possible for a reader to number them accurately. While Nylander himself (Scand. p. 7) states the whole Scandinavian lichens at only 446 species, I6nd the number scparatcly catalogued apparently as species in his ‘ Lichenes Scandi- navk’ to be upwards of 570, or about 130 more than his own enumeration, which is presumably the more correct j the varieties or forms he enumerates, moreover, amount to upwards of 360,-which gives a total of 930. A similar calculation froin Mudd‘s ‘ Manual’ gives about 500 species and upwards of 280 raricties or forms, or a total of 78O,-that is, less than the Scandinavian list by 160. But I repcat I do not consider these statistics at all to be relied upon.

LICIIES-FLORA OF NORTHERN EUROPE. 399

than the Scandinavian Lichen-flora. The reasons or causes of this anticipated superior richness are to be found in the iiiore southern latitude of Britain, in the greater variety of its geological constitution and physical configuration, as well as of its arboreal vegetation. Contrasting, however, Scotland alone and Norway, I am not sure that the balance would be in favour of the former. My general impression, from alpine excursions especially in both countries, and in thc absence of precisc data for dctermi- nation, is that the alpine Lichen-flora of Korway is richer tlian that of Scotland. It is unprofitable, however, to discuss such a question until the possession of accurate lists of the lichens both of Scotland and Norway enables 11s to do so with some precision*.

Meanwhile the affinities between the alpine and subalpine Li- chen-floras of Scotland and Koraay me most interesting. The researches of Scottish lichenologists during the last fifteen years have brought to light a considerable iiuinher of more or less rare and interesting species which are common to the alps of Scotland and Norway ; and this number is constantly being added to. The experience of the past twenty years warrants us in saying that while certain Norwegian alpine lichens remain yet to be cliscovered in the highlands and islands of Scotland, there are also certaiii Scotch alpine forms which are yet probably to be found on the Norwegian alps, as Nglandert points out in regard, e. y., to lGer- yucaria scotinosporn, Nyl., and l? verrucoso-areolata, Schm. Nei- ther country can yet be said to be thoroughly explored in regard t o the lichens of thc less known and more remote districts.

As of much interest to the lichenologists of‘ both countries, I wnture to append a list of the principal lichens which are common to the alpine districts of Scotland and Norway, all of which,

* The ‘Edinbui*gli Cabinct Library,’ volume on “ Iceland, Grccnland, and Firti ” (1840, p. g77), gives the following comparative numerical stittement of the Lichen-flora of

Scotland ........................... 260 Fiiro .............................. 50 Iceland ........................... 60 Greenland ........................ 59

--from which it would appear that the Scottish stand to Icelandic lichens in the proportion of morc than 4 to 1, and to the Faroese of more than 5 to 1. Such st.atistics, however, are comparatively valueless, becausc the data on which they are founded (the nnmes of the lichens described by botanists prior to the application of the microscope to the study of their spores) cannot be TFlicd on.

No. of species.

t Lich. Scand. p. 270.

400 DR. LAUDER ZINDSAY ON THE

however, I do iiot profess myself t o have found either on the Scot- tish or Norwegian mountains :-

* iiidicates the more alpine forms. 1. Leptoyium trenaelloides, Ach. 2. Caliciuin trichiab, Ach. 3. Coniocybe furfwracea, Ach. 4. Baomnyces pbcophyllus, Ach. 6 . Stereocaulon paschab, Laur., and form corcclloirles, Nyl.

"6. S. tomentoszcm, Law., and "vars. alpinum, Laur., and *botry- osum, Law.

7. 8. denudatunt, Flk. 8. 8. condensatum, H ffm., and var. cereolinum, Ach. 9. S. nanum, Ach.

"10. Thamnolia vernlaicularis, L. "11. Alectoria ochroleuca, Ehrh., and pvar. sarmentosa, Ach. 812. A. bicolor, Ehrh.

"14. Platysma aivale, L. "15. P. czccwllatm, HEm. "16. P. Paltlunmse, L.

17. P. jzcniperimawns, L. 18. P. srepincolum, Hffm.

20. Nephromium lcm'yatwn, Ach. 21. Peltigera horizontalis, Hffiii. 22. P. venosa, I-Iffin.

"23. Solorina crocea, L. 24. S. saccata, L. 25. Stictina scro6iciclata, Scop. 26. 8. ficliyinosa, Diulis. 27. S. sylvatica, L. 28. 8. limbata, Sm. 29. Ricasolia ?ierbacea, Hucla. 30. R. glonziclifera, Lightf. 31. Parmeliopsis ambipa, Wdf. 32. P. aleurites, Ach. 33. P. placorodia, Ach. 34. Parmelia pertusa, Schanlr.

13. Cetraria Islandica, L., and Tar. crispa, Ach.

*19. P. triste, Web.

"35. P. encnusta, Ach., and %ar. enledfaeta, Ach. "36. P. stygicr, L. 48'7. l? Lnntn, L. 3s. 1'. conspei~sa, hull.

LICHEN-FLORA OF NORTIIERN EUROPE. 401

39. I-'. Mougeottii, Schar. 40. Physcia speciosa, Hffni. 41. U7n bilicar ia cy lin dr ica, L . 4%. U. proboscidca, DC.

"43. U. erosa, Hffm. "4%. U. hypcrborea, Hffm., and -K.var. ciretica, Acli

43. 77. po7yphylla, L.

47. Pannapin rubiginosct, Thunb.

49. Coccocnrpia plumbea, Lightf. 50. Xquanaaria gebida, L. 51. Placodizcm elegans, DC. 52. Lecanora cevina, Ehrh., and var. stillicidiorunz, (Ed. 53. L. albella, Pers. %4. L. tartarea, Ach., and var. frkida, Sm. "55. L. oculata, Dicks. *56. L. verrucosa, Laur. "57. L. pelobofrya, Whlnb.

46. 5: polyr9*hizn, I;.

-k48. P. leucolcpis, Ach.

58. L. fuscnta, S c h d . , and vars. sinopica, Sm., and smccragdula, Whlnb.

*59. L. frzcstulosa, Dicks. and Sm. E. Bot. 60. L. sophocles, Ach., var. confragosa, Ach. 61. Pertusaria bioplaca, A'ch.

W 2 . P. ylonzerata, Ach. "63. P. bryontha, Ach. 64. Lecidea biirida, Ach. 65. L. globifera, Ach.

%6. L. decipieiis, Ach. 67. L. candida, Acli. 6s. L. citrinellcc, Ach.

"69. L. galbula, Barn. 70. L. scabrosa, Ach.

"71. L. armeniaca, DU. V 2 . L. pezizoidea, bch. 73. L. Dilleniana, A&. 74. L. albo-atra, Hfni., and var. m n b ~ u a , dch. 75. L. sabuletorum, Flk., and var. ' inon fana, Ny1.

77. L. lacgubui, Smrf. 78. L. tenebrosa, R o t .

Wl. L. corncincc, Ach.

*76. L. arctica, Sinrf.

402 DR. LSUDEB LINDSAY ON THE

SO. L. 6ad io -ah , Plk. 81. L. OCclerii, Ach.

*82. L. parasema, Ach., var. latypea, Ach. (L. coniops, Ach. pr* P.).

83. L. oxyspora, Tul. 84. Normandina latevirens, Tarn. & Borr. 85. Emdocarpon rufescens, Ach. 86. E. miniattint, Ach., and var. ezyloczcm, Ach. 87. Vrrrucaria teplwoicles, Ach. 88. V; pyrenophora, Ach. 69. V. margncea, Whlnb., and var. hydrelc, Ach. 90. V; zmBri~ia, Whlnb. Contrasting Iceland, Fdrii, and Norway with each other and

Ivitli Scotland, there are certain striking diversilics as regards their geological formation and physical coilfiguration, as 1vcl1 as the presence or absence of arboreal vegetation, which dcmaud at- tention as bearing materially on the character of their respcctive Lichen-floras.

Iceland is composed of comparatively rccent volcanic rocks, over- lain or not by a sterile ,scanty soil, the result of their disintcgra- tion. In this respect it cannot fairly be compared with any nearer sonthern country than the volcanic districts of Frauce, Italy, and Sicily. Reykjavik is seated in the midst of what is virtually a stony desert, the soil being made up of fragments of all sizes of dolerite, tmchyte, and lava. The inetropolitan district, indeed, is stated by the natives to bc thc most barren in the island. Looked at from any distance it has a brown or bltlclrish-brown colour, a i d a blcdr sterile aspect *. There is too little greensward or phz- nogamous vegetation to become a featurc in the landscape. This is the character of a great portion at least of the islaud,-the bare lava, or the brown stoily soil resulting from its partial disintegra- tion, being generally less or more devoid of the higher vegetation. There are occasional or exceptional oases in this brown desert, e. g. around farmhouses, the banks of rivers, streams, and lakes, in marsh-lands, and in the vicinity of hot and other springs. But these exceptions scarcely affect the Lichen-flora of tho country. There is, however, a coiisidcrable variety of configuration in the country ; niid the mountains, many of which arc covered \T ith perennial snows feeding large glaciers, reach a Iieiglit of iiezrly 6000 fcet. There are, however, 110 forcsts, and aliiiost no arboreal

* ‘Flora of Iceland,’ p. 24.

LTCIIEK-FLORA OF KOBTIIEXN EUROPE. 403

or fruticose vegetation”. Undoubtedly this is one of the main causes of the paucity of the lichcns of Iceland. It would be natural to suppose that the rugged, hard, recent lava would be one of the last supports of a lichenose, or higher, vegetation. But that such is not altogether or necessarily the case was long ago noticed by Sir Charles Lye11 in regard to Etns, Vesuvius, and the Canary Islands alike ; and similar observations have been made by other travellers in other volcanic countries. Sir Charles describes Li- chens as the first characteristic vegetation of modern lavas, especially species of Xtereocazclon, which are sometimes so plentiful as to whiten the lava j and he remarks, ‘‘ The natural growth, even of a cryptogamous vegetation, although restricted to limited areas, on lava of such recent date is worthy of notice, and seems to give promise of an early fertility for the future”?. I have already referred to the apparent parallelism which exists between the deserts of Iceland and the “ Tundras ’’ of Lapland, especially what Baer describes as the “ Plechtentundra ” (whereon lichens are the dominant forins of vegetation), which is brown, dry, and arid, as compared with the “ Moostundra ” (whereon mosses predominate over other forms of regetable life), which is coinparatively moist and green. On these North-Russian deserts Fellman also refers to the paucity of Lichen-species though not of individuals-a. paucity which he attributes, apparently with justice, to tlic absencc of forests. The lichen-vegetation of these treeless wastes, as do- scribed by Fellman$-and which consists of species of Olndoiaia, Xtereocaulon, Platysma, aud Cetraria, covering whole tracts of country-resembles that (of many parts at least) of Iceland.

The Far6 Islands are trappean, and are comparable-pond their geological constitutiorl and physical configuration-with certain of the Scottish Islands, such as Mull and Skye, and certain districts of the Scottish mainland, such as Arthur’B Seat and the Braid Hills near Edinburgh, or the Sidlaw and Ochil Hills near Perth §. Their Lichen-flora is more allied to that of Iceland than of Norway. When we possess a full list of the lichens of the FPro group, on the one hand, and the Shetland Islands, on the other, there will

* The csceptions consist mainly of patches of stunted birch bushes in some parts of the country.

t Memoir on “The Lams of Mount Etns,” Philosoph. Transact. part 2 for 1858, p. 726.

2 li Voyage botanique dans la Laponie orientale,” by M. N. I. Pellman, Bull. cle la SOC. Botan. de France, Nov. 27, 1863.

§ Thc greatest elevation in Ftiro is the hill called Blattarctind, which is about 2900 feet high,

404 DR. LAUDER LINDSAY ON THE

probably be found to exist a close general resemblance of their respective Lichen-floras.

Norway consists mainly of metamorphic slates, generally largely micaceous, associated with granites. In respect of its geological structure and superficial configurat ion it resembles the Grampian and trans-Grampian region of Scotland. I t s mountains exceed in height those of Iceland by upwards of 2000 feet,-Skagstolstind, the greatest elevation not only in Norway but in Scandinavia, being 8670 feet ; while Orsefa, the highest of the Icelandic Alps, is 5927. The Norwegian, like the Icelaudic, Alps are capped with perennial snows, which feed magnificent glaciers. I n the month of August (1857) I found SneehPtten and the Hadangcnfjeld capped with snow ; and they are said t o be always more or less so. I n the month of June (18GO) there was a copious covering of snow on Snsfell, and a scanty mantle on Eyafj:ill,z j n Iceland. But at the same time there was a slight coyering on our own Grainpians, hills of only 1000 to 1800 feet, and about 8 degrees further south ; while Snsfell is 4600 and Eyafjalla 5686 feet *. Norway lies considerably to the south of Iceland, though the Dovrefjeld region is nearly in the same latitude as the Far%., But the main cause of the much greater richness of its Lichen- flora is to.be found in the abundance of its forests and the variety of its arboreal vegetation. Not only the lowland and alpine valleys, but fi-equently the Alps themselves (up t o at least 3000 fcet) are covered by dense forests. On the flanks of the Alps these consist mostly of such trees as Scotch fir, spruce, larch, and birch. I n the alpine valleys, the lesser rowan, alder, juniper, willow, and dwarf birch abound?. And in lowland districts, such as the rici- nitF of Christiania, the Conifere, Betulacem, and Xalicacem are re- placed by the ash, sycamorc, and other more southern trees. The forest-trees, especially in the valleys of the interior, support large quantities of species of such Lichen-genera as Usnea, Ramaliraa, Alectoria, Platysma, Parmelia, Physcia, Lecalzora, and Lecidea ; while certain Oeraphidea or other groups or genera also occur which are apparently unknown in Iceland and Fiiro. I n the fir-

* Vide, in regard to the physical geography of Iceland, the paper, 011 the ((Eruption of Kbtlugj5,” already quoted (wide p. 368). Where not otherwiise specified, heights of Icelandic mountains are those given in English feet by Keith Johnston in his ‘ Physical Atlas,’ 1848. t About Jerkin, juniper, dwarf birch (Retula mafia, L,), and willows Occur.

The Scotch fir and birch climb nearly to the plateau of the Dovref3eld (3000 fcct) ; and the nlpinc valleys of the samr monntain-range abound in alder.

TJCIIES-FLOBA OF NORTIIERN EGEOPE. 405

moods of Norn-ny I found, speaking generally, the same lichens as in those of Scotland ; a d on the same species of tree I usually found the same species of lichen in the two countries. The cracked bark of old birch trees was generally infested with forms of Usnea Zlarbata, Pamnelia saxatiEs and olivncea, Physcia pnrietina, puberulenta, and stellaris, and Perrucaria epidermidis. On the ash (about Christiania) occurred chiefly Parnielia tiliacea and olivncea, Platysnaa g Zffiucum, Physcia parieiina, puherzclenta, and stellaris, Lecanora su6 f u sca and aurantiaca, and Lecidea parasenla. On the sycamore (also in the lowlands) the same lichens were met with as on the ash. On the alder, which is very common, and grows t o considerable size on the sand and mud banks or hillocks of Eidsvold, on the Mjiisen Lake, were seen Craphis scr+ta, and Lecidea parasema and disciformis.

Scotland, however, in addition to a more southerly latitude, has a more varied geological basis than Iceland, Fiirii, and Norway put together ; its arboreal vegetation is also much more diversified, while it is perhaps as abuudant as that of Norway. It may there- fore possess a more varied and richer Lichen-flora than these three more northern countries put together". But at present, as already shown, there are not materials for determining this.

My list of Icelandic, Faroese, and Norwegian lichens is much too meagre and from too limited areas to enable me to deduce, or warrant me in deducing general conclusions regarding the charac- teristics of the Lichen-flora of, or the distribution of species in, those portions of Northern Europe. My data are sufficient, however, to indicate meanwhile the following facts of interest, Viz. the comparative abundance of certain families or genera, and the comparative paucity or the absence of certain others. Especially abundant are the groups-

No. of species.

I. Lecidee, terricolous, muscico1ous, 8nd saxicolous .... 67 2. Lecanorce, terricolous, iuiiscicoIous, and snxicolons . . 57 3. Umbilicariq especially in Norway ................ 14 4. P l a t p t a t a , especially terricolous, muscicolous, and

corticolous .................................. 9

Total lichens collected .............. 256 -

*The only doubt that can exist, indeed, is in regard t o thc lichens of Xcot- land as compared with tliosc nf NorwaF (as already stntcd, page 399).

406 DR. L.iUDER LTNDS LT ON TIIE

As markedly deficient are tbc- No. of

Tribes. Genera. species. I. Graphid&.. ...... 1. Graphis ........ 1

2. Artkonia ........ 2 TI. Colbemacei.. ...... 3. Colbina ........ 1

III. Pyrenocavyei ..... 4. Zndocarpon.. .... 1 5. Verrucnria ...... 4

IV. Parmelei ....... 6. Stictina . . . . . . . . 1 7. Sticta .......... 1

There are also certain peculiarities of geographical or topogra- phical distribution which are worthy of note.

In Iceland I found Platysma rtivab overspreading in large masses the deserts to the south-east of the Cemetery at Reykjavik, growing frequently where no phaenogams and no other cryptogams could vegetate, usually associated with tufts or masses of Cetraria aczrleata. Both lichens were sterile and dwarfish, however. Ce- traria Islandica and Cladonia rangifrina, which one would 6 prior; have expected to luxuriate in such a locality, occurred sparingly, the former especially usually intermixed with Rhacomitrizcm lanu- ginosum, Bridel-a moss so abundant in Iceland that it occupies very much the place of Cladonia rangiferina in other countries". The Umbilicarie are rare about Reykjavik (Reykjavik Observatory 56 feet Danish above sea-level) t. I found the apothecia of almost all the crustaceous lichens collected more or less deformed; and this peculiarity may be common in Iceland, as it is generally in alpine countries.

At Christiansand, in the extreme south of Norway, about parallel of latitude 5S0 (which passes through the south of Sutherland- Bhire), and on granite, at the sea-level, the Unzbilicarim (U. pus- tutata and spodocl~roa) grow in profusion and to a great size. On the other hand, on the Dovrefjeld and Haalangenfjeld, where rather they would have been expected to luxuriate, I found them very small in size, and very few both as regards species and indi- vidualsz. In other words, they appeared to reach their masimum development in the extreme south and at the sea-level, decreasing

* The same moss, with its ally R. canescens, Hedw., often attaining a length of 1 foot, covers the Fiiroese hills, according to Sir Walter Trevelyan.

t A Danish foot is equal to 12; English inches ; so that it is a fraction larger ; but the difference is so slight that it may for such purposes a8 the present be practically disregarded.

About Jerkin they are not coinmon ; and on the Baalangenfjeld I found them small and disappearing.

LICHEN-FLORA OF SORTIIERN EUROPE. 407

in size and number as we proceed northward and ascend the Alps. In this country we are in the habit of regarding the Um- bilicaiia? as alpine lichens, which are to be looked for the more highly developed and more extensivelj. diffused the higher we ascend. I have, however, in Scotland met with several species at or near the sea-level-for instance, in Skye and on various Perth- shire and other moors, which localities cannot be considered in any sense even subalpine or montane. Similar remarks apply to the variety omnphalodes of Pavmelia saxatilis. Lecide'en geographica occurs on boulders at the sea-level around Christiansand. I have met with it at very low levels also in Scotland, but generally on boulders (originally from the Highlaud mountains) of gneiss, mica- slate or quartzite. On such boulders (erratic blocks from the Grampians) in the lowlands of Perth, within 300 to 500 feet of the sea-level, I have found other lichens which are generally found only in our Highlands. But a still more striking instance of the counexion between lichens and the lithological character of their basis of growth or support is to be found in the huge erratics of the great North German plain, originally Scandinavian, which support subalpine lichens totally alien to the general character of the Lichen-flora of the Baltic countries. Placodiium elegaias, another of these cosmopolite lichens, more or less common almost everywhere, I found from the coast up to Sneehiitten. In some of the forests of the interior clothing the hills and valleys, and consisting mostly of Scotch fir and birch, there were sometimes few of the higher corticolous licheus : frequently no Usnem or Ra- maline.

The parts of Iceland and Norway which I visited were south of the arctic circle ; so that geographically no part of my collections is entitled to the appellation arctic or subarctic. I n a list, however, which includes so many abilzs species and not a few cosmopolites, we should expect a considerable proportion at least to occur also in arctic regions. Contrasting my list with that given by my friend the Rev. W. A. Leighton, in the Society's Journal, of the Lichens collected by Sir John Richardson", it appears that about 60, i.e. 2343 per cent., or nearly one-fourth of my Icelandic, Fiiroese and Norwegian lichens occur also in Arctic America. This, however, is regarding arctic America as beginning not at the arctic circle but at parallel of lat. SO0, which

Notes on Lichens collected by Sir John Richardson in Arctic America," * Journal of the Linnean Society, (Botany) vol. ix. p, 184.

LINN. PR0C.-BOTANY, VOL. IS. 2 E

408 DR. LLUDCR LCNDS.L’\- 05 TEE

in Europe passes through Southern Norway, and includes moat of the localities of my collections *. While Sir John Richardson’s collections include genuine alpines such as :-

1. I’hamnolia uermicttlaris, L. 2. Alectoria ochroleuca, Ehrh. 3. Platysma cucullatwn, Hffn. 4. Parmelia stygia, Ach. 5. P. lanata, L. 6. Umbilicaria erosa, Hffm. 7. U. vellea, Ach. 8. Lecanora oreina, Ach. 9. L. verrucosa, Laur.

10. L. fulvo-lutea, Nyl. it also includes such common lowland forms, albeit they are cosmopolites, or very widely distributed over the globe, BS :-

11. Usnea barbata, Fr , and its vars. hirta, L., plicata, L., and ceratina, A&.

12. Evernia prunastm’, Ach. 13. Ramalina calicaris, Fr., and Tar. farinacea, L. 14. Peltigera cmina, HBn. 15. Parmelia saxatilis, Ach. 16. P. olivacea, Ach. 17. Physcia pulverulenta, Fr. 1s. P. cmia, Hffm. 19. P. obscecra, Fr. 20. 8quamaria saxicola, Pollich. 21. Placodium elegans, DC. 22. Lecanora vitellina, Ach. 23. L. glaarconta, Ach. 24. Lecidea geographica, Sch . 25. L. disc formis, Fr. 26. Terrzccaria epidermidis, Ach. If me substitute the more arctic collections of Dr. Walker, from

latitude 7 2 O in Greenland and America?, for those of Sir John Richardson, the number of lichens which also occur in my Ice-

* The presence of trees and shrubs in the regions visited by Sir John gives them a great advantage over treeless cotmtries, like Iceland and FLro, as regards t h e comparative richness of their lichenose vegetation.

t IcAn Account of the Plants collected by Dr. Walker in Greenland and Arctic America during the Expedition of Sir Francis McCliitock, R.N., in the yacht ‘Fox,’ ” by Dr. Hooker- Journal of the Linneun Society, (Botany) v01. v. p. 87 (Lichens determined by Mr. Mitten).

LICHEN-FLORA OF. NORTHERN EUROPE. 409

landic, Fkiiese, and Norwegian collection is thky-one, or about 12.1 per cent. This arctic collection, while it contains only one strictly arctic lichen (DactyZina arctica, Eook.), with a few alpine or subalpine ones (such as Dufowea madreporiformis, Ach., Alec- toria ochrolezcca, Ehrli., Solorina crocea, L., and saccata, L., Pla- t y m a nivale, L., and juniperinurn; L., Parnzelia stygia, Ach., and lanata, L., Umbilicaria hyperborea, Hffm., and hirszcta, Ach., Leca- nora chlorophana, Whlnb., and frzlstulosa, Dicks., and Lecidea alpicola, Sch.), contains also such common and almost ubiquitous forms as Cladonia pyxidata, L., deformis, L., gracilis, Hffm., rangiferina, Hffm., and bellidi$ora, Ach., Sphmrophoron coralloides, Pers., Alectoria jubata, Ach., Parmelia saxatilk, Ach., and conspersa, Ach., Physcia pulverulenta, Fr., and candelaria, Ach., Placodiuln murorwm, HfFm., and elegans, DC., Lecanora suhfusca, Ach., and vitellina, Ach., Urceolaria scruposa, Ach., Lecidea geogrqhica, Sch., and lapicida, Fr.

Many of the lichens contained in my list, which are, in Europe, among the most characteristic alpine and northern forms, curiously enough do not appear at all in lists of arctic lichens. For instance, none of the following are to be found in the collections either of Sir John Richardson or Dr. Walker :-

1. Pyrenopsis hematopis, Smrf. 2. Bmmyces placophyllus, Ach. 3. 8iphula ceratites, Fr. 4. ParmeZia arctica, Th. Fr. 5. P. centrifuga, Ach. 6. Umbilicm'a stipitata, Nyl. 7. U. atro-pruinosa, Sch. 8. U. spodochroa, Hffm. 9. U.JEocculosa, Hffm. 10. Pannaria leucolepis, Whlob. 11. Pkacodim bracteatm, Hffm. 12. Spuamaria strmainea, Ach. 13. Lecanora sinapisperma, DC. 14. L. nimbosa, Fr. 15. L. pebbotrya, Smrf. 16. L. poliophEa, Whlnb. 17. L. argopholis, Whlnb. 18. L. atro-sulphurea, Whlnb. 19. L. epanora, Ach. 20. L. nqhma, Smrf. 21. L. molybdina, Whlnb.

2 3 2

410 DR. LAUDER LTYDSAT ON THE

22. Pertusaria gloazerata, Ach. 23. Varicellaria nzicrostictica, Nyl. 24. Lecidea Diapemsie, Th. Fr. 25. L. alpestris, Smrf. 26. L. stenotera, Nyl. 27. L. assindata, Nyl. 2s. L. aglcea, Smrf. 29. L. areolata, Schm. 30. L. xanthococca, Srnrf.

While the development of our commerce, the multiplication and improvement of our manufactures, the facilitation of means of travel and transport consequent on the applications of steam, and the superior wealth and education of our people have com- bined almost entirely to put an end, in this country, to the use of lichens as food, in medicine, or the domestic arts, Lichens con- tinue to be, in northeru and arctic regions of both the old and new world, of immense importance, not only as fodder to animals onwhich man in great measure subsists, but as food, under exceptional (and sometimes, alas ! normal) conditions, to man himself. Not only did I meet with evidence of their ecoiiomical applications at the present day, in the course of my own excursions, but I haTe recorded in my note-books numerous instances and proofs cited from the most recent works of northern travel. A few of these notanda I append as furnishing interesting illustrations of the economical applications of lichens as food, in medicine, or the arts, a t the present day.

Economically regarded, perhaps the most iiiiporiant of all the northern lichens is Cladoonia ranyiferima, Hfm. , the so-called " ReindeerMoss." It frequently overspreads large tracts of sterile country in northern and arctic Europe and America, constituting sometimes the sole terrestrial vegetation. As such it is the main support in Lapland and Esquimo-land" of the reindeer, one of the chief articles of food of the inhabitants. I n some parts of Norway this lichen is also regularly used as a winter fodder for cattle. About the end of September it is scraped into heaps by means of large iron rakes, and the position of these heaps is marked by poles sufficiently tall to be visible above the winter snows. I n the Bame country it is commonly used as a stu.Eng-materia1 in the con- struction of the usual.log houses : i t is inserted between the logs or beams forming the walls, intermixed or not xith Xphagna or similar

* Recent Voyages of Hall, 1861..

LICHEN-FLORA O F SORTEIEILJ EUROPE. 411

mosses. Near forests rarious corticolous lichens are similarly employed, e. g. Alectorinjzi6ata, Xverfiia prufiastri, and Usnea barbata. C. rang$erina is also used for stuffing pillows for babies and adults by the Lapps” ; while a t one time, if not still, A. ju6ata was (or is) employed in the Scotch highlands as a stuffing for mattresses. Travellers occasionally bear testimony to the softness of C. rangi- f e r k as ‘‘ a natural and luxurious mountain couch ” f. Occasion- ally too it forms at least an ingredient in the food of man. I n the Museum of Economic Botany a t Kew there is a specimen of so- called “ lichen bread,” presented by the Earl of Clarendon, which is used by the people of Finland in times of famine. This bread resembles Rape cake or the black bread of Northern Europe, and contains among its ingredients probably a certain proportion of this lichen and Cetraria Islandica, whose claims to be considered a nutrient are less questionable. Second only in importance to the “Reindeer MOSS” is the “Icelaiid 3loss” of commerce ((!eti-uria IsZondica)-a lichen which, its name notwithstanding, is not only more plentiful, but more largely developed in all its varieties and foriiis, in Norway than in Iceland. It is in the former country, moreover, and not the latter, that it is almost exclusively collected for the European market, including even Scotland and Faro. In Iceland, however, it is still largely gathered for home consumption, and is a regular article of food for man. (Xould, one of the most recent travellers in Iceland, says it is generally added t o milk-curd (“ slcyr ”), having first been chopped small, then soaked in water for twenty-four hours, and lastly boiled in milk. This addition does not improve, in his opinion, the flavour of the curd ; but the lichen or its extract has in milk, he says, “ a pleasant grassy taste ” $. Commander Forbes, too, speaks of having, near Stadahraun, ill the Myre Syssel, had a supper, in which “ Ice- land moss, stewed to a jelly in inilk and eaten with cream, formed one of the principal and far from disagreeable dishes ” $. Their taste must, to say the least, be peculiar, who go the length, with Kerguclen, of describing ‘‘ Iceland moss ” as preferable to any kind of flour, and as affording “ a noble fenst ! ”

I n this country and on the continent, “ Iceland moss ” appears to be used to a considerablc extent, in various form, as a dietetic medicine, or as an article of the Materia Medica. I f we are to

* Norway and its Glaciers, by Prof. Forbes, (Edinburgh, 1853) p. 13. t Williams’s ‘ Through Norway with a Knapsack.’ 2 Iceland : its Scenes and Sagas, by Sebine Baring Goulcl (London, 1563). $ Iceland: its Volcanoes, Geysers, and Glaciers, (London, 1860) p. 154.

a2 DR. LAEDEB LINDSAY ON THE

believe the advertisements, it forms an ingredient of a well-known form of cocoa, “Iceland-moss Cocoa,” so-called”, as well as of a French confection, ‘( PLte de Lichen ’’ f. The article known as “ Iceland-moss Cocoa ” I have myself largely used with pleasure and benefit. The substance is, however, by no means new; for Sir George Mackenzie mentions having had the combination of Iceland moss and chocolate served to him in Reykjavik in 1810. ‘‘ We found it,” says he, ‘‘ to be remarkably good, but could not distinguish the addition of the lichen ” $-an experience which has always been my own in regard to the commercial article. Some effectual means in these cases must be adopted to remove or de- stroy the bitter cetrarine, if, in the commercial article, the lichen is really represented at all.

“ Iceland moss ” still holds its place in our Government Materia Medicas ; it is familiar to all our druggists, though it is comparatively seldom, so far as I can discover, actually used in medical practice in this country. My note-book, however, contains records of its employment both in British and continental hospital-practice, mostly in affections (of a chronic character) of the mucous membrane of the lungs or bowels (catarrh, pneumonia, dyspepsia, diarrhoea, &c,). Even in recent times it has been commended by medical writers as a useful nutrient, demulcent, and tonic. That it really does possess such properties is shown by its chemical constitution ; but that it is excelled by numerous other articles of diet or Materia Medica, whether as a nutrient, demulcent, or tonic, or as any combination of two or more of these, there can bo little doubt. Cetraria Islandica has been shown by chemists to contain only 1 per cent. of nitrogenous material (gluten) ; but i t contains no less than 47 per cent. of lichenine (a form of starch) and cetrarine (a bitter principle), with 3 per cent. of sugar and 10 per cent. of gum and extractive. Viewed in another way, it contains of

Flesh-forming (nitrogenous) material . . . . . . 1 per cent. Heat-giving (carboniferous) material . . . . . . 50 ,,

I ts usefulness as an mticle of diet, or of the Materia Medica,

* Dunn and Hewett’s, 1866. t Christien’s, 1861. $ Page 90, original work (Travels in the Island of Iceland during the Sum-

8 The recently published official ‘British Pharmacopceia j’ and in the Com- mer of the year 1810 : Edinburgh, 1811).

panion’ thereto by Squire, (1864) p. 66,

IIIU€~EN-FLOBA OF NORTHFEBW EUROPB. 413

must thus depend mainly on its lichenine or starch. I t s demulcent material is considerable; but its bitter (tonic) and its purely nutrient (nitrogenous) material are insignificant. The liehenine is easily extracted by boiling in water or milk, forming on cooling

firm jelly, similar to that yielded by “ carrageen,” or “Irish moss” (Chondrus criqrms, Lyngb., N. 0. Aygm).

A similar jelly-forming starch, conjoined unfortunately with Q

similar purgative and nauseous bitter, is contained in the Umbili- eariu?, the ‘‘ Tripe de roche ” of Arctic voyagers. Various of the commoner species of the genus Umbilicaria are employed like Cetrariu Islandica to yield an edible jelly, and me also ground into a black meal or flour as an ingredient of bread in times of famine, in Arctic parts both of Europe and America. The Canadian hunters have long used the “ Tripe de roche,” in some form, as an article of food. To the readers of narratives of arctic adventure”, its name is only too familiar as having over and over again formed the sole food of the intrepid traveller.

In British Columbia, “when all other food fails, the natives make shift with a species of lichen which is found in abundance ou the sides of the rock”t. This is probably some species of Umbilicaria. But in the same country another lichen, a corticolous one, the common wide-spread Alectoria jzcbata, seems an even more familiar article of food. Commander Mayne describes it as “ one of the most important articles of food ” of the native In- dians. It grows abundantly about Kamloops on pine trees. In preparing it for use, the Indiaus carefully clear away all the fragments of bark, or twig, with which it is collected or intermixed ; they then steep it in water till it is quite soft (or flaccid), then wrap it up in grass and leaves to prevent its being burnt, and cook it between hot stones, as savages in all parts of the world aTe, or have been, in the habit of cooking food. They also boil it and press it into cakes 3 4 inches thick, which look like giuger- bread$. The taste of these cakes is represented, doubtless most truthfully, as ‘(very earthy and rather bitter.”. . .“ Our companion

* E d e the Barratives by Sir John Franklin and Sir John Richardson, and Lieutenants Back and Wood, of their Expedition down the Coppermine River in Arctic America in 1819-20.

t Cariboo Goldfields, by W. C. Hazlitt, (London, 1862) p. 49. $ Compare this description with that of the L‘Lichen-brcad” of Scandinavia,

in which CladoBia rmgijlerina, Cetraria Islandica, fipecics of Uinbilicaria, and perhaps of Alectoria, Euernia, &. are ingredients, but only ingredients (wide p. 411).

414 DR. LAUDER LINDSAY OR TLlE

St. Paul,” says Commander Mayne, “gave us this (food), which they (the Indians) call ‘ Wheela’ (or ‘ Whyelkine ’), with milk . . . . . But two or three mouthfuls were all we cared to takc ”*. Other lichens are used as food by the same Indians, sometimes in addition to, but more generally in the absence of, the salmoll, venison, bear, and wild sheep,-the berries and the mosses, which form their usual and staple food.

It would appear that in North European countries, wherever the inhabitants still weave home-grown wool into cloth-stuffs, the use of lichens as dye-agents of the wool or yarn also still exists. I n Faro, for instance, Lecafiora tartarea is still largely used for dyeing the home-made woollen cloth called “ wadmal ”t, whereof the Faroese fashion their jackets, trousers, and petticoats. During my own visit to Fiirii in 1660, I found abundant evidence of the collection of this and apparently also the allied species, L.parella, with their sterile and isidioid or variolarioid conditions, for economical purposes, inasmuch as all the boulders and rocks about Thorshavn bore the marks of a periodical careful scraping of the lichens in question. My friend Mr. Symington 1 mentions that the inhabitants of Fair Isle, thirty miles south-west of tho Shet- land group, use lichens (he does not say what species) for dyeiiig the wool of which they make their vestments. Similar use is probably still made of various lichens, especially Lecanora tartarea and Parnaelia sraxatilis, in the more remote parts of the Scottish highlands and islands, mid even of Wales§. Prof. Blytt informed me that L. tartarea and L. veiztosa are still collected in the Ber- genstift of Norway for export to France (fm the orchil-mann- hcture). There is probably some error as to the latter lichen, which has never, so far as I am aware, been employed as a dye- agent, and which neither contains nor yields orchil.

I n continuation of a series of experiments conducted between 1850 and 1852 11, I have examined certain of the Icelandic, Faroese, m d Norwegian licheiis which in these OP other countries yield

* ‘ Four Years in British Columbia, and Vnncouver Idand,’ by Commnnder R. C. Mayne, R.N., F.R.G.S., (London, 1862) p. 122.

T On the authoritJ: of Sysselman Miiller in 1854. Vide Cruise of the yacht Maria among the Fir6 Islands in the Summer of 1854,’ (London, 1855) p. 46.

$ Skctohes of FBro and Iceland, 1862, p. 8. 5 On the authority of Mr. Pamplin, of London, the well-known botanical

1) “Experiments on the Dyeing Properties of Lichens,” Edinburgh New bookseller.

Philosophical Journal, October 1854 and July 1855.

LICZIEii-FLOllA OF NORTHERN EU11OPE. 415

red dyes, and in contrast with them the same species from New Zealand, India, and other parts of the world, in order to determine approximately and roughly how far climatic and other differences d e c t their coloiific property. The northern lichens experimenlrd on mere mostly :-

1. Leeanova tartaren, Ach. 2. L. parella, Ach. 3. Parmelia saxatilis, Ach. 4.. Umbilicaria erosa, Hffm. 5. Ramalinn scopulorum, Ach.

The general result was, that the same colour, with certaiii differences in quality or intensity, was yielded in all cases by the same species, from whatever country derived, the circumstances of ex- periment being virtually the same in all. Such results, however, of experiments conducted on the small wale cannot be in all Renses relied on. They appear, for inst-nee, opposed t o the fact that orchil-manufacturers are guided by their experience to prefer ‘( orchella weed ” (species of Roccello) from cquatorial or subequa- torial maritime regions j under which circumstances of growth the same species is found to be richer in eolouriug-matter than wheii it is collected froin higher latitudes and more inlaud localities. As the result of all my inquiries and espcrimcnts on the subject since 1850, I have little doubt that latitude, climate, teniperaturc, moisture, exposure, elevation, geological character of the soil, nature of the trees on which they grow, and in general all those conditions which affect the botanical character of the plant (and the genus Rocella is one of the niost variable in the whole lichen- family) also affect their chemical character, and so render the Roccellce more or less serviceable for the purposes of the colour- manufacturer or dyer.

It is here worthy of remark that the natives of tropical or sub- tropical countries which abound in valuable dye-lichens, who export them largely for the European market, are yet themselves ignorant of their uses andvalue. For instance, my friend Dr. Kirk informs me that large quantities of certain corticolous maritime Roccellce (probably R. Xontagnei, DBl., or various fornis of R. fuci- formis, Ach., t o which I am disposed to refer R. Nontaynei as a mew variety) are exported regularly from Zanzibar, Eastern Africa, partly ui6 Bombay, but in great measure directly to Portugal and France. These are by far the mod valuable dye-lichens Imot\in, and they have gradually supplanted, in the British market at least, all other species and genera. Yet, says Dr. Kirk, they arc uii-

416 NR. F. KITTEN-LIST OF DIATOMACEB.

known to the natives in the Zambesi and Zanzibar districts as being capable of yielding dyes, or of being otherwise utilized in the domestic arts. Nor could I find any trace in New Zealand or Australia of the application by the natives of lichens in dyeing or otherwise. On the other hand, their use seems to be abup- dantly recognized in India-my friend Mr. Cooke, of the India Museum, having some years ago submitted to me for examination a series of specimens, embracing several genera as well as species, of lichens which are currently used by the natives as dye-givers?.

List of Diatomaces collected by Dr. David Lyall, R.N., of the N.W. Coast of British North America Boundary Commission, 1858-59. By F. KITTEN, Esq. Communicated by Dr. HOO~EE, F.R.S.

[Read Nov. 1, lS66.l

THE Algae and Zoophytes collected by Dr. D. Lyall during the survey of the north-west coast of British North America (extending from Fort Colville to the Rocky Mountains) are iu many instances thickly invested with filamentous and stipitate Diatomaceae. The most abundant is Isthnaia nervosa : in many specimens its growth has extended nearly half an inch from the surface of the Alga or Zoophyte to which it was attached. The next in abundance is Triceratiwm arcticzm,in filaments: this species was first found concatenate on zoophytes from Vancouver’s Is- land ; and an able paper upon it, by 3’. C. 8. Roper, Esq., F.L.S., mill be found in the Transactions of the Microscopical Society of London, vol. viii. p. 55. Specimens of Algs from Fuca Strait were also thickly covered with Rhabdonema minutum, Podosphenia gracilis and P. Ehrenbergii.

The * denotes that the specimens occur very rarely.

Biddulphia Roperiana. Cocconeis scutellunz, small form. Tragilaria striatula.

* Grammatophora marina. * Gomphonema, sp. ? 0 Hyalodiscus (Podosira ?) suhtilk.

* Arachnoidiacus Ehrenbergii.

t Vide paper “On the Dye-stuffs of India andchina,” in the ‘Tecknologist,’ 1861, vol. i. pp. 136-138 ; and ‘‘ Waste Products and Undeveloped Substances,’ by P. L. Simmonda, (London, 1962) p. 264.

contribution to lichen-flora of northern europe. (continued)

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