199

1784Rhode Island passesplan to end slavery

May 1787Delegates meet to reviseArticles of Confederation

September 1787Delegates sign draftof Constitution

September 1786Daniel Shays leadsrebellion

Main IdeaThe new Constitution corrected theweaknesses of government under theArticles of Confederation.

Key Termsdepression, manumission, propor-tional, compromise

Reading StrategyOrganizing Information As you readthe section, re-create the diagrambelow. In the boxes, describe the roleeach individual played in creating thenew plan of government.

Read to Learn how the Constitutional Convention

broke the deadlock over the formthe new government would take.

how the delegates answered thequestion of representation.

Section ThemeGroups and Institutions Nationalleaders worked to produce a newconstitution for the United States.

Convention and Compromise

CHAPTER 7 A More Perfect Union

By 1786 many Americans observed that the Confederation was not working. GeorgeWashington himself agreed that the United States was really thirteen Sovereigntiespulling against each other.

In the spring of 1787, Washington joined delegates from Virginia and 11 other stateswho gathered in Philadelphia to address this problem. Rhode Island decided not to par-ticipate. The delegates came for the sole and express purpose of revising the Articlesof Confederation.

Economic DepressionThe call to revise the Articles of Confederation came while the young nation

faced difficult problems. Many Americans believed that the Confederation gov-ernment was too weak to deal with these challenges.

After the Revolutionary War ended, the United States went through adepression, a period when economic activity slowed and unemployment

George Washington

Role

Edmund Randolph

James Madison

Roger Sherman

Preview of Events

Guide to Reading

1783 1785 1787 1789

increased. Southern plantations had been dam-aged during the war, and rice exports droppedsharply. Trade also fell off when the Britishclosed the profitable West Indies (Caribbean)market to American merchants. What littlemoney there was went to pay foreign debts, anda serious currency shortage resulted.

Difficult Times for FarmersAmerican farmers suffered because they

could not sell their goods. They had problemspaying the requests for money that the stateslevied to meet Revolutionary War debts. As aresult state officials seized farmers lands to paytheir debts and threw many farmers into jail.Grumblings of protest soon grew into revolt.

Shayss RebellionResentment grew especially strong in Massa-

chusetts. Farmers viewed the new governmentas just another form of tyranny. They wanted thegovernment to issue paper money and makenew policies to relieve debtors. In a letter to stateofficials, some farmers proclaimed:

Surely your honours are not strangers to thedistresses [problems] of the people but . . .know that many of our good inhabitants arenow confined in [jail] for debt and taxes.

In 1786 angry farmers lashed out. Led by DanielShays, a former Continental Army captain, theyforced courts in western Massachusetts to closeso judges could not confiscate farmers lands.

In January 1787 Shays led more than 1,000farmers toward the federal arsenal in Spring-field, Massachusetts, for arms and ammuni-tion. The state militia ordered the advancingfarmers to halt, then fired over their heads. Thefarmers did not stop, and the militia firedagain, killing four rebels. Shays and his follow-ers scattered, and the uprising was over.

Shayss Rebellion frightened many Ameri-cans. They worried that the government couldnot control unrest and prevent violence. Onhearing of the rebellion, George Washingtonwondered whether mankind, when left tothemselves, are unfit for their own govern-ment. Thomas Jefferson, minister to France atthe time, had a different view. A little rebellion,now and then, he wrote, is a good thing.

The Issue of SlaveryThe Revolutionary War brought attention to

the contradiction between the American battlefor liberty and the practice of slavery. Between1776 and 1786, 11 statesall except South Car-olina and Georgiaoutlawed or heavily taxedthe importation of enslaved people.

Although slavery was not a major source oflabor in the North, it existed and was legal in allthe Northern states. Many individuals andgroups began to work to end the institution ofslavery. In 1774 Quakers in Pennsylvania organ-ized the first American antislavery society. Six

200 CHAPTER 7 A More Perfect Union

Only through donations was Massachusettsable to raise a militia to defeat Shays. Whydid Shayss Rebellion frighten manyAmericans?

History

years later Pennsylvania passed a law that pro-vided for the gradual freeing of enslaved people.

Between 1783 and 1804, Connecticut, RhodeIsland, New York, and New Jersey passed lawsthat gradually ended slavery. Still, free AfricanAmericans faced discrimination. They werebarred from many public places. Few states gavefree African Americans the right to vote. The chil-dren of most free blacks had to attend separateschools. Free African Americans established theirown institutionschurches, schools, andmutual-aid societiesto seek opportunity.

The states south of Pennsylvania clung to theinstitution of slavery. The plantation system ofthe South had been built on slavery, and manySoutherners feared that their economy couldnot survive without it. Nonetheless, an increas-ing number of slaveholders began freeing the enslaved people that they held after the war. Virginia passed a law that encouragedmanumission, the freeing of individualenslaved persons, and the states population offree African Americans grew.

The abolition of slavery in the North dividedthe new country on the critical issue of whetherpeople should be allowed to hold other humanbeings in bondage. This division came at the timewhen many American leaders had decided thatthe Articles of Confederation needed strengthen-ing. In the summer of 1787, when state represen-tatives assembled to plan a new government,they compromised on this issue. It would takeyears of debate, bloodshed, and ultimately a warto settle the slavery question.

Explaining Why didSouthern states support slavery?

A Call for ChangeThe American Revolution had

led to a union of 13 states, but it hadnot yet created a nation. Some lead-ers were satisfied with a system ofindependent state governmentsthat resembled the old colonialgovernments. Others saw a

strong national government as the solution toAmericas problems. They demanded a reformof the Articles of Confederation.

Two Americans active in the movement forchange were James Madison, a Virginia planter,and Alexander Hamilton, a New York lawyer. InSeptember 1786, Hamilton proposed calling aconvention in Philadelphia to discuss trade issues.He also suggested that this convention considerwhat possible changes were needed to make

the Constitution of the Federal Governmentadequate to the exigencies [needs] of theUnion.

At first George Washington was not enthusi-astic about the movement to revise the Articlesof Confederation. When he heard the news ofShayss Rebellion, Washington changed hismind. After Washington agreed to attend thePhiladelphia convention, the meeting took ongreater significance.

Evaluating Why did Madison andHamilton call for a convention in 1787?

201

Philadelphia preachers RichardAllen (left) and Absalom Jones(right) founded the Free AfricanSociety and later set up the first African American churches.What challenges did freeAfrican Americans face?

History

The Constitutional ConventionThe Philadelphia meeting began in May 1787

and continued through one of the hottest sum-mers on record. The 55 delegates includedplanters, merchants, lawyers, physicians, gener-als, governors, and a college president. Three ofthe delegates were under 30 years of age, andone, Benjamin Franklin, was over 80. Many werewell educated. At a time when only one whiteman in 1,000 went to college, 26 of the delegateshad college degrees. Native Americans, AfricanAmericans, and women were not consideredpart of the political process, so none attended.

Several men stood out as leaders. The pres-ence of George Washington and BenjaminFranklin ensured that many people would trustthe Conventions work. Two Philadelphians alsoplayed key roles. James Wilson often readFranklins speeches and did important work onthe details of the Constitution. GouverneurMorris, a powerful speaker and writer, wrotethe final draft of the Constitution.

From Virginia came Edmund Randolph andJames Madison. Both were keen supporters of astrong national government. Madisons carefulnotes are the major source of information aboutthe Conventions work. Madison is often called

the Father of the Constitution because he wasthe author of the basic plan of government thatthe Convention adopted.

OrganizationThe Convention began by unanimously

choosing George Washington to preside over themeetings. It also decided that each state wouldhave one vote on all questions. A simple major-ity vote of those states present would make deci-sions. No meetings could be held unlessdelegates from at least seven of the 13 stateswere present. The delegates decided to closetheir doors to the public and keep the sessionssecret. This was a key decision because it madeit possible for the delegates to talk freely.

The Virginia PlanAfter the rules were adopted, the Convention

opened with a surprise. It came from the Vir-ginia delegation. Edmund Randolph proposed

Americas Architecture

Independence Hall The Pennsylvania State House,later known as Independence Hall, was the site of thesigning of the Declaration of Independence and of theConstitutional Convention. Independence Hall wasrestored in 1950 and is now maintained as a museum.Why do you think this site was used for many important events?

203CHAPTER 7 A More Perfect Union

that the delegates create a strong national government instead of revising the Articles of Confederation. He introduced the VirginiaPlan, which was largely the work of JamesMadison. The plan called for a two-house legislature, a chief executive chosen by the leg-islature, and a court system. The members ofthe lower house of the legislature would beelected by the people. The members of theupper house would be chosen by the lowerhouse. In both houses the number of represen-tatives would be proportional, or correspon-ding in size, to the population of each state.This would give Virginia many more delegates than Delaware, the state with thesmallest population.

Delegates from Delaware, New Jersey, andother small states immediately objected to theplan. They preferred the Confederation systemin which all states were represented equally.

Delegates unhappy with the Virginia Plan ral-lied around William Paterson of New Jersey. OnJune 15 he presented an alternative plan thatrevised the Articles of Confederation, which wasall the convention was empowered to do.

The New Jersey PlanThe New Jersey Plan kept the Confederations

one-house legislature, with one vote for eachstate. Congress, however, could set taxes andregulate tradepowers it did not have under theArticles. Congress would elect a weak executivebranch consisting of more than one person.

Paterson argued that the Convention shouldnot deprive the smaller states of the equalitythey had under the Articles. Thus, his plan wasdesigned simply to amend the Articles.

Explaining Why did some dele-gates criticize the Virginia Plan?

Compromise Wins OutThe convention delegates had to decide

whether they were simply revising the Articlesof Confederation or writing a constitution for anew national government. On June 19 the statesvoted to work toward a national governmentbased on the Virginia Plan, but they still had toresolve the thorny issue of representation thatdivided the large and small states.

James Madison, only36 at the time of the Con-stitutional Convention,was the best prepared ofthe delegates. In themonths before the con-vention, he had made adetailed study of govern-ment. He read hundredsof books on history, poli-tics, and economics. Healso corresponded withThomas Jefferson.

Madison looked forways to build a strong butfair system of government.He knew that republicswere considered weakerthan monarchies becausekings or queens could use their authority to actquickly and decisively.Who would provide thesame leadership in arepublic? At the sametime, Madison was con-

cerned about protectingthe people from misuse ofpower. As he searched forsolutions, Madisonworked out a new planthat included a system ofbalances among differentfunctions of government.The delegates adoptedmany of Madisons ideasin what would becomethe United StatesConstitution.

Discussion and DisagreementAs the convention delegates struggled to deal

with difficult questions, tempers and tempera-tures grew hotter. How were the members ofCongress to be elected? How would state repre-sentation be determined in the upper and lowerhouses? Were enslaved people to be counted aspart of the population on which representationwas based?

CitizenshipThe Great Compromise

Under Franklins leadership, the conventionappointed a grand committee to try to resolvetheir disagreements. Roger Sherman of Con-necticut suggested what came to be known asthe Great Compromise. A compromise is anagreement between two or more sides in whicheach side gives up some of what it wants.

Sherman proposed a two-house legislature. Inthe lower housethe House of Representa-tivesthe number of seats for each state wouldvary according to the states population. In theupper housethe Senateeach state wouldhave two members.

The Three-Fifths CompromiseAnother major compromise by the delegates

dealt with counting enslaved people. Southernstates wanted to include the enslaved in theirpopulation counts to gain delegates in theHouse of Representatives. Northern statesobjected to this idea because enslaved peoplewere legally considered property. Some dele-gates from Northern states argued that theenslaved, as property, should be counted forthe purpose of taxation but not representation.However, neither side considered givingenslaved people the right to vote.

The committees solution, known as theThree-Fifths Compromise, was to count eachenslaved person as three-fifths of a free personfor both taxation and representation. In otherwords, every five enslaved persons would equalthree free persons. On July 12 the conventiondelegates voted to approve the Three-FifthsCompromise. Four days later, they agreed thateach state should elect two senators.

204 CHAPTER 7 A More Perfect UnionCHAPTER 7 A More Perfect Union

Delegates to the Constitutional Conventionmet in this room at Independence Hall. Howmany states had to ratify the Constitu-tion before it went into effect?

History

Slave TradeThe convention needed to resolve another dif-

ficult issue that divided the Northern and South-ern states. Having banned the slave trade withintheir borders, Northern states wanted to prohibitit throughout the nation. Southern states consid-ered slavery and the slave trade essential to theireconomies. To keep the Southern states in thenation, Northerners agreed that the Congresscould not interfere with the slave trade until1808. Beginning that year Congress could limitthe slave trade if it chose to.

Bill of RightsGeorge Mason of Virginia proposed a bill of

rights to be included in the Constitution. Somedelegates worried that without the protection of abill of rights the new national government mightabuse its power. However, most of the delegatesbelieved that the Constitution, with its carefullydefined listing of government powers, providedadequate protection of individual rights. Masonsproposal was defeated.

Approving the ConstitutionThe committees finished their work on the

Constitution in late summer. On September 17,1787, the delegates assembled in the Philadelphia

Checking for Understanding1. Key Terms Use the terms that follow

to write a newspaper article about themain events of the ConstitutionalConvention: depression, manumis-sion, proportional, compromise.

2. Reviewing Facts Explain whatcaused Shayss Rebellion. What wasone effect?

Reviewing Themes3. Groups and Institutions How did

the Great Compromise satisfy boththe small and the large states on thequestion of representation?

Critical Thinking4. Summarizing Information You are

asked to write a 30-second newsbroadcast to announce the agree-ment made in the Great Compro-mise. What would you include in the broadcast?

5. Analyzing Information Re-createthe diagram below and identify argu-ments for and against ratifying theConstitution.

Analyzing Visuals6. Picturing History Examine the

images that appear on pages 202and 204. What do they show? Whereare they located? Why are theseplaces important in the nations history?

CHAPTER 7 A More Perfect Union 205

Government Create a politicalcartoon that illustrates the view ofeither the Northern states or theSouthern states on how enslavedpeople should be counted for representation.

State House to sign thedocument. Franklinmade a final plea forapproval:

I consent to thisConstitution because I expect no better,and because I am notsure, that it is not the best.

Three delegates refused to signElbridge Gerryof Massachusetts, and Edmund Randolph andGeorge Mason of Virginia. Gerry and Masonwould not sign without a bill of rights.

The Confederation Congress then sent theapproved draft of the Constitution to the statesfor consideration. To amend the Articles of Con-federation had required unanimous approval ofthe states. Getting a unanimous vote had provedslow and frustrating. Therefore, the delegatesagreed to change the approval process for theConstitution. When 9 of the 13 states hadapproved, the new government of the UnitedStates would come into existence. ; (See pages232253 for the entire text of the Constitution.)

Analyzing Who refused to sign theConstitution? Explain why.

HISTORY

Student Web ActivityVisit taj.glencoe.com andclick on Chapter 7Student Web Activitiesfor an activity on the Con-stitutional Convention.

Ratification

Arguments for Arguments against

http://taj.glencoe.com

206 CHAPTER 7 A More Perfect Union

Making ComparisonsWhy Learn This Skill?

Suppose you want to buy a portable compact disc(CD) player, and you must choose among threemodels. You would probably compare characteristicsof the three models, such as price, sound quality,and size, to figure out which model is best for you.When you study American history, you often comparepeople or events from one time period with thosefrom a different time period.

Learning the SkillWhen making comparisons, you examine two or

more groups, situations, events, or documents. Thenyou identify similarities and differences. For exam-ple, the chart on this page compares two documents,specifically the powers each gave the federal govern-ment. The Articles of Confederation were imple-mented before the United States Constitution, whichreplaced the Articles.

When making comparisons, you first decide whatitems will be compared and determine which char-acteristics you will use to compare them. Then you identify similarities and differences in thesecharacteristics.

Practicing the SkillAnalyze the information on the chart on this page.Then answer the following questions.

1 What items are being compared?

2 Which document allowed the government toorganize state militias?

3 Which document allowed the government tocoin money? Regulate trade?

4 In what ways are the two documents different?

5 In what ways are the two documents similar?

Applying the SkillMaking Comparisons On the editorial page ofyour local newspaper, find two letters to the editorthat express different viewpoints on the sameissue. Read the letters and identify the similaritiesand differences between the two points of view.

Glencoes Skillbuilder InteractiveWorkbook CD-ROM, Level 1, providesinstruction and practice in key social studies skills.

Critical ThinkingCritical Thinking

Articles of United States Confederation Constitution

Declare war; make peace

Organize a court system

Call state militias for service

Take other necessary actions to run thefederal government

Manage foreign affairs

Establish a postal system

Coin money

Impose taxes

Regulate trade

Protect copyrights

Powers of the Federal Government

a: Please see the print version of this page to view missing text or images. Permission for digital use was denied.