HANOI NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

FACULTY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION

NGUYỄN THÚY HẠNH

TITLE: CONVENTIONALITY VS.

UNCONVENTIONALITY REFLECTED THROUGH

THE IMAGES OF MAY WELLAND AND ELLEN

OLENSKA IN THE AGE OF INNOCENCE BY EDITH

WHARTON

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ARTS (TEFL)

SUPERVISOR: ĐỖ THU HƯƠNG, MA

MAY 2010

ACCEPTANCE PAGE

I hereby state that I: Nguyễn Thúy Hạnh, 06.1E16, being a candidate for the

degree of Bachelor of Arts (TEFL) accept the requirements of the College

relating to the retention and use of Bachelor’s Graduation Paper deposited

in the library.

In terms of these conditions, I agree that the origin of my paper deposited in

the library should be accessible for the purposes of study and research, in

accordance with the normal conditions established by the librarian for the

care, loan or reproduction of the paper.

Signature

TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE

Acknowledgements i

Abstract ii

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1. Rationale 1

1.2. Method 2

1.3. Scope of the study 2

Chapter 2: Literature review

2.1. Conventionality versus unconventionality

2.1.1. Conventionality and its existence in the 1870s 3

2.1.2. Unconventionality and its existence in the 1870s 5

2.2. The novel The Age of Innocence

2.2.1. Critical reception of The Age of Innocence 7

2.2.2. Edith Wharton’s life and its influence on The Age of Innocence 10

2.2.3. Plot 13

Chapter 3: Conventionality as shown in the image of May Welland

3.1. Refusal to hold unpleasant talks 15

3.2. Indifference to lower classes and disgraceful people 22

3.3. Anti-feminism 26

Chapter 4: Unconventionality as shown in the image of Ellen Olenska

4.1. Straightforwardness 31

4.2. Equal treatment to everybody 34

4.3. Feminism 39

Chapter 5: Comparison between May Welland and Ellen Olenska

5.1. Family background 43

5.2. Attitude towards changes 46

5.3. Opinions on conventionality and unconventionality 48

Chapter 6: Conclusion 51

References 53

i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere thanks to Mrs. Đỗ

Thu Hương for her valuable feedback, guidance and encouragement, without

which it would have been impossible for me to finish this graduation paper.

I also appreciate my friends for their comments and support. Their help

makes it easier for me to complete my thesis.

Last but not least, I wish to thank my parents, who always encourage and

believe in me during the process of writing this graduation paper.

ii

ABSTRACT

This thesis is an analysis of conventionality and unconventionality reflected

through May Welland and Ellen Olenska in The Age of Innocence by Edith

Wharton. It consists of six chapters.

Chapter 1 is the introduction, which includes rationale, method and scope of

the study.

Chapter 2 is the literature review, which consists of the definitions of

conventionality and unconventionality, their existence in the 1870s as well

as the facts relating to the content and creation of The Age of Innocence.

Chapter 3 is an analysis of conventionality as shown in the image of May

Welland.

Chapter 4 is an analysis of unconventionality as shown in the image of Ellen

Olenska.

Chapter 5 is a comparison between May Welland and Ellen Olenska.

Chapter 6 is the conclusion, which sums up the main ideas of the entire

thesis.

1

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1. Rationale

The significance of literature to human life is undeniable. Literary works have the

ability to soften people’s pain. They can draw in readers’ attention, let them drown

in an imaginary world, put their problems aside for sometimes, then emerge from

them and become stronger than ever. Literature is also a great educator. Children

can be aware of what is good and bad by reading books. People are motivated to

work hard and live well as it is the way to a “happy ending” for their own lives.

Besides, they learn the way to treat each other without inflicting pain or

humiliation.

The Age of Innocence is a novel which possesses all the features above. Setting

against the backdrop of the New York upper-class society in the 1870s, this is a

story of the eternal triangle between Newland Archer, Ellen Olenska and May

Welland. Since its publication, readers all over the world have been delighted with

the brilliant and exact description of the style and manner of the 19th century

society. The novel not only realistically depicts the life of the upper-class but also

successfully illustrates the profound emotions of the main characters. In 1921, it

won the Pulitzer Prize, marking the first time that an authoress gained this honor.

The Age of Innocence is really an addictive novel. Once readers put it up, they can

hardly put it down again. They are charmed by the beautiful words, stunning

descriptions together with a very high level of accuracy. The Age of Innocence is

truly a novel that can lure people, make them forget their own problems for a short

moment, and at the same time inform them of the lost etiquette as well as the

2

oppressed lives of the previous generation. A melancholy feeling pervades the

whole book, which makes the readers realize how fortunate they are to live in a

free world.

This work has been reviewed by many critics; however, as far as I know, there is

no intensive research on the conventionality and unconventionality reflected

through May Welland and Ellen Olenska. That is the reason why I decided to do a

study on this aspect.

1.2. Method

The working method for this graduation paper consists of four steps. The first step

is searching for materials. The needed materials are books on American etiquette

during the 1870s and reviews for The Age of Innocence. The second step is

analyzing the two characters, May Welland and Ellen Olenska in order to find out

the conventionality and unconventionality shown through them. The third step is

forming judgement based on the analysis. The final step is reaching conclusion.

1.3. Scope of the study

The research is limited to the novel The Age of Innocence written by Edith

Wharton. The study will focus on analyzing the conventionality and the

unconventionality reflected in the images of the two heroines: May Welland and

Ellen Olenska.

3

Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.1. Conventionality versus unconventionality

2.1.1. Conventionality and its existence in the 1870s

“Conventionality” is the noun form of “conventional”. According to the Oxford

Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, “conventional” is “tending to follow what is done

or considered acceptable by society in general; normal and ordinary, and perhaps

not very interesting.” In other words, “conventionality” is the disposition to

conform to social convention. Generally, “convention” consists of traditional

customs and the ways that things have been done for a long time.

Conventionality varies in accordance with different countries and societies. For

instance, in Korea and Japan, people often bow to each other when they are first

introduced; however, it is unacceptable among the Jewish. As time goes by,

conventionality can change even in one nation or community. For example, from

the 10th century to the early 20th century, the foot binding custom is widely

practiced in China, but nowadays it is eradicated and considered as cruel and dated.

Conventionality can be considered as good or bad depending on the types of

conventions that are followed. In the cases of old-fashioned and barbaric customs

like foot binding in China, compensation marriage in Pakistan and Afghanistan,

child marriage in many countries such as Vietnam, India, etc., the followers can be

considered as unwise, inhumane and ruthless. However, good customs like

ancestor worship in Asian countries, family gathering during the Lunar New Year

4

in Vietnam, etc. need to be preserved and adhered and the followers are

commendable.

The Age of Innocence revolves around the upper class in New York City in the

1870s whose life was bounded by a system of rules and etiquette that ones were

forced to follow. The roles of men and women were clearly differentiated. Men

went to work and indulge themselves in various kinds of entertainment while

women were in charge of the social work including visiting, writing and answering

invitations, leaving cards, calling, and performing all the multifarious duties of the

social world. Thorstein Veblen (2003, pp.3, 39) pointed out that upper class people

were exempted from industrial and manual occupations. Men chiefly involved in

the jobs which are considered as “honorable” like warfare, priestly service and the

law. Meanwhile, women were not expected to do housework as it is the duty of the

low class people. It was also a proof that their husbands earn enough money to

support the family. The tasks like cooking and cleaning were all done by servants.

The mistresses only took part in time-killer and unproductive work like embroidery

and knitting.

In the 1870s New York society, politeness and delicacy were valued above

anything else, which explains the complicatedness of forming a relationship.

People could not be acquainted with each other if they were not formally

introduced by a third party. Agnes H. Morton (1919, pp.57-58) stated that a

gentleman could only be introduced to a lady after her permission was attained,

and the lady had the right to refuse doing so. Introducing a man to a lady was

acceptable, but the reverse was unacceptable. Two women could not be introduced

to each other if the third party failed to get the consent of both of them. Sarah

Annie Frost (1869, p.6) told a story about a gentleman who saw another man

5

drowning. At first, he took off his coat and intends to plunge into the water, but

suddenly he remembered that he was not introduced to the victim. So, he took on

his coat and serenely resumed his way. This is only a joke, but it shows the

importance of the introduction etiquette.

Among the New York upper-class society, stylishness was valued as much as

gentleness. George Routledge (2004, pp. 14-15) considered dressing as fine arts

itself since it required “taste, good sense and refinement” to dress fashionably and

gracefully. In this era, comfort and convenience were not the priorities. The

foremost goals were to be stylish and able to show off one’s wealth.

The entertainment of the upper class was diverse, ranging from family

entertainment to public entertainment. In the family, singing, playing instruments

and cards, holding parties and balls were extremely popular. Going to the theatre

and riding were considered as fashionable and graceful.

In short, the New York upper class society in the 1870s led an idle and luxurious

life, bounded by a complicated set of rules and etiquette.

2.1.2. Unconventionality and its existence in the 1870s

“Unconventionality” is the noun form for “unconventional”. According to the

Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, unconventional is “not following what is

done or considered normal or acceptable by most people; different and

interesting.” Like conventionality, unconventionality also has its good and bad

side.

6

In many cases, unconventionality can be considered as the ability to “think outside

the box”. It is the nonconformity to the wrong ideas as well as outdated and

unreasonable customs. For instance, Galileo Galilei – the Italian physicist,

mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher – dared to oppose the widely-accepted

Earth-centered theory and supported the Sun-centered theory despite the rage of

the Church. Another example is the case of the 16th President of the United States –

Abraham Lincoln. In spite of the long and deeply-rooted existence of slavery, he

still decided to abolish it and finally succeeded. Thus, unconventionality is also a

form of creativity, humanity and courage.

Nevertheless, unconventionality still harbors some disadvantages. If someone

refuses to obey the good and reasonable customs like behaving politely to the

elder, dressing neatly and appropriately when going to work and to school, filial

piety to parents and ancestors, etc., that person will be seen as an inhumane rebel

and hated as well as isolated by other people.

In 1870s, feminists were considered as unconventional since they dared to defy

their fated duties which included giving birth to children and taking care of their

families. Eleanor Flexner and Ellen Fitzpatrick (1996, pp.108-115) stated that this

period witnessed the intellectual progress of women. Women at that time were

generally prevented from taking part in fields like medicine, law and theology.

However, some women bravely went against the traditional views and achieved

high level of education. Elizabeth Blackwell, the first woman to receive a medical

degree in the United States, established the Women's Medical College and co-

founded the London School of Medicine for Women. Maria Mitchell was the first

woman to be admitted to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences as well as

the American Association for the Advancement of Science. She was also the

7

founder of the Association for the Advancement of Science. Feminists like

Voltairine de Cleyre and Margaret Sanger launched campaigns to ask for women’s

sexual, reproductive and economic rights. Towards the end of 19th century, the

activity concentrated more on gaining political power for women. The first-wave

feminism ended when the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States

Constitution (1919) granted women the right to vote. (Source: Oxford Guide to

British and American Culture, 2005).

2.2. The novel The Age of Innocence

2.2.1. Critical reception of The Age of Innocence

The Age of Innocence receives generally positive reviews. In May 1921, the novel

brought her a Pulitzer Prize, marking the first time a female author won this

prestigious award. It is also a worldwide bestseller. The work is highly praised for

its exact description of the lifestyle and traditional customs of the New York upper

class in the 1870s.

The brilliant narrative of the suppressed feelings of the main characters, especially

in the scenes of the two lovers Newland Archer and Ellen Olenska, has also

charmed both the critics and the readers. William Lyon Phelps (1999, p.VII)

heartily declares:

I do not remember when I have read a work of fiction that gives the

reader so vivid an idea of the furnishing and illuminating of rooms in

fashionable houses. (…) The absolute imprisonment in which her

characters stagnate, their artificial and false standards, the desperate

8

monotony of trivial routine, the slow petrifaction of generous ardours,

the paralysis of emotion, the accumulation of ice around the heart, the

total loss of life in an upholstered existence – are depicted with a high

excellence that never falters… The love scenes between [Archer] and

Ellen are wonderful in their terrible inarticulate passion… So little is

said, so little is done, yet one feels the infinite passion in the finite hearts

that burn.

Carl Van Doren (1920, pp.510-511) also praises Edith’s truthful illustration of the

rigid old customs which has become a part of her childhood life: “Mrs Wharton’s

triumph is that she has described these rites and surfaces and burdens as

familiarly as if she loved them and as lucidly as if she hated them.”

However, there are some critics who disapprove of this novel. In their opinion, the

novel is truly the “art-for-art’s-sake” type – it benefits no one and it does not

matter whether one reads it or not. The 1870s is an era full of historical events, but

none of them is mentioned in the book. At that time, New York has just emerged

from the Civil War and suffered from the loss of thousands young men, but The

Age of Innocence pays no attention to any of this. It neither records the important

events nor looks forward to the future. It is purely a narrative of the etiquette of the

old generation. Prompting by these thoughts, Vernon L. Parrington (1921, p.160)

gives this novel a harsh review:

But when one has said the craftsmanship is a very great success, why not

go further and add that it doesn’t make the slightest difference whether

one reads the book or not, unless one is a literature epicure who lives for

the savour of things. What do the van de Luydens matter to us; or what

9

did their kind matter a generation ago? Why waste such skill upon

insignificant material? There were vibrant realities in the New York of

the seventies, Commodore Vanderbilt, for example, or even Jay Gould or

Jim Fiske. If Mrs Wharton had only chosen to throw such figures upon

her canvas, brutal, cynical dominating, what a document of American

history – but the suggestion is foolish. Mrs Wharton could not do it. Her

distinction is her limitation. She loathes the world of Jim Fiske too much

to understand it. She is too well bred to be a snob, but she escapes it

only by sheer intelligence. The background of her mind, the furniture of

her habits, are packed with potential snobbery, and it is only by

scrupulous care that it is held in leash.

The dull and oppressed life of the characters in the novel has been criticized by

several critics since they think that it is a pessimistic view towards life. The fact

that disturbs the reviewers is that the protagonists Ellen and Newland struggle to be

free, but fail to do so, and finally come to accept the rigid and conservative old

world as it is. V.S. Pritchett (1953, p.490) is one of those reviewers:

Again and again we find that novelists who have attacked the

conventions because they stultify the spirit, who attack the group for its

cruelty to individuals, will end by pointing the virtues of submission. Mrs

Wharton may have hated old New York, but she hated the new New York

even more. She disliked the prison of silent hypocrisy, but she drew in

her skirts when candour came in. Especially after her long life en grande

luxe in Europe. What indignation denounces creeps back in the name of

sentiment.

10

The novel is criticized by Katherine Mansfield (1920, pp.810-811) for its coldness

and lack of connection to the readers:

But what about us? What about her readers? Does Mrs Wharton expect

us to grow warm in a gallery where the temperature is so sparkingly

cool? We are looking at portraits – are we not? These are human being

arranged for exhibition purposes, framed, glazed and hung in the perfect

light.

Is it – in this world – vulgar to ask for more? To ask that the feeling

shall be greater than the cause it excites it, to beg to be allowed to share

the moment of exposition (is that not the very moment that all writing

leads to?) to entreat a little wilderness, a dark place or two in the soul?

In my opinion, The Age of Innocence is a good novel in terms of both art and

information. Thanks to it, I have learned something about the life of the past

generation and come to appreciate the current free world. This novel may not have

a happy ending but I am still able to find a momentary escape from the real world

by reading it. The beauty of the words and the brilliancy of the scenes do give

relaxation to my mind. I can positively classify it as one of my favorite.

2.2.2. Edith Wharton’s life and its influence on The Age of Innocence

Edith Wharton (1862-1937) – nee Edith Newbold Jones - was born in New York

into a wealthy and elite family. The aristocratic society in which she spent her

childhood is the inspiration as well as the basis for The Age of Innocence. The

novel is written after the end of the Civil War and at the beginning of a new era.

Although Edith Wharton did not entirely approve of the old society, she did not

11

feel comfortable living in the new one. This novel therefore is her tribute to the

past and her means to let go of the regrets for the lost world. In her autobiography

A Backward Glance, she wrote: “I found a momentary escape in going back to my

childish memories of a long-vanished America, and wrote The Age of Innocence.”

(1933, p.191)

During her girlhood, she could not appreciate the rigid lifestyle and the

unchangeable customs of the upper class. She stated: “When I was young it used to

seem to me that the group in which I grew up was like an empty vessel into which

no new wine would ever again be poured.” (1933, p.6) Her childhood world is

described as one “from which all dealers in retail business were excluded as a

matter of course. The man who "kept a shop" was more rigorously shut out of

polite society.” (1933, p.8) This view is the restatement for the thought of the

protagonist Newland Archer: “Though it was supposed to be proper for them to

have an occupation, the crude fact of money-making was still regarded as

derogatory, and the law, being a profession, was accounted a more gentlemanly

pursuit than business.” (1933, p.81) However, gradually she came to understand

the values of the old society: “Now I see that one of its uses lay in preserving a few

drops of an old vintage too rare to be savoured by a youthful palate; and I should

like to atone for my unappreciativeness by trying to revive that faint fragrance.”

(1933, p.6) She acknowledged that the old society was “"good" in the most prosaic

sense of the term, and its only interest, for the generality of readers, lies in the fact

of its sudden and total extinction, and for the imaginative few in the recognition of

the moral treasures that went with it.” (1933, p.6) This opinion coincides with the

conclusion of The Age of Innocence: “After all, there was good in the old ways.”

(1933, p.219)

12

Some characters in The Age of Innocence greatly resemble the ones Edith Wharton

interacted with. In her autobiography, her father, George Frederic Jones, is

described as a handsome and lonely man, “haunted by something always

unexpressed and unattained.” (1933, p.22) Out of deference for her parents, she

never fully explained the reason for his sadness. However, she did reveal that he

used to possess a rich imagination, and that it was her practical and realistic who

“shrivelled up any such buds of fancy” (1933, p.22). It can be seen that there are

some similar traits between Edith Wharton’s father and the protagonist of The Age

of Innocence, Newland Archer. Both of them used to be passionate and

imaginative young men, but their abilities are suppressed by the family life and

they have no way to recover the virtues they have lost. The marriage life, which

should have given them felicity and comfort, ends up imprison them for the rest of

their life. The image of Newland Archer is also based on another important figure

in Wharton’s life – Walter Berry, who she called “the love of my life”. The

lifelong friendship between them started when she was twenty five. He was her

literary advisor and counselor, as well as a model for many other characters in her

novels, like Lawrence Selden in The House of Mirth and Ralph Marvell in The

Custom of the Country. May Welland can be considered as loosely based on her

mother since their unimaginativeness truly resembles each other and it is also the

cause for the unhappiness of their husbands.

Just like her father’s, Edith Wharton’s married life was an unhappy one. In 1885,

she wedded Edward Robbins Wharton, who was 12 years older than her. He was

an unfaithful husband and continuously involved himself in the affairs with

younger women. This left a bad effect on Edith’s mental health. They finally

divorced in 1913 after 28 years living together. Edith Wharton thought of their

marriage as the “greatest mistake” of her life. The antagonist Count Olenski,

13

whose brutal treatment and unfaithfulness force Ellen Olenska to escape to

America, does somewhat resemble Wharton’s husband. Ellen Olenska, as a badly-

treated wife, also bears some similar traits with Edith herself. After being tortured

by their spouses, they both succeed in escaping. Ellen takes refuge in America and

later France, while Edith files for divorce.

In general, The Age of Innocence is created from Edith’s memories and experience

of the past life, together with her feelings for the people she met.

2.2.3. Plot

Newland Archer, a lawyer and heir of a New York upper class family, is eagerly

looking forward to his marriage with May Welland, the beautiful daughter of

another prestigious family. However, after meeting May’s cousin - Countess Ellen

Olenska, he begins to doubt his choice. Ellen is married to a wealthy Polish Count,

but she is unhappy because of his brutal treatment towards her. Finally, she

resolves to escape from her husband with the help of his secretary, which fuels the

rumor of her unfaithfulness. At first, Ellen's arrival disturbs Newland since he does

not want his fiancée’s family to bear any humiliation. Nonetheless, he gradually

becomes attracted to the passionate and straightforward Ellen. His feelings for

Countess Olenska change his views on life and forces him to doubt the future

happiness of his upcoming marriage with May – the typical product of the old New

York. Ellen then decides to file for divorce despite the strong opposition of her

family. However, after being persuaded by Newland, she agrees to stop the

divorcing process. Meanwhile, as his admiration for Ellen grows, Newland’s

uncertainty of his love for May also increases. To put an end to his infatuation with

Ellen, he begs May to accelerate their wedding date but she refuses. Newland and

14

Ellen then confess their love to each other. Ellen agrees to remain in America, on

condition that they do not have any sexual intercourse. Right after that, Newland

receives May's telegram agreeing to marry sooner. They get married but Newland

still cannot forget Ellen. Ellen moves to Washington with her aunt. Her husband

asks her to come back but she declines. Frustrated by her decision, her family

decides to cut off her allowance. Newland desperately looks for a way to leave

May and be with Ellen. When her grandmother gets sick, she is called back to New

York and asked to stay there permanently to nurse her. Persuaded by Newland,

Ellen agrees to have sexual intercourse with Newland for once. However, Newland

then discovers that after doing so, she will return to her husband. Newland has

decided to abandon May and follow Ellen to Europe when his wife announces that

she and Newland will hold a farewell party for Ellen since she is going to Paris

soon. When the party is over and Ellen has gone, Newland resolves to tell May that

he will leave her. She interrupts him before he is able to say anything and tells him

that she is pregnant and that Ellen was aware of it two weeks ago. Newland is

forced to give up his plan for the sake of his child. Twenty-six years later, after

May's death, Newland and his son come to Paris. His son wishes to pay a visit to

Countess Olenska and asks Newland to join him. However, when they arrive,

Newland decides not to go into her house and walks back to his hotel without

meeting her.

15

Chapter 3: Conventionality as shown in the image of May Welland

3.1. Refusal to hold unpleasant talks

Talking is an important part of human life. It bonds people with each other, eases

their pains and multiples their happiness. It is easy to talk about pleasant things like

congratulating someone on being accepted to a university, or chatting about music

and movies since they do not offend, sadden or worry anyone. However, it does

not mean that unpleasant topics like divorce or failure to get a good job should be

considered as taboos. It is necessary for people to speak out their minds, share their

problems with each other and argue to defend their points in order to release their

stress, receive advice and help others realize their mistakes.

Nowadays, freedom of speech is widely applied. People can talk about everything

they want, provided that it is not illegal. However, in the 19th century, the same

prerogative was not available. Sarah Annie Frost (1869, pp.32-34) points this out:

In general conversation avoid argument. It is too engrossing of

attention, and is moreover apt to break in upon the harmony of the

company. If obliged to discuss a point, do so with suavity, contradicting,

if necessary, with extreme courtesy, and if you see no prospect of

agreement, finishing-off with some happy good-natured remark to prove

that you are not hurt or offended. (…) Eschew scandal, for “in scandal

as in robbery, the receiver is always thought as bad as the thief.” (…)

Swearing, sneering, private affairs either of yourself or any other, have

long ago been banished out of the conversation of well-mannered

people. (…) Do not commence any conversation by the suggestion of

16

painful or disagreeable topics. (…) Avoid an officious offer of advice or

your own opinion, and if you do give your opinion, be sure it is given as

such and not as a fact.

May Welland is the embodiment of all the above-mentioned qualities. True to the

requirement of her society, she tries her best to prevent heated argument with

anyone. When she is prompted by Newland Archer to hasten their marriage, even

though she disagrees with him, she still manages to close their conversation after a

few words:

‘You do love me, Newland! I’m so happy.’

‘But then – why not be happier?’

(…) She looked a little bored by his insistence. She knew very well that

they couldn’t, but it was troublesome to have to produce a reason. ‘I’m

not clever enough to argue with you. But that kind of thing is rather –

vulgar, isn’t it?’ she suggested, relieved to have hit on a word that would

assuredly extinguish the whole subject.

(pp.53-54)

In order to end a topic peacefully, May uses soothing words to ease Newland and

at the same time shows her unwillingness to continue the talk (i.e. “You do love

me, Newland! I’m so happy.” and “I’m not clever enough to argue with you”). Her

resolution to refrain from vigorous debate remains even after her marriage. When a

disagreement occurs during a discussion about Ellen Olenska, she stops the

conversation before it turns into a serious quarrel:

‘After all, I wonder if she wouldn’t be happier with her husband.’

17

(…) ‘I don’t think I ever heard you say a cruel thing before.’

‘Cruel?’

‘Well – watching the contortions of the damned is supposed to be a

favourite sport of the angels; but I believe even they don’t think people

happier in hell.’

‘It’s a pity she ever married abroad then,’ said May, in the placid tone

with which her mother met Mr Welland’s vagaries.

(p.137)

May Welland does not utter a word to change the subject or apologize for her

views, yet with a simple change of tone, she successfully prevents the conversation

from getting worse and makes her husband regrets his remark. This is what George

Routledge (2004, p.10) states: “Remember in conversation that a voice “gentle and

low” is, above all other extraneous acquirements, “an excellent thing in woman.”

There is a certain distinct but subdued tone of voice which is peculiar to only well-

bred persons.”

The reason for May’s avoidance of argument is that the society requires it of her.

In this era, people in general and ladies in particular are expected to be sweet-

tempered and calm. Agnes H. Morton (1919, p.70) points out: “Control of temper

is one of the most valuable results of training in the etiquette of calm behavior.”

George Routledge (2004, p.11) also considers argument as a breach of etiquette:

“Long arguments in general company, however entertaining to disputants, are

tiresome to the last degree to all others. You should always endeavour to prevent

the conversation from dwelling too long upon one topic.” Since May fully

conforms to traditional etiquette, she does not want to involve herself in heated

arguments in order to preserve her innocent and gentle image. Refraining from

18

debate has its own good and bad points. On the bright side, it prevents people from

hurting each other and maintains a peaceful atmosphere. However, its weakness is

that people who are afraid of arguments will not be able to understand the others or

realize their own mistakes in order to learn and grow. By refusing to argue with

Newland, May has lost the chance for both her and Archer to have a better

understanding of each other and lessened her own felicity.

Apart from her tendency to avoid fierce debate, May tries her best to ignore the

“unpleasant” things. This trace of her is first shown when she and Newland talk

about Countess Olenska after Ellen’s arrival to New York:

‘No; at the last minute she decided not to.’

‘At the last minute?’ he echoed, betraying his surprise that she should

ever have considered the alternative possible.

‘Yes. She’s awfully fond of dancing,’ the young girl answered simply.

‘But suddenly she made up her mind that her dress wasn’t smart enough

for a ball, though we thought it so lovely; and so my aunt had to take her

home.’

(…) Nothing about his betrothed pleased him more than her resolute

determination to carry to its utmost limit that ritual of ignoring the

‘unpleasant’ in which they had both been brought up.

(p.17)

Despite knowing Ellen’s notorious past as well as her indifference to social

conventions, May manages to entirely ignore those traces and keep quiet about the

scandalous things. George Routledge (2004, p.12) writes: “Scandal is the least

excusable of all conversational vulgarities.” In this case, paying no attention to the

19

infamous stuffs can be considered as a good trace because it enables May to fulfill

her duties as a respectful cousin and prevents Ellen from getting hurt by the harsh

words of her own family. Sometimes it is good to forget the past, especially if it

can enable someone to improve and turn into a better person.

However, there are some circumstances under which May’s quietness can do more

harm than good. When she finds out that Newland wants to go to Washington to

meet Ellen, she says nothing and lets Newland find out her true meaning on his

own.

‘And you must be sure to go and see Ellen,’ she added, looking him

straight in the eyes with her cloudless smile, and speaking in the tone

she might have employed in urging him not to neglect some irksome

family duty.

It was the only word that passed between them on the subject; but in the

code in which they had both been trained it meant: ‘(…) I know you

mean to see Ellen when you are in Washington, and are perhaps going

there expressly for that purpose; and that, since you are sure to see her,

I wish you to do so with my full and explicit approval.’

(pp.168-169)

This type of communication is not worth encouraging because of two reasons. First

of all, the listener may not understand the hidden meaning and therefore, cannot act

in accordance with the words. The second reason is that the receiver may choose to

ignore the message hidden in the words, and say that he/she does not get it when

being asked. Despite all these disadvantages, this is the only way for the upper

class in 19th century to talk about the unpleasant things. When people wish to have

20

their thoughts and feelings known, they should speak out clearly so that others can

understand. Not everyone is a mind-reader, so in some cases, it is better to be

frank, and if discretion is required, we should try to be discreet in an easy-to-

understand way.

Besides the afore-mentioned features, May also has the tendency to hide her

sadness and irritability. When she finds out that Newland will postpone his going

to Washington because Ellen has come to New York, she keeps quiet and her

sadness is shown through her tears which she struggles to hide.

‘Then it’s not postponed?’ she continued, with an insistence so unlike

her (…)

‘No, but my going is,’ he answered (…). It did not hurt him half as much

to tell May an untruth as to see her trying to pretend that she had not

detected him.

(…) ‘Goodbye, dearest,’ she said, her eyes so blue that he wondered

afterward if they had shone on them through tears.

(pp.178-179)

Another case when May says nothing about her worries is when Newland forgets

to come to Mrs Manson Mingott’s with her.

Archer was struck by something languid and inelastic in her attitude.

(…) If May had spoken out her grievances (he suspected her of many) he

might have laughed them away; but she was trained to conceal

imaginary wounds under a Spartan smile.

(p.185)

21

Speaking out their opinions and sometimes, even quarrel, are the ways for couples

to maintain a marriage. If their feelings are bottled up, they cannot fully understand

each other, as well as clear away the disagreement and misunderstanding. In May’s

case, she keeps hiding her grievances because it is what she is taught to do, but it

can only do her and her husband harm. They are not truly connected with each

other since May never complains and Newland never lets her know his thought

either. She even goes so far as to say nothing about the fact that she knows about

her husband’s affair with Ellen. May just silently separates them and never refers

to it even when she succeeds. If only May opened up a little bit more, her marriage

would not become a deadly monotonous affair when the two of them keep mum

about their real feelings. Because of her silence, Newland cannot do anything to

ease her sadness and his love for her decreases as well due to the lack of

confidence between husband and wife. This situation still exists in the modern

world. Nowadays, there are many wives who silently suffer from the ill treatment

of their mothers-in-law or the lack of understanding of their husbands. However,

none of them dare to stand up and speak out their opinions, so they are partly

responsible for their unhappiness. If they do not speak out, people may not

understand or care about them. Endurance is often considered as a noble

characteristic, but in some circumstances, endurance is equal to the lack of courage

to speak the truth.

Generally, May’s refusal to hold unpleasant talks enables her to perform her duties

of a daughter, a wife, yet it makes her become distant and passive. By refusing to

converse freely, she has lost the opportunity to let others understand her more, to

release her stress as well as her chance to have a happy marriage.

22

3.2. Indifference to lower classes and disgraceful people

Best Society abroad is always the oldest aristocracy; composed not so

much of persons of title, which may be new, as of those families and

communities which have for the longest period of time known highest

cultivation. Our own Best Society is represented by social groups which

have had, since this is America, widest rather than longest association

with the old world cultivation. (…) To the general public a long purse is

synonymous with high position--a theory dear to the heart of the

“yellow” press and eagerly fostered in the preposterous social functions

of screen drama. It is true that Best Society is comparatively rich; it is

true that the hostess of great wealth, who constantly and lavishly

entertains, will shine, at least to the readers of the press, more brilliantly

than her less affluent sister. Yet the latter, through her quality of birth,

her poise, her inimitable distinction, is often the jewel of deeper water in

the social crown of her time.

Emily Post (1922, p.17)

In the 19th century, aristocrat, people from renowned families as well as the richest

businessmen were considered as the upper class. They were highly respected and

sought-after. The lower classes, i.e. intellectuals, workers, farmers and the poor in

general were looked down upon by the so-called high class. This convention

pervades the entire novel. In The Age of Innocence, the esteem among the upper

class is built upon family background, social status, wealth and stylishness.

Aristocratic families like the Lannings, the Dagonets and the van der Luydens are

unconditionally admired and feared, though they themselves do not necessarily

wish for that. Some characters are famous for their wealth and their style, despite

23

their loose morals. Lawrence Lefferts is greatly valued as “the foremost authority

in ‘form’ in New York”, although everyone knows that he is a Don Juan at heart

and his poor wife is constantly cheated. His fault is pardoned just because he is

stylish. Another example is the rich banker Julius Beaufort. His origin, past

conducts and moral are all doubtful, yet he is still popular because of his

extravagant parties and his seemingly-limitless money-supply. In short, the

popularity of the characters in The Age of Innocence is decided not by their virtue

and intelligence, but rather by their status and money.

May Welland is the perfect embodiment of New York’s way of thinking since she

looks down upon the poor, sneers at people with low status and shows no

sympathy for disgraceful people. The first time she shows her arrogant attitude is

during her honeymoon in London. She and her husbands are invited to a dinner

consisting of two old ladies, their nephew, his tutor, a vicar and his wife. She is

visibly irritated because she is invited out to meet such low class people:

Archer noticed that his wife way’s of showing her self at her ease with

foreigners was to become more uncompromisingly local in her

references, so that, though her loveliness was an encouragement to

admiration, her conversation was a chill to repartee. (…) he [Archer]

guessed that she nursed a secret disappointment at having been invited

out in London to meet a clergyman and a French tutor.

(pp.125, 128)

Like the rest of the New York upper class, May rates people by their wealth, status

and appearance. Her opinion about the intelligent and gallant French tutor is

extremely low because he is unattractive and poor.

24

‘The little French man? Wasn’t he dreadfully common?’ she questioned

coldly (…)

‘Those people are always awkward in society. But then,’ she added

disarmingly, ‘I suppose I shouldn’t have known if he was clever.’

Archer disliked her use of the word ‘clever’ almost as much as her use of

the word ‘common’; but he was beginning to fear his tendency to dwell

on the things he disliked in her.

(pp.127-128)

May’s point of view is incorrect as low class people are not necessarily vulgar and

common. We can learn something from everybody, regardless of their status and

education, and people (except criminals) are all admirable in their own ways.

May’s refusal to take the tutor seriously is extremely wrong since it takes time to

fully understand people, and they should not be judged by outward appearance

alone. Sadly, this trait still lasts until today. Many people retain the habit of

judging someone base on family background, education, work and appearance. For

instance, some parents advice their children not to get married with the ones whose

parents are divorced or criminals; people who fail to enter college are considered

as stupid and useless; the manual workers are regarded as vulgar; and seemingly

poor customers are ignored and looked down by the sales assistant.

May not only refuses to respect the lower class, she also expects other people to

behave like herself. That is the reason why Ellen’s willingness to befriend with

“common” people like the Blenkers and Mrs Samuel Struthers greatly annoys

May.

25

‘I should have liked to see her again,’ May said as they drove home

through the dusk. ‘But perhaps she wouldn’t have cared – she seems so

changed.’ (…) ‘So indifferent to all her friends, I mean; giving up New

York and her house, and spending her time with such queer people.

Fancy how hideously uncomfortable she must be at the Blenkers’!’

(p.137)

This trait of hers shows that she is selfish and snobbish. People have the right to

befriend whoever they like, yet May dislikes Ellen because she dares to get

acquainted with the lower class. May can never understand Ellen’s behavior as the

only influential things to her are traditional customs and social prejudices.

May is willing to disown her cousins if they are involved in scandalous affairs. The

first is Ellen when she refuses to return to her husband. May’s disapproval is

shown twice through her words. The initial one is when she talks with her husband:

“After all, I wonder if she wouldn’t be happier with her husband.” (p.137). The

next one is when Mrs Lovell Mingott wonders why Mrs Manson Mingott calls for

Ellen, she replies: “Perhaps it’s to urge on her again that after all her duty is with

her husband.” (p.174) After that, May blushes with embarrassment whenever

Ellen’s name is mentioned. Her behavior shows that she never truly loves Ellen.

May cares more about reputation than her cousin’s happiness. Because Ellen’s

refusal to come back to her husband damages the good image of her family, May

chooses to ignore her to preserve her so-called dignity. The second person she

decides to give up is Mrs Beaufort. After Julius Beaufort goes bankrupt, May and

the whole family ignores them entirely due to the fear of being degraded together

with them. When May knows that Ellen still visits Regina Beaufort, she breaks out

angrily:

26

‘You understand, don’t you,’ she went on, ‘why the family have

sometimes been annoyed? We all did what we could for her at first; but

she never seemed to understand. And now this idea of going to see Mrs

Beaufort, of going there in Granny’s carriage! I’m afraid she’s quite

alienated the van der Luydens…’

(p.199)

The fact that Julius Beaufort is isolated is understandable as he has cheated many

people, but it is unfair to ill treat his wife since she has nothing to do with all of

that. It is similar to the case when innocent children are disdained because of the

sins their parents commit. It is a cruel, inhuman and cold behavior which

unfortunately, still exists till today. HIV-positive patients are isolated, sometimes

even by their own families; and homosexual people are considered as scary and

despicable.

May’s indifference to lower classes and disgraceful people, even though they are

related to her, is ruthless and callous. At the same time, it destroys her domestic

felicity since her coldness disgusts and tires her husband, as well as widens the gap

between them. She has made a big mistake because people should be judged by

their own merits, not by their acquaintance, status, wealth or appearance.

3.3. Anti-feminism

Feminism is “the belief and aim that women should have the same rights and

opportunities as men” (Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary). Anti-feminism,

therefore, is the opposition to feminism.

27

The “first wave of feminism” in the US occurred in the mid 1800s when Susan B

Anthony fought for women’s right to vote. Other notable activities included

Margaret Sanger’s plan to provide contraception for women and Elizabeth

Blackwell’s receipt of a medical degree, marking the first time a woman became a

doctor in the US (Oxford Guide to British and American Culture). Despite all of

these well-known events, feminism plays an insignificant role in The Age of

Innocence. Apart from Ellen Olenska who dares to rally against her fate and fails

miserably, other female characters, especially May Welland, all peacefully subject

themselves to the traditional conventions of women.

Due to her education, May Welland virtually loses her ability to think for herself.

She follows closely what tradition requires of her, as well as acts and says in

accordance with it. This trace of her is shown clearly in her discussion with

Newland on their engagement, as her answers are all what she has been taught to

speak:

‘If you call it long! Isabel Chivers and Reggie were engaged for two

years: Grace and Thorley for nearly a year and a half. Why aren’t we

very well off as we are?’

It was the traditional maidenly interrogation, and he felt ashamed of

himself for finding it singularly childish. No doubt she simply echoed

what was said to her; but she was nearing her twenty-second birthday,

and he wondered at what age ‘nice’ women began to speak for

themselves.

(p.53)

28

May’s real problem lies in the fact that she herself does not realize that she is, in

fact, chained by the traditional customs. She never once stops to think about her

rights. She is, as Newland points out, “the young girl who knew nothing and

expected everything” and that “she would probably go through life dealing to the

best of her ability with each experience as it came, but never anticipating any by so

much as a stolen glance.” (p.119). She is willing to do the things that she does not

like, as long as it is conventional. For example, although she is not passionate

about sewing, she still takes up embroidery work “since other wives embroidered

cushions for their husbands” and “she did not wish to omit this last link in her

devotion” (p.186).

May not only refuses her right to think, she also forfeits her right to speak out her

feelings. Whenever she is sad or disturbed, she buries her grievances deep in her

heart, even when she finds out the affair between her husband and Ellen. It is

because a “nice” woman should never make a fuss or lose her temper. The readers

can easily see that she is imprisoned by traditional customs, yet she never once

thinks that she is miserable.

May pays no attention to feminism and dislikes women who act against the

etiquette. She strongly opposes Ellen’s decision to leave her husband for good and

befriend with the lower class. She also dislikes Mrs Beaufort’s attempt to ask for

support from Mrs Manson Mingott when her husband’s failure is inevitable since

women at that time are expected to suffer silently instead of going around and

begging for help.

May’s anti-feminism is the product of New York society. Since she was a little

girl, she has been taught to be passive, innocent, indifferent and dedicated to

29

traditional customs by her mother, grandmother and other female relatives. Her

mother has constantly set an example of a handy and seemingly cheerful wife, who

always does her best to please her husband, never gets into a quarrel and subjects

happily to everything he wants. May and her family can hardly be blamed for their

unwise perspective as they just try to create a pure image which can capture the

heart of men in order to reach the ultimate of goal of women at that time: to get

married. The men want their wives to be sweet, gentle and innocent women, so

that, as Newland Archer points out, they might exercise their “lordly pleasure in

smashing it [their purity] like an image made of snow.” (p.30). Even a liberal

minded man like Newland, who often exclaims that women should be as free as

men, still frequently shows satisfaction in his possessorship of May Welland.

And he contemplated her absorbed young face with a thrill of

possessorship in which pride in his own masculine initiation was

mingled with a tender reverence for her abysmal purity.

(…) Archer was proud of the glances turned on her, and the simple joy

of possessorship cleared away his underlying perplexities.

(…) The attitude was so full of a classic grace that a murmur of

appreciation followed her appearance, and Archer felt the glow of

proprietorship that so often cheated him into momentary well-being.

(pp.52, 133)

Growing up in an environment like that, it is no wonder that May turns out to be an

anti-feminist. Not only is she taught to be demure, quiet and indifferent, she is also

expected to be gentle and nice by her own husband. That is the reason why she

cannot and do not want to break away from the old-fashioned tradition. Today anti-

feminism still exists even among educated people. Theoretically, women have the

30

right to do whatever they want, provided that it is not illegal or immoral. Yet, some

people still preserve the ideas that women’s duties are to get married, give birth

and take care of their families, not to achieve high career goals. This view will not

be eradicated easily and quickly.

In short, it is not entirely May’s fault that she is an anti-feminist. Rather, it is the

result and the influence of her education, the environment in which she grows up

and the desire of men. All these things combine together to create an embodiment

of a traditional woman: clueless, passive, innocent and indifferent.

31

Chapter 4: Unconventionality as shown in the image of Ellen Olenska

4.1. Straightforwardness

It is bothersome to deal with guys who never say anything. (…) Don’t

think it’s so noble to just keep silent and think that no one can

understand.

Clamp (2007, pp.42-43)

The above quotation can be considered as a perfect motto for Ellen Olenska’s point

of view. Contrary to a demure and quiet May Welland, Countess Olenska is very

straightforward. She dares to speak out what is in her mind, regardless of whether

it is conventionally acceptable or if people are offended by it. Being honest is

generally a good quality; however, in the era that Ellen lives, her frankness does

her more harm than good.

Unlike May, Ellen has the courage to honestly present her opinions about people

despite their ranks, wealth and power. When she is invited to see the van der

Luydens’ Duke, instead of pretending to be respectful, she says: “I think he’s the

dullest man I ever met.” (p.41) By speaking thus, she has breached the etiquette of

old society, which is “Beware of personal abuse or invective.” (Sarah Annie Frost,

1869, p.35). She is also brave enough to face her tragic marriage and talk about it.

However, her feelings are not listened by her relatives as etiquette requires them to

“Eschew scandal, for “in scandal as in robbery, the receiver is always thought as

bad as the thief”.” (Sarah Annie Frost, p.33). Their indifference hurts her

exceedingly and isolates her from society.

32

She shook her head and sighed. ‘Oh, I know – I know! But on condition

that they don’t hear anything unpleasant. Aunt Welland put it in those

very words when I tried… Does no one want to know the truth here, Mr

Archer? The real loneliness is living among all these kind people who

only ask one to pretend!’ She lifted her hands to her face, and he saw

her thin shoulders shaken by a sob.

(p.50)

Ellen’s attempt to talk about her grievances is not wrong. Rather, it is her relatives

who are cruel and indifferent. Nonetheless, Ellen does not let that hinder her from

speaking out her opinions. Occasionally, Ellen’s honesty nearly amounts to

vulgarity. She is brave enough to talk about the topics which are considered as

“taboos” in New York. When Newland Archer persuades her that they should be

together, she says frankly:

‘Is it your idea, then, that I should live with you as your mistress – since

I can’t be your wife?’ she asked.

The crudeness of the question startled him: the word was one that

women of his class fought shy of, even when their talk flitted closest

about the topic. He noticed that Madame Olenska pronounced it as if it

had a recognized place in her vocabulary, and he wondered if it had

been used familiarly in her presence in the horrible life she had fled

from.

(p.183)

Ellen even goes so far as to suggest that she and Newland should consummate their

relationship, a thing that “nice” women at that time are dreaded to say.

33

‘Shall I – once come to you; and then go home?’ she suddenly hazarded

in a low clear voice.

(p.197)

Unlike May, who is a perfect model of a traditional woman, Ellen is heedless of

social customs and etiquette. She dares to speak about forbidden topics which May

never even thinks of. It is an effective way to release stress and let others fully

understand about her. Sometimes, however, Ellen is honest to the point of being

nearly disrespectful and ungrateful. When the New York upper-class families

refuse to meet her, the van der Luydens help her preserve her dignity by inviting

her to their party, thus forcing other families to come see her. However, she

commits a breach of etiquette again by her words:

‘Oh, it’s [her house] a poor little place. My relations despise it. But at

any rate it’s less gloomy than the van der Luydens’.’

(…) ‘No: how kind they are! It was such a nice party. Every one seems

to have such an esteem for them.’

The terms were hardly adequate; she might have spoken in that way of a

tea-party at the dear old Miss Lannings’.

(…) ‘Isn’t that perhaps the reason?’

‘The reason - ?’

‘For their great influence; that they make themselves so rare.’

He coloured a little, stared at her – and suddenly felt the penetration of

the remark. At a stroke she had pricked the van der Luydens and they

collapsed.

(p.48)

34

Once again, Ellen breaches another etiquette, that is “When visiting, be careful that

you do not appear to undervalue anything around you by comparing it with what

you have at home.” (Sarah Annie Frost, 1869, p.34). She owes the van der Luydens

a favor, and she should speak more respectfully of them. It is not totally

unacceptable that she should state her real opinions, but she should only confide

with the ones she is close with. At that time, she and Newland have just met for a

few times; besides, the van der Luydens are Newland’s cousins. Therefore, it is

unwise of her to criticize their house and speak lightly of their reputation because it

may hurt Newland’s feeling or worse, her words may be reported back to the van

der Luydens. Even in today’s free world, people should still watch their own

statements in order to avoid inflicting pains or offend others. For instance, teachers

should not call slow-witted students stupid in front of the class even if it is true

because it can shatter their pride; or people should not tell any women that they are

old and ugly since it can hurt them terribly.

In short, Ellen’s straightforwardness is the sign of a high-spirited soul. Ellen

Olenska has the courage to speak out her opinion and defy the things she dislikes.

However, in a world where people abhor unpleasant things, her personality hurts

her exceedingly and isolates her from the upper class.

4.2. Equal treatment to everybody

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal,

that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights,

that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.

(Thomas Jefferson, 1776, p.1)

35

The 19th century New York society is clearly differentiated into three classes: the

upper class, the middle class and the lower class. Theoretically, everybody is

equal; however, in reality, the lower class is often ignored and underestimated

because of their poverty and low social status. Unlike May, who visibly shows her

disgust toward the lower class and disgraceful people, Ellen Olenska treats

everyone equally, regardless of their wealth, education and status.

She is willing to befriend with the poor and even to live in their quarter. Contrary

to her relatives who prefer a fashionable and rich area, she is not ashamed of living

in a poor and eccentric one, as long as it is respectable and peaceful. It is because

in her opinion, a house is, after all, a place to live and it is not necessary for her

home to be located in a luxurious and stylish quarter.

‘I’ve never been in a city where there seems to be such a feeling against

living in des quartiers excentriques. What does it matter where one

lives? I’m told this street is respectable.’

(p.47)

Ellen is also very friendly towards her neighbors. When the child of Mr Ned

Winsett, her neighbor, falls down before her house, she bandages him carefully,

then immediately takes him home. Her behavior leaves a deep impression on her

neighbors.

‘(…) she’s been awfully kind to my little boy, who fell down her area

chasing his kitten, and gave himself a nasty cut. She rushed in

bareheaded, carrying him in her arms, with his knees all beautifully

36

bandaged, and was so sympathetic and beautiful that my wife was too

dazzled to ask her name.’

(p.78)

She also gives Mrs Winsett a bouquet of red roses and keeps quiet about her name,

leading the lady to think that it is a present from her husband. Her generous, liberal

and caring personality is shown clearly through these things.

‘Tell the boy to carry them to the house of Mr Winsett, the dark

gentleman who dined here. His wife is ill – they may give her pleasure.

(…) And, as you live, don’t say they come from me!’

(p.104)

Ellen’s feelings towards her neighbors are sincere and selfless. She hardly gains

any benefits from befriending them; rather, her reputation is damaged by the

relationship. However, she cares nothing about that because she truly likes and

respects them. Ellen Olenska’s nice treatment is extended towards not only her

neighbors but also her own maid. When she sends her maid, Nastasia, on an

errand, she calls her “My dear one” and wraps Nastasia in her own opera cloak. It

is an unusual thing because in 19th century New York, the mistresses do not call

their maids so intimately and provides them with their stylish clothes like that. This

action is a proof for Ellen’s disregard of social conventions. In her opinion,

everybody should be treated equally. Thanks to her view, she is loved and

respected by her neighbors and servants.

Ellen is willing to befriend with the eccentric as well. She is acquainted with the

Blenkers, a family of “an intense and voluble mother and three blowsy daughters

37

who imitated her”, which is generally considered as weird and common. She does

not look down on them and even goes so far as to stay with them during the

holiday. Ellen is fascinated by artists, despite their vague origins and mysterious

life. The New York upper class, on the other hand, is reluctant to be acquainted

with them because of their ambiguous background and eccentric appearance.

Countess Olenska pays no attention to the general view and just does what she

pleases. She is passionate about literature, drama and art, so it is natural for her to

get close to the ones who master them. She does not bother to think whether her

behavior is conventionally acceptable or not; or whether the ones she acquaints

with belong to the best society. All she wants is “good conversation”, as her aunt

Medora points out. Social conventions hardly have any claim on Ellen. She makes

friends with whoever she likes, despite their social status and wealth.

Ellen does not abandon her friends even when they are ignored by the whole

society. After Beaufort’s bankruptcy, the Beauforts are shunned by the entire upper

class. Regina Beaufort, despite her relation with the Dallas and the Mingotts, are

abandoned by her own family. However, Ellen is the only one who stays by her

side and encourages her. She even persuades her grandma to lend her the carriage

to visit Mrs Beaufort.

‘The day after she got here she put on her best bonnet, and told me, as

cool as a cucumber, that she was going to call on Regina Beaufort. (…)

“She’s the wife of a scoundrel,” I answered. “Well,” she said, “and so

am I, and yet all my family want me to go back to him.”

(pp.190-191)

38

She also treats Mr Beaufort’s illegitimate daughter with great kindness and looks

after her when her parents are absent.

‘You know she was awfully good to Fanny when Mr Beaufort sent her

over from Buenos Aires to the Assumption. Fanny hadn’t any friends in

Paris, and Madame Olenska used to be kind to her and trot her about on

holidays.’

(p.224)

In the 1870s New York society, illegitimate children were often shunned by

society due to their ambiguous background. Yet Ellen, a New Yorker at heart, is

not afraid of tainting her own reputation by taking care of Fanny Beaufort. It

requires courage and kind-heartedness to behave like Ellen. Her noble idea of

“everybody is equal” is a part of the reasons why Newland falls in love with her.

May Welland may be gentler and quieter, but Ellen Olenska, with her generous

treatment for everybody, is definitely friendlier, warmer and kinder.

All these above-mentioned cases prove that Ellen is extremely kind-hearted and

generous. In a world where the rich, beauty and the aristocrat are honored and

admired, Ellen’s equal treatment to everybody is such a rare and precious thing.

Her behavior helps her gain new friends and enables her to live in the intellectual

atmosphere that she loves. However, it also separates her from the upper class and

isolates her from her own family.

39

4.3. Feminism

In opposition to an anti-feminist May, Ellen is an embodiment of feminism. She

dares to revolt against her fate, does whatever she wants and refuses to subject to

old-fashioned conventionalities.

Ellen constantly struggles to create a better life for herself. When she is cruelly

treated by her husband, instead of staying in his house and suffering silently, she

promptly escapes from that living hell with the help of his secretary. She pays no

attention to the rumors implying that she is involved in an affair with her savior

and never says anything to clear them away. Ellen believes she has done the right

thing and does not regret it. Even after her husband asks her to come back and

promise her a large sum of money, she still refuses and chooses to live in America

in poverty because to her, freedom is the most valuable thing. She once says to

Newland that: “I had to be free.” (p.49). When she realizes her love for Newland

Archer, she decides to divorce her husband in order to pursue her love, even

though divorce is regarded as a taboo in New York. All she wants is to be happy,

and she is willing to do everything in her power to secure it.

Ellen Olenska is not influenced by the social trends and conventions. This trait of

hers is what enables her to act as she pleases. Unlike other women, she cares little

about fashion. A queer thing about her is that she dresses contrary to the situation.

When she first appears in New York after running away from her husband, she

surprises everyone by her unusual dress: “the dark blue velvet gown rather

theatrically caught up under her bosom by a girdle with a large old-fashioned

clasp” (p.7) which shows off her bare shoulders. She goes to the party held by the

40

van der Luydens in a simple dress which disappoints the entire New York because

they expect her to be more stylish and conspicuous.

At the same time she was simpler in manner than most of the ladies

present, and many people (as he heard afterward from Janey) were

disappointed that her appearance was not more ‘stylish’ – for

stylishness was what New York most valued. (…) New York had expected

something a good deal more resonant in a young woman with such a

history.

(pp.39-40)

The way she dresses at home is also different. While other ladies often wear simple

dinner dresses, she puts on “a long robe of red velvet bordered about the chin and

down the front with glossy black fur” (p.67). However, none of these things trouble

Countess Olenska since she dresses for herself, not for others. She even says:

“Why not make one’s own fashions?” (p.47). She chooses her own friends and

goes wherever she pleases, despite the general disapproval. She repeatedly comes

to Mrs Blenker’s house on Saturday to entertain herself although she has been

warned not to. She associates with anyone she likes, from the eccentric artists to

common and poor people as it keeps her from being lonely.

‘You’re going to Mrs Struthers’s?’

‘Yes.’ She smiled and added: “I must go where I am invited, or I should

be too lonely’.

(pp.107-108)

41

When she is bored with the monotonous New York, she sub-lets her house and

moves to Washington, where she leads a much gayer life with her aunt. She does

not care that her behavior disturbs her relatives since she wants to do everything

that makes her feel alive.

Although Ellen is free-spirited and capricious, she is not selfish or cruel. She is

willing to sacrifice herself for others. When Newland advises her not to divorce

because it will cause a lot of troubles for her as well as her family, she agrees to

stop it for fear of bringing notoriety and scandal on the people she loves, even

though it means that she will not be able to be with Newland. Even though she is

shunned by the upper class in general, Ellen’s spirit makes her become a great

favorite among men, including Newland Archer, Julius Beaufort and Lawrence

Lefferts, who are all willing to become her lovers. However, she never commits

adultery or tries to break apart their families. She comes back immediately from

Washington when she is informed of her grandmother’s illness and agrees to stay

in New York to take care of her. After May tells her that she is pregnant with

Newland’s child, she decides to settle in Paris with her aunt Medora to enable the

Archers to live a happy life. Ellen’s image is like that of a modern woman. She is

confident, intelligent and brave, but still feminine, kind-hearted and willing to

sacrifice herself for others. Women nowadays are very active in work, but they can

put their job on hiatus for sometimes to take care of their families and fulfill the

duties of wives and mothers.

Ellen’s carefree behavior isolates her from the upper class society, including her

own family. When she first returns to New York, many renowned families have

declined to meet her because of her notorious reputation, and she luckily escapes it

with the help of her family and the van der Luydens. However, she loses all

42

support after refusing to come back to her husband. Her allowance and relationship

with her relatives are cut off drastically.

Everybody knew that the Countess Olenska was no longer in the good

graces of her family. Even her devoted champion, old Mrs Manson

Mingott, had been unable to defend her refusal to return to her husband.

The Mingotts had not proclaimed their disapproval aloud: their sense of

solidarity was too strong. They had simply, as Mrs Welland said, ‘let

poor Ellen find her own level’

(pp.164-165)

Had Ellen been born in our time, she would have been praised for her courage and

received multiple supports from everyone, even from outside her family. As it is,

her society is too narrow-minded and old-fashioned to understand and forgive her

behavior. Her feminism has been suppressed by the social etiquette and

conventionalities. Yet, her extroverted personality makes her become a great

favorite among the Europeans as well as the younger generation, including

Archer’s son and Beaufort’s daughter.

In short, Ellen is the exact opposite of the quiet and demure May. She is broad-

minded, carefree, brave and active. However, her personality is too different from

these of New York upper class women at that time. It leads to a lack of

understanding between her and the society, and as a result, she is isolated and

lonely.

43

Chapter 5: Comparison between May Welland and Ellen Olenska

5.1. Family background

The differences between May Welland and Ellen Olenska are due to their

upbringing and education. While May is born into a traditional-styled family, Ellen

is raised up by a rather eccentric and unusual one.

May Welland’s personality is created by the environment in which she grows up.

Her father is a conventional, nervous and weak man who is overly conscious of his

health. He has a lot of habits which other members in his family have to follow.

Every winter the Newlands have to go to St Augustine with him to prevent him

from catching bronchitis. It is impossible for him to go alone because he cannot do

anything without the help of his wife. During this holiday, he has to hire a house

since he cannot stand the local hotel, and a lot of servants need to be hired to

satisfy his demand. In summer, the whole family always goes to Newport as it is a

fashionable place which attracts everyone in the upper class society. Mr Welland is

an extremely methodical man. He wants everything to occur on time, never dares

to miss a drive or drink his medicine late (even though he does not have any health

problem). Living with a mechanical man like her father, May becomes a girl who

does everything that other people expect her to, conforms to traditional customs

without wondering at their absurdity. It is because she is used to satisfying the

demands of her father and learned to follow the cues of society.

The one who has the deepest influence on May is her mother. Mrs Welland is a

stolid, dull and selfish woman. The thing she cares for most is conventionality and

she is willing to do anything to conform to it, even by pretending.

44

In reality they all lived in a kind of hieroglyphic, where the real thing

was never said or done or even thought, but only represented by a set of

arbitrary signs; as when Mrs Newland, who knew exactly why Archer

had pressed her to announce her daughter’s engagement at the

Beaufort’s ball (and had indeed expected him to do no less), yet felt

obliged to simulate reluctance, and the air of having her hand forced.

(p.29)

She is also unsympathetic towards the problems and mistakes of other people.

When Ellen tries to confide her grievances to her, she flatly refuses as “Having an

invalid to care for [her husband], I have to keep my mind bright and happy.” (p.93)

and also because she hates to hear about scandalous thing. After Ellen refuses to

return to her husband, she decides to abandon her and “let poor Ellen find her own

level” (p.165).

She teaches May how to become a good wife, which is to cheerfully fulfill all

requests of her husband. Mrs Welland has succeeded in moulding May into an

exact replica of her: indifferent, rigid and dull. She is also the force behind May’s

long engagement. Had it not been for her decision, May would have yielded to

Newland’s request to hasten their marriage. In short, Mrs Welland is the one who

shapes May’s personality and her influence is even greater than that of Mr

Welland.

Contrary to May’s peaceful and traditional family, Ellen’s is more complicated and

unusual. Her parents are described as “continental wanderers” and since her

childhood, she has been taken to different places with them. Her free-spiritedness

45

is obviously inherited from them. When she was nine or ten, her parents passed

away and she was adopted by her aunt Medora Manson. Medora is an eccentric,

capricious and romantic woman. She is also a wanderer who rarely settles in one

place and pays little attention to conventionalities.

Poor Medora, repeatedly widowed, was always coming home to settle

down (each time in a less expensive house), and bringing with her a new

husband or an adopted child; but after a few months she invariably

parted from her husband or quarreled with her ward, and, having got

rid of her house at a loss, set out again on her wanderings.

(p.38)

Under Medora’s queer upbringing, Ellen receives a most peculiar education. Her

lessons include “dancing a Spanish shawl dance and singing Neapolitan love-

songs to a guitar” as well as “ ‘drawing from the model’, a thing never heard of

before, and playing the piano in quintets with professional musicians.” (p.39).

When she is mourning for her parents, instead of wearing blacks, she puts on

“crimson merino and amber beads, like a gipsy foundling.” (p.38). At her coming-

out ball, where she should not appear in black color, she wears a black satin dress.

Due to Medora’s guidance, she grows up to be a wild and broad-minded girl, who

pays no attention to fashion or old traditions. Her own marriage is as tragic as

Medora’s and both women end up losing their property and have to rely on the

support of their family, i.e. Mrs Manson Mingott.

Scientists have proved that children’s personalities depend on the hereditary

factors as well as their upbringing. This theory also applies to the case of May

Welland and Ellen Olenska. May, born into a traditional family, has become a

46

conventional woman; while Ellen, who receives an eccentric education, grows up

to be high-spirited and unconventional.

5.2. Attitude towards changes

May Newland and Ellen Olenska is different in their attitude towards changes.

While May dislikes changes and never expects them to happen, Ellen Olenska

always welcomes new things because they make her life become less monotonous.

May Welland leads a methodical life. She does what society requires of a “nice”

woman and abhors things that go against the golden rules. Her idea of traveling is

“mountaineering in July and swimming in August” (p.123). She never breaks these

rules, even when her husband suggests that they should go to Italia to visit the

Italian Lakes in July. May also dislikes going to unfashionable places, and she

flatly refuses when her husband tries to persuade her to come to a remote island for

a change. In general, she does not like traveling without valid reasons because she

cannot bear to leave her comfortable house.

As time goes by, May Welland still remains the same, “so lacking in imagination,

so incapable of growth, that the world of her youth had fallen into pieces and

rebuilt itself without her ever being conscious of the change.” (p.220). Thanks to

her incapability to recognize changes, she is able to live a happy life believing that

the world is still the good old one that she grows up in; but her defect also prevents

her children as well as her husband from confiding their opinions to her. Archer

once comments that: “(…) she would probably go through life dealing to the beat

of her ability with each experience as it came, but never anticipating any by so

47

much as a stolen glance.” (p.119). May is the perfect embodiment for 19th century

New York’s perception of changes:

It was thus, Archer reflected, that New York managed its transitions:

conspiring to ignore them till they were well over, and then, in all good

faith, imagining that they had taken place in a preceding age. There was

always a traitor in the citadel; and after he (or generally she) had

surrendered the keys, what was the use of pretending that it was

impregnable?

(p.164)

The “traitor” mentioned in the above passage is Ellen Olenska. She heartily

welcomes all kind of changes as long as they make her feel alive. Ellen loves

conversing with artists because of their artistic and innovative views. She is among

the first people to join in Mrs Struthers’s Sunday parties, even though that woman

is considered as common and vulgar. Several years later, people start coming

regularly to Mrs Struthers on Sundays to entertain themselves, but they still resent

Ellen for being the first person to frequent her house.

Ellen is a creative woman. She decorates her house in her own way and transforms

it into something exotic, romantic and sentimental. She dislikes following fashion

trends and prefers creating her own style. Her lively personality is the source for

her creativity, but it also makes her become capricious. She does not like the

monotonous life in New York and decides to move to Washington “to meet more

varieties of people and of opinion” (p.151). Ellen likes to befriend with all types of

people because good conversation is what she values the most. This is contrary to

48

the view of New York upper class, which opposes any kind of relationship with the

lower class.

To conclude, May Welland abhors and ignores changes, while Ellen Olenska likes

trying new things and heartily welcomes them. Due to these differences, May’s life

is peaceful yet monotonous, while Ellen’s is exciting, active but lonely.

5.3. Opinions on conventionality and unconventionality

The Age of Innocence describes a struggle between conventionality and

unconventionality, represented respectively by May Welland and Ellen Olenska.

May Welland considers conventionality as a matter of fact and regards

unconventionality as vulgar. Meanwhile, Ellen Olenska objects to conventional

ideas and leads an unconventional life.

May Welland respects old traditions and feels comfortable living within their

limits. When Newland persuades her to hasten their marriage and suggests that

they might elope together, she refuses because it is vulgar, and in fact, being vulgar

is the thing that she fears the most.

‘But that kind of thing is rather – vulgar, isn’t it?’ she suggested,

relieved to have hit on a word that would assuredly extinguished the

whole subject.

‘Are you so much afraid, then, of being vulgar?’

She was evidently staggered by this. ‘Of course I should hate it – so

would you,’ she rejoined, a trifle irritably.

(p.54)

49

May is willing to do anything that tradition requires her to. For instance, she

embroiders cushions even though she dislikes it “since other wives embroidered

cushions for their husbands she did not wish to omit this last link to her devotion.”

(p.186). She never confronts he husband about his infidelity because etiquette

requires that she should be discreet about infamous subjects. May especially

dislikes people who revolt against conventionality, i.e. Ellen Olenska and Regina

Beaufort. She even goes so far as to be willing to cut off relationship with them

once they breach the social etiquette.

Ellen, on the other hand, cannot bring herself to care about conventionality. She

once tries to conform to social etiquette by moving from a poor quarter to a more

luxurious residential area. However, the change does not suit her and she fails to

subject herself to the old-fashioned traditions.

She had grown tired of what people called ‘society’; New York was kind,

it was almost oppressively hospitable; she should never forget the way in

which it had welcomed her back; but after the first flush of novelty she

had found herself, as she phrased it, too ‘different’ to care for the things

it cared about – and so she had decided to try Washington, where one

was supposed to meet more varieties of people and of opinion.

(p.151)

Ellen repeatedly commits unconventional acts, from befriending common people

to wearing shocking clothes and refusing to return to her husband. She dislikes the

old-fashioned customs, but she still respects them because she believes “under the

50

dullness there are things so fine and sensitive and delicate that even those I most

cared for in my other life look cheap in comparison” (p.152).

In general, May Welland blindly follows traditional etiquette and conforms

unconditionally to conventionality, while Ellen Olenska revolts against it and

indulge herself in unconventionality.

51

Chapter 6: Conclusion

The Age of Innocence is Edith Wharton’s satire of 19th century New York with

May representing the conventionality and Ellen as the representative of

unconventionality. May possesses all the qualities of the old upper class, including

her opposition to frank talk, her stolidity towards the lower class as well as sinners,

and her extreme antifeminism. Ellen, on the other hand, is a perfect illustration of

the upcoming generation who is more straightforward, friendlier to people outside

the upper class and eager to adopt feminism.

At the beginning of the novel, Ellen appears as a challenge to the old New York

while May stands for the stolid conventions of this city. However, as the novel

progresses, she becomes less and less conspicuous, showing that the tradition of

the Big Apple (nickname of New York) is too big for her to overcome. Ellen

finally has to admit that “under the dullness there are things so fine and sensitive

and delicate” (p.152) though she or other characters never directly point out what

these things are. Towards the end of the novel, Ellen compromises with the

conventionality and has to settle in Paris. The gentle and innocent May’s emerges

as the winner, though throughout the novel, she pales in comparison with

conspicuous and strong Ellen. Reviewer V.S. Princhett (1953, p.490) once wrote:

“Mrs Wharton may have hated old New York, but she hated the new New York

even more. She disliked the prison of silent hypocrisy, but she drew in her skirts

when candour came in.” It is true that no matter how much Edith Wharton

abhorred the old-fashioned and narrow-minded New York upper class society, she

still respected and preferred to live in it. This fact is understandable as it is the

place where she grew up and it had become an inseparable part of her. Her

protagonist, Newland Archer, said: “If one had habitually breathed the New York

52

air there were time when anything less crystalline seemed stifling.” (p.61) This is

the reason why Mrs Wharton let conventional May win and unconventional Ellen

was forced to return to Europe.

Conventionality and unconventionality as represented in The Age of Innocence are

not totally good or absolutely bad. Their very existence is the factor that attracts

early 20th century readers. Even modern readers are absorbed in this novel because

conventional and unconventional things mentioned in it still exist in today’s world

and form a large part of human life.

53

REFERENCES

1. Clamp (2007). Tsubasa Reservoir Chronicle (Vol. 19). Kodansha.

2. Doren, C. V. (1920). An Elder America. The Nation.

3. Flexner, E. and Fitzpatrick, E. (1996). Century of Struggle: The Woman's Rights

Movement in the United States. Harvard University Press.

4. Frost, S. A. (1869). Frost’s Laws and By-laws of American Society. Project

Gutenberg.

5. Jefferson, T. (1776). United States Declaration of Independence.

6. Mansfield, K. (1920). Family Portraits. Athenaeum 4728.

7. Morton, A. H. (1919). Etiquette (Revised edition). The Penn Publishing

Company.

8. Oxford Advanced Leaner’s Dictionary 7th edition. (2005) Oxford University

Press.

9. Oxford Guide to British and American Culture (2nd edition). (2005) Oxford University Press.

54

10. Parrington, V. L. (1921). Our Literary Aristocrat. Pacific Review.

11. Post, E. (1922). Etiquette: In society, in business, in politics and at home. Funk

& Wagnalls Company.

12. Pritchett, V. S. (1953). Books in General. The Newstateman and Nation.

13. Routledge, G. (2004). Routledge’s Manual of Etiquette. Project Gutenberg.

14. Veblen, T. (2003). The Theory of the Leisure Class. The Pennsylvania State

University.

15. Wharton, E. (1933). A Backward Glance. Scribner’s, New York.

16. Wharton, E. (1999). The Age of Innocence. Wordsworth Classics.