coomes & ban - cultivated plant species in home gardens in eastern peru
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7/21/2019 Coomes & Ban - Cultivated Plant Species in Home Gardens in Eastern Peru
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C U LTI V A TED PLA N T SPEC I ES D I V ER SITY I N H O M E G A R D E N S O F
A N A M A Z O N I A N P E A S A N T V I L L A G E I N N O R T H E A ST E R N P E R U
O L I V E R T. C O O M E S A N D N A T A L I E B A N
Coomes, Oliver T.
(Mc Gi l l Un ivers ity , Dep ar tme n t o f Geography , B urns ide Hal l, Rm . 705 ,
8 0 5 S h er b r o o ke S t . Wes t , Mo n t r ea l P Q , C a n a d a H 3 A 2 K 6 ; em a i l co o m es @ f e l i x . g eo g .
mcg i l l .ca ) , and Natal ie Ban (F i s h eri e s C ent re , L o w er Ma l l R es ea r ch S t a ti on , 2 2 5 9 L o w er M a l l
T h e U n i v e r s i ty o f B r i t is h C o l u m b ia , V a n c o u v e r, B C C a n a d a V 6 T 1 Z 4 ; e m a i l
n .ban@fisher ies .ubc .ca) . CULTIVATED PLANT SPECIES DIVERSITY IN HOME GARDENS OF AN AMA-
ZONIAN PEASANT VILLAGE NORTHEASTERN PER U. Economic B o t a n y 5 8 (3 ) :4 2 0 -4 3 4 , 2004. Re
search on ag rob iod ivers i ty po in t s to the imp or tance o f hom e gardens in s itu conserva t ion , ye t
fe w s tud ies to da te exp l ica te the or ig ins and d ynamics o f p lan t spec ies d iversi ty . In th i s paper ,
we exa mine in ter -hou seho ld var ia t ions in cu l t iva ted p la n t spec ies d ivers i ty am ong hou se gar -
dens in a t rad i tiona l pea san t com muni ty , n ear lqu i tos , Peru . In -dep th ho useho ld in terv iew s (n
= 24) and garden~f ie ld surveys revea l tha t home g ardens are c lear ly the s i t e o f h ighes t p lan t
d ivers i ty in far m ers f i e ld porOeolios , and tha t subs tan t ia l d i f f erences ex i s t in garden compo s i -
t ion , p lan t d iversi ty , and the sou rces o f garden p lan t ing mater ia l across househo lds . S ta t i s t i ca l
ana lyses ind ica te tha t home garden d ivers i ty i s re la ted s t rong ly to spec i f i c garden character -
i st ics , hou seho ld soc ioeconom ic fea tures , and ac cess to p lan t ing mater ia l inc lud ing seeds, cu t-
t ings, and suckers . The ro le and impl ica t ions o f d i f feren t ia l access to p lan t ing m ater ia l in the
d eve l o p m en t a n d m a i n t en a n ce o f c r o p s p ec i e s d i ve r si t y i s s i g n a led a s a n i m p o r t a n t t h em e f o r
fu ture s tudy in economic bo tany .
Key W ords: Amazon; kitchen gardens; dooryard gardens; germplasm; in situ conservation;
agrodiversity.
T r o p i ca l h o m e g a r d en s a r e i m p o r t an t s i t e s o f
h igh p lan t spec ies d iver s i ty , ones tha t may ac t
a s r e s e r v o i r s o f c r o p g e r m p l a s m an d s e r v e t o
conserve r a re o r th rea tened spec ies and var ie t i es
( A l co r n 1 9 92 ; C l a r k e an d T h a m a n 1 99 3; G r -
mez-Pompa 1996; Johnson 1972; Mer r ick 1992;
Smi th e t a l . , 1995) . Desp i t e g rowing in te res t in
in s i tu conserva t ion of cu l t iva ted p lan t spec ies
an d t h e r o l e o f h o m e g a r d en s i n p l an t d o m es t i -
c a t i o n ( e . g . , E s q u i v e l an d H am m er 1 9 9 2 ; G o -
mez-Pompa 1996; K imber 1978; Smi th 1996) ,
f ew s tud ies as ye t account fo r var ia t ions in gar -
d en co m p o s i t i o n an d p l an t s p ec i e s ' r i ch n es s .
T y p i ca l l y , r ep o r t s o n t r o p i ca l h o m e g a r d en s
d r aw o n a s m a l l n u m b er o f ex em p l a r s , d e s c r i b -
ing carefu l ly the i r com pos i t ion and r i chness (A1-
vare z-B uyl la Roces e t a l. 1989; Cabal l e ro 1992;
Gui l l au me t e t a l. 1990; K um ar e t a l . 1994; Or6
B a l b i n an d S am an i eg o 1 9 9 6 ) . G a r d en c r o p d i -
ver s i ty i s a t t r ibu ted to a w ide r ange of pu ta t ive
fac tor s , o f t en as a p roduct o f eco log ica l condi -
1Received 30 Ap ril 2003; accepted 16 March 2004 .
t ions , economic contex t , and the spec i f i c needs ,
t as tes , knowledge , e thn ic i ty , cu l tu re , and expe-
r i ence of the owner (A lava lapa t i e t a l . 1995;
Hi l l s 1988; Haml in and Sa l i ck 2003; Mer r ick
1992; Ric o-G ray et al . 1990; Zald iva r et al.
2002) .
In th i s paper , we examine loca l cu l t iva ted
p l an t s p ec i e s d i v e r s i t y i n h o m e g a r d en s am o n g
p eas an t h o u s eh o l d s i n a t r ad i t i o n a l A m azo n i an
co m m u n i t y i n n o r t h ea s t e r n P e r u . I n co n t r a s t t o
L am o n t , E s ch b au g h , an d G r een b e r g ( 1 9 9 9 ) w h o
examine the ro le o f e thn ic i ty , d i s t ance to marke t ,
an d t o u r i s m o n h o m e g a r d en d i v e r s i t y a c r o s s
three v i l l ages in the r eg ion , we as ses s the ro le
o f m i c r o eco n o m i c , d em o g r ap h i c , s o c i al , an d h i s-
t o r i c a l f a c t o r s w i t h i n a s i n g l e A m azo n i an co m -
m u n i t y . S p ec i f ic a l ly , w e s eek t o an s w er f o u r k ey
ques t ions : (1 ) where in households ' agr icu l tu ra l
p o r t f o l i o s d o w e en co u n t e r t h e h i g h es t d i v e r s i t y
of cu l t iva ted p lan t s? (2 ) how i s p lan t d iver s i ty
i n h o m e g a r d en s d i s t r i b u t ed ac r o s s h o u s eh o l d s ?
( 3 ) w h a t f a c t o r s a cco u n t f o r v a r i a t i o n s i n h o m e
garden d iver s i ty? and , (4 ) what ro le does the ex-
chan ge of p lan t ing m ater ia l ( e .g . , s eeds , cu t t ings ,
E c o n o m i c B o t a n y 58(3) pp. 420-434. 2004
9 2004 by The New York Botanical Garden Press, Bronx, NY 10458-5126 U.S.A.
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2004] COOMES AND BAN : HOME GARDENS 421
Fig. 1. Map of study area, northeastern Peru.
suckers, etc.) play in determining plant diversity
in home gardens? Answers to these questions
point to the need for micr o-sca le ethnobotani-
cal studies of agrobiodiversity with particular at-
tention to the role, dynamics, and implications
of planting material transfers among traditional
peasant households.
STUDY RE
The communi ty chosen fo r s tudy--Nuevo
Triunfo---is located along the Tahuayo River, a
tr ibutary of the Amazon River, near the ci ty of
Iquitos in northeastern Peru (Fig. 1). At an ele-
vation of about 110m asl, the region receives
between 20 00-30 00 mm /yr of rainfall , in two
seasons defined by precipitation
( verano ,
Ju ly -
October;
invierno ,
December-March) ; a i r tem-
peratures and humidity are high year-round. The
comm unity is si tuated on an upland terrace
(ter-
rafirme) overlooking the Tahuayo River and the
Amazon valley lowland, and is surrounded by
rolling hills composed of old tertiary alluvium,
dissected by small streams. Soils of the upland
are typically weathered, acidic, and nutrient-
poor ultisols, whereas those of the floodplain are
younger and more fert i le Andean alluvium. The
forest land around Nuevo Triunfo has been high-
ly modified by local agricultural practices, re-
flected in a verdant mosaic of swidden fields,
orchards, and secondary forest fallows inland
from the cluster of raised huts and soccer pitch
that defines the village center.
Nuevo Triunfo is a small forest peasant com-
munity , one da y s travel upstream from Iquitos
by river boat (colectivo). Local residents are
mestizos of mixed Amerindian and Iberian de-
scent, referred to as ribere~os or r iver peo-
ple , w ho re ly for their livelihood on traditional
agriculture, fishing, hunting and forest product
extraction (Chibnik 1994; Hiraoka 1985; Padoch
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4 2 2 EC ON OM I C B OTA NY [ VOL. 5 8
1 9 8 8 ) . Ag r i cu l tu r a l p r ac t i ce s a r e e ssen t i a l l y i n -
d ig e n o u s in n a tu r e ( i .e ., u se o f ax es an d m a -
c h e t e s o n l y , n o f o s s i l - f u e l b a s e d i n p u t s ) , b u t p r o -
d u c t i o n i s o r i e n t e d t o w a r d s s u b s i s t e n c e n e e d s a s
w e l l a s t h e m a r k e t . O n t h e u p l a n d , r e s i d e n t s
p r a c t i c e s w i d d e n - f a l l o w a g r o f o r e s t r y , w h i c h b e -
g i n s w i t h t h e f e l li n g a n d b u r n i n g o f a p a t c h o f
r a i n f o r e s t t h a t i s t h e n c u l t i v a t e d t h r o u g h o n e t o
t h re e c r o p p h a s e s - - a s w i d d e n p h a s e o f a n n u a l
s u b s i s t e n c e c r o p s ( e .g . , m a n i o c , y a m s , o r p l a n -
t a in ) ; a t r an s i t i o n a l p h ase o f m a r k e tab le f r u i t
c r o p s ( e . g . , p i n e a p p l e , c a s h e w , guava, Inga
s p p . ); a n d a n o r c h a r d p h a s e o f l a t er m a t u r i n g
f ru i t t rees (e .g . , um ari, Poraqueiba sericea, ma-
carnbo, Theobroma bicolor, p e a c h p a l m , Bactris
g a s ip a es ) - - fo l lo w ed
b y a f o r e s t f a l l o w p h a s e
( C o o m e s a n d B u t t 1 9 9 7 ; H i r a o k a 1 9 8 6 ; P a d o c h
e t al . 1 9 8 5 ) . I n th e l o w lan d , r e s id en t s cu l t i v a t e
t h e s e a s o n a l l y i n u n d a t e d f l o o d p l a i n , p l a n t i n g
s w i d d e n s o f p r i m a r i l y a n n u a l t u b e r ( m a n i o c ) a n d
c e r e a l c r o p s ( m a i z e , r i c e ) ; o n h i g h e r g r o u n d ,
p l a n t a i n a n d o t h e r m o r e w a t e r - r e s i s t a n t t r e e
c r o p s a r e g r o w n ( C o o m e s 1 9 9 8 ) . H o m e g a r d e n s
a r e c u lt i v a te d p e r m a n e n t l y a n d c o m p l e m e n t p r o -
d u c t i o n f r o m u p l a n d a n d l o w l a n d f i e l d s . S u r p l u s
p r o d u c t i o n f r o m a g r i c u l t u r e a s w e l l a s f i s h i n g ,
h u n t i n g , a n d f o r e s t e x t r a c t i o n i s s o l d i n t h e m a r -
k e t s o f I q u i t o s t o f i n a n c e t h e p u r c h a s e o f v i t a l
c o n s u m e r g o o d s , s u c h a s c l o th i n g , c o o k i n g u t e n -
s i l s , f a r m i m p l e m e n t s , s a l t , a n d k e r o s e n e .
N u e v o T r i u n f o w a s f o u n d e d o n t h e p r e s e n t
s i t e i n 1 9 8 4 , h a v i n g o r i g i n a l l y b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d
a c r o s s t h e f i v e r i n t h e l o w l a n d s o m e 4 0 y e a r s
p r i o r a n d m o v e d t o t h e u p l a n d a f t e r a h i g h f l o o d
i n t h e p r e v i o u s y e a r d e s t r o y e d m u c h l i v e s t o c k
a n d l o w l a n d c r o p s . A t t h e ti m e o f i n t e r v i e w s
( 1 9 9 6) , t h e c o m m u n i t y w a s c o m p r i s e d o f 25
h o u s e h o l d s ( 1 7 8 i n d i v i d u a l s ) b e l o n g i n g t o o n e
o f t h re e k i n g r o u p s . A l l h o u s e h o l d s a r e e c o n o m -
i c a l l y p o o r . L a n d i s t h e p r i m a r y h o u s e h o l d a s s e t
a n d i s c l a i m e d b y c l e a r i n g a n d p l a n t i n g i n c r o p
( i. e. , b y u s u f r u c t ) ; t r a n s f e rs o c c u r b y g i f t i n g a n d
i n h e r i t a n c e a s n o l a n d ( o r l a b o r ) m a r k e t e x i s t s
i n t h e c o m m u n i t y . N o n - l a n d a s s e t s a r e f e w a n d
c o n s i s t p r in c i p a l ly o f i m p l e m e n t s f o r f a r m i n g ,
f i s hi n g , a n d h u n t i n g , a n d o f m i n o r l i v e s t o c k
( c h i c k e n s , d u c k s , a n d p i g s ) . C h i l d r e n a t t e n d a
l o c a l p r i m a r y s c h o o l b u t m u s t t r a v e l t o a n e i g h -
b o r i n g c o m m u n i t y ( N u e v o V a l e n ti n ) f o r s e c o n d -
a r y e d u c a t io n . H o u s e h o l d s d o n o t h a v e a c c e s s t o
e l ec t r i c i t y , p ip ed wa te r , o r h ea l th c l i n i c ( o r t r a -
d i t i o n a l h ea l e r , curandero) an d , u n l ik e o th e r v i l -
TABLE 1. CHARACTERISTICS OF SAMPLE HOUSE-
HOLDS, NUEVO TRIUNFO, PERU N = 2 4 ) .
Mean Std dev. Range
Household size 7.1 3.15 1-13
No. workers 3.3 2.35 1-10
No. dependents 3.9 2.23 0 -8
Household age (years) 11.9 9.94 0.3 -35
No. of f ields cultivated 3.8 2.01 0- 8
No. upland swiddens 1.7 0.87 0- 3
No. lowland swiddens 0.5 0.51 0- 1
No. other fields 1.6 1.32 0 -5
Non-land assets ( US) 84.20 60.88 0- 18 5
lag es a lo n g th e r i v e r , t h e r e a r e n o s to r e s bode-
gas) i n t h e c o m m u n i t y .
D A T A C O L L E C T IO N M E T H O D S
D a t a w e r e g a t h e r e d i n N u e v o T r i u n f o d u r i n g
J u n e - A u g u s t o f 1 9 9 6 . A l l h o u s e h o l d s w i t h o n e
e x c e p t i o n ( t h e s c h o o l t e a c h e r ) r e l y f o r th e i r e c o -
n o m i c l i v e l i h o o d u p o n a g r i c u l t u r e c o m p l e m e n t -
e d b y f i s h i n g , h u n t i n g , a n d f o r e s t p r o d u c t e x -
t r a c t i o n . S e m i - s t r u c t u r e d i n t e r v i e w s w e r e u n d e r -
t a k e n w i t h t h e h e a d s o f e a c h h o u s e h o l d , i n t h e ir
h o m e g a r d e n s
huertos)
( n = 2 4 ) a s we l l a s i n
t h e i r u p l a n d s w i d d e n s ( n = 4 0 ) a n d l o w l a n d
s w i d d e n s ( n = 1 2) . I n e a c h h o m e g a r d e n , t h e
n u m b e r o f e a c h s p e c ie s o f c u l t iv a t e d p l a n t w a s
r e c o r d e d , g a r d e n s i z e m e a s u r e d , a n d t h e o w n e r
w a s q u e r i e d a s t o t h e o r i g i n s a n d d e s t i n a t i o n s o f
p l a n t i n g m a t e r i a l f o r e a c h p l a n t i n t h e g a r d e n o r
s w i d d e n . I n a d d i t i o n , b a s i c i n f o r m a t i o n w a s
g a t h e r e d o n o t h e r l a n d h o l d i n g s ( i. e. , t ra n s i t i o n a l
a n d o r c h a r d f i e l d s ) a n d o n t h e d e m o g r a p h i c
c o m p o s i t i o n o f th e h o u s e h o l d , e c o n o m i c p r o -
d u c t i o n , n o n - l a n d a s s e t h o l d i n g s , k i n s h i p a n d
f a m i l y h is t o r y . C h a r a c t e r i s t ic s o f t h e s a m p l e a n d
h o u s e h o l d l a n d h o l d i n g a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 1 .
R E S U L T S
A l l h o u s e h o l d s i n N u e v o T r i u n f o p o s s e s s a
h o m e g a r d e n , t y p i c a l l y a d j a c e n t t o t h e h o m e i n
a r e c t a n g u l a r a r e a t h a t i s n e i t h e r f e n c e d n o r d e -
m a r c a t e d i n a n y s p e c i a l m a n n e r . P r o x i m i t y f a -
c i l i t a t e s c u l t i v a t i o n d u r i n g ' d o w n t i m e ' a s w e l l
a s c l o s e s u r v e i l l a n c e o f t h e g a r d e n t o r e d u c e t h e
r i sk o f th i e v e ry . G a r d e n s r e c e i v e f o o d w a s t e s
g e n e r a t e d b y t h e h o u s e h o l d , a n d d o m e s t i c a n i -
m a l s ( p i g s a n d f o w l ) f o r a g e f r e e l y i n t h e g a r -
d e n s , l e a v i n g t h e i r o w n o r g a n i c w a s t e t h a t
s e r v e s a s f e r ti li z er . G a r d e n s t y p i c a l l y c o m p r i s e
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2004] COOMES AND BAN: HOME GARDE NS 423
TABLE 2. HOME GARDEN CHARACTERISTICS, NUEVO TRIUNFO, PERU N =
24).
Mean Std. dev Range
Size of garden (m2)
Age of garden (years)
Inherited garden
No. plant species
No. species received
No. species given
2944 2483
13 10.95
42
16.3 8.86
6.4 4.26
2.7 4.16
195-10000
0.01-34.0
1-32
0-13
0-13
an a rea o f roughl y 50 m by 60 m (mean: 2944
m 2) and range up to one hectare in area (Table
2). About one in two to three households inher-
i ted it s garden f rom the prev ious own er who had
le ft the comm uni ty o r had sh i f ted home s ite. As
houses a re cons t ruc ted pr imar i ly o f fo res t p rod-
ucts (e .g. , t imber, palm fronds, and vines) which
biodegrade ra ther rap id ly , owners must re -bu i ld
the i r hu ts every 10-15 years , o f ten moving lo -
cation at the same t ime. For this reason, gardens
are o f ten inher ited and a re no t part icu la r ly o l d- -
in our sample the mean age of a garde n is 13
years ( range up to 34 years ) - -and garden age
and household age are not s ignif icantly correlat-
ed (r = 0.09, P = 0.69). Individual gardens vary
cons iderab ly in the number o f cu l t iva ted p lan ts
present , from one to 32 species (mean: 16.3) .
Genera l ly households repor t hav ing rece ived
more species for their garden (mean: 6 .4 species/
garden) than having given species to others (2.7/
garden); this f inding, however, may be due in
part to more precise recall on origins o f planting
material than on gif t ing.
Compared wi th o ther cu l t iva ted f ie lds , home
gardens are the si te of highest plant diversi ty in
Nu evo T riunfo. A total of 82 species of cult i-
vated plants was encountered in the gardens
(mean: 16.3 plants/garden), compared with 34
species in upland swidden f ie lds (mean: 4 .6) and
only 18 species in the lowland swiddens (mean:
2.0) (Fig. 2) . In both home gardens and upland
swiddens, fruit t rees and shrubs contr ibute at
least 50 of the cult ivated species; indeed, of
the 20 most commonly encounte red p lan t spe-
cies, 16 are fruit t rees or shrubs (see Appe ndix).
As perhaps expec ted , the number o f ind iv idua ls
per species i s very low -- f ru i t ing spec ies p rov ide
a nutr i t ional supplement, part icularly to children,
Fig. 2. Cultivated plant diversity in gardens and swidden fields, Nu evo Triunfo, Peru.
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4 2 4 E C O N O M I C B O T A N Y [V O L . 5 8
TABLE 3. R E G R E S S I O N M O D E L O F N U M B E R O F C U L T I V A T E D P L A N T SP E C IE S IN H O M E G A R D E N S , N U E V O
T R I U N F O , P E R U .
H o m e g a r d e n d i v e r s i ty
Constant 0.276 (0.08)
Ag e of garden 0.371 (3.53)***
Size of garden (1000 m2) -0. 65 5 (1.39)
No. of fields cultivated 1.959 (2.55)**
A ge of household (years) 0.046 (0.34)
Non-land assets ( US) -0. 05 2 (1.90)*
Kin grou p (1 = group 3; 0 = other) 7.647 (2.43)**
No. species received 0.775 (2.21)**
R 2 0.80
F value 8.93
P(F) <0.0001
No. observations 24
Notes: OL S est imation . Abso lu te v a lues o f asympto t ic) t -va lues p resen ted in parentheses.
*** P t) -< 0.01; ** P t) -< 0.05; * P t) -< 0.10.
a n d a r e n o t g r o w n i n l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s . H o m e g a r -
d e n s a r e d i s t i n c t f r o m u p l a n d a n d l o w l a n d s w i d -
d e n s a s t h e p r i m a r y s o u r c e o f m e d i c i n a l p l a n t s
a n d o r n a m e n t a l s p e c i e s ( F i g . 2 ) . L o w l a n d s w i d -
d e n s a r e t h e s i t e f o r p r i m a r i l y n o n - f r u i t c r o p s
( i . e . , m a n i o c , y a m s , m a i z e , r i c e , v e g e t a b l e s ) ; a n -
n u a l f l o o d i n g r e d u c e s t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r r a i s i n g
p e r en n ia l s , e sp ec i a l ly f r u i t t r ee s , i n t h e l o wlan d .
W h a t f a c t o r s a c c o u n t f o r v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e d i -
v e r s i t y o f c u l t iv a t e d p l a n t s e n c o u n t e r e d i n t h e
h o m e g a r d e n s o f N u e v o T r i u n fo ? T o a n s w e r th i s
q u e s t i o n , w e c o n d u c t e d m u l t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n a n a l -
y s e s u s i n g p l a n t d i v e r s i t y a s t h e d e p e n d e n t v a r -
i a b le . A s e r i e s o f i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s , d r a w n
f r o m m i c r o e c o n o m i c th e o r y a n d p r e v i o u s v il l a g e
l e v e l a g r i c u l t u r a l s t u d i e s i n t h e P e r u v i a n A m a -
z o n ( C o o m e s a n d B u r t 1 9 9 7 ; C o o m e s e t a l .
2 0 0 0 ) w a s t e s t e d . S i x v a r i a b l e s w e r e r e t a i n e d i n
t h e f in a l m o d e l - - t h e a g e a n d s i z e o f t h e g a r d en ;
t h e n u m b e r o f f i el d s c u l ti v a t e d b y t h e h o u s e h o l d ;
t h e a g e o f t h e h o u s e h o l d ; n o n - l a n d a s s e t h o l d -
i n g s ; k i n g r o u p a f f i l i a t i o n ; a n d , t h e n u m b e r o f
p l a n t s p e c i e s r e c e i v e d b y t h e h o u s e h o l d . T h e f i -
n a l m o d e l a c c o u n t s f o r 8 0 % o f t he o b s e r v e d v a r -
i a n c e i n p l a n t d i v e r s i t y a m o n g h o m e g a r d e n s i n
t h e v i l l a g e . H o m e g a r d e n d i v e r s i t y i s p o s i t i v e l y
r e l a t e d t o t h e a g e o f t h e g a r d e n , f ie l d h o l d i n g s ,
k i n s h i p g r o u p m e m b e r s h i p , a n d t h e n u m b e r o f
s p e c i e s r e c e i v e d , a n d n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o n o n -
l an d a sse t h o ld in g s . D iv e r s i t y i s n o t r e l a t ed , i n
a s t a t i s t i c a l ly s ig n i f i can t m an n e r , t o t h e s i ze o f
t h e g a r d e n n o r to t h e a g e o f t h e h o u s e h o l d . T h e
c o n t r i b u t i o n o f e a c h s i g n i fi c a n t e x p l a n a t o r y v a r -
i ab l e i s co n s id e r ed in t u r n .
H O M E G A R D E N A G E
H o m e g a r d e n d i v e r s i t y i s s t r o n g l y r e l a t e d t o
t h e a g e o f t h e g a r d e n - - o l d e r g a r d e n s a r e m o r e
d i v e r s e - - a n d n e w s p e c i e s a r e a d d e d ( g i v e n t h e
c u r r e n t m o d e l s p e c i f i c a t i o n ) a t a m e a n r a t e o f
a b o u t 3 - 4 p e r d e c a d e ( T a b l e 3 ) . C l e a r l y o v e r
t i m e , h o u s e h o l d s h a v e m o r e o p p o r t u n i t y t o c o l -
l e c t s p e c i e s t h a t a r e a d d e d t o t h e i r g a r d e n s f r o m
a v a r i e ty o f s o u r c e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e g a r d e n s a n d
f ie l d s o f n e i g h b o r s a n d r e l a t i v e s , t h e m a r k e t s i n
I q u i t o s , a s w e l l a s t h e f o r e s t a n d f l o o d p l a i n . B u t
p l a n t d i v e r s i t y i s a l s o i n h e r i t e d - - - o l d e r g a r d e n s
a r e m o r e l i k e l y t o h a v e c h a n g e d o w n e r s a n d
s u c h g a r d e n s b e a r a n i m p r i n t o f th e p e r s o n a l
p r e f e r en ces , t a s t e s , i n t e re s t s , an d sk i l ls o f t h e
p r e v i o u s g a r d e n e r . T h e i n h e r i t o r t y p i c a l l y a d d s
c e r t a i n p l a n t s a n d d r o p s o t h e r s , a n d a f u s i o n o f
o l d - n e w s p e c i e s e m e r g e s i n w h i c h p l a n t d i v e r -
s i t y i s en h an ced .
A n o t a b l e p a t t e r n e m e r g e s o v e r ti m e i n th e
s p e c i e s c o m p o s i t i o n o f h o m e g a r d e n s ( F i g . 3 ).
B o t h t h e a b s o l u t e a n d r e l a t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f
f r u i t s p e c i e s r i s e s s t e a d i l y w i t h g a r d e n a g e . F o r
e x a m p l e , i n a y o u n g g a r d e n ( i. e ., < 1 0 y e a r s ) ,
f r u i t s p e c i e s c o n t r i b u t e 6 8 % o f t o ta l c u l t i v a t e d
s p e c i e s c o m p a r e d t o 8 4 % i n o l d g a r d e n s ( i . e . ,
3 0 + y e a rs ) . I n th e y o u n g g a r d e n s, n o n - f r u i t
c r o p s - - s u c h a s t h e s ta p le , m a n i o c - - t e n d t o b e
r e l a t i v e l y m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n i n l a t e r y e a r s .
S o m e t i m e s , t h e h o m e g a r d e n i s u s e d a s t h e f i r s t
c r o p p i n g s i t e, a s a ' p i o n e e r f i e l d ' f o r i n c i p i e n t
h o u s e h o l d s ; i n d e e d , o n e f a m i l y t h a t a r r i v e d i n
N u e v o T r i u n f o j u s t d a y s p r i o r t o t h e i n t e r v ie w
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2004] COOMES AND BAN: HOME GARDE NS 425
Fig. 3. Crop diversity by age in home gardens, Nuevo Triunfo, Peru.
were bus i ly amass ing manioc s takes to p lan t in
their home garden to secure an ini t ia l source of
this vi ta l subsistence crop. In older gardens,
manioc is rarely encountered; instead, mature
perennial fruit t rees and shrubs dominate . Over
t ime , we a lso observe tha t the number o f me-
dicinal plants increases to a maximum in gar-
dens be tween 20 -2 9 years o f age , then fa ll s o f f
in the oldest gardens, fol lowing closely the de-
mographic l i fe cyc le o f the household . Cons t ruc-
t ion materials as well as oth er species (e .g. ,
sugar cane,
bijau, Calathe a inocephala, kudzu,
Calopogonium caeruleum
are most evident in
the oldest gardens. Such trends in garden com-
posit ion and diversi ty are unlikely to be related
to marke t access , which has no t changed s ign i f -
icantly over the past 30 years, or to plant sub-
st i tution by stor e-bo ugh t produc ts (e .g. , phar-
maceuticals) over t ime.
HOUSEHOLD WEALTH
Home garden diversi ty is posit ively related to
household land holdings ( i .e . , number of f ie lds) ,
su g g e s t in g th a t i n N u e v o T r iu n fo - -w h e re m o s t
households depend fundamenta l ly upon agr icu l -
tu re fo r sus tenance- -wea l th ie r households tend
to hold greater plant diversi ty in their gardens?
This assoc ia t ion be tween land wea l th and home
garden diversi ty arises because households with
more agricultural f ie lds are more l ikely to have
different types of f ie lds (e .g. , swidden, transi-
t ional, o rchards, fores t fa l lows) an d f ie lds in dis-
t inct environments (e .g. , upland as well as low-
land), ra is ing total crop diversi ty in their farming
portfolios. Our regression results suggest that
each addit ional f ie ld held by a household is as-
sociated with two addit ional plant species in the
home garden. Indeed, species diversi ty in the
home garden is posit ively correlated with the
numbe r o f c rops shared be tween home gardens
and upland swiddens (r = 0.45, P < 0.05), i.e. ,
more d iverse gardens have a h igher number o f
shared species (maximum: seven species) .
Hom e gardens appear to se rve as s tag ing ar -
eas where plant species are accum ulated, safe-
guarded, and experimented with unti l condit ions
are conduc ive for transplanting (Brierley 1976).
Several farmers s tated explici t ly that they were
growing c rops in the i r home garden un t i l a new
swidden f ie ld was opened, a t which t ime some
of the crops ( leaving representat ive exemplars in
the home garden) would be transplanted. Over-
al l , more plant species enter the home gardens
(40 species) than leave the gardens (33 species)
(Fig. 4) . Most plant species dest ined for home
gardens originate from lowland swidden f ie lds
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4 2 6 E CO NOM I C BO T AN Y [ VOL . 5 8
Fig 4
U p l a n d S w i d d e n s
n = 4
~ 1 1
species
2 speci ~ ~
\ \ \ e x c h a n g e s )
38e x c h a n g e s ) ~
L o w l a n d S w i d d e n s
n= 2
21s pe cie s / 7 / /
33e xc h n g / ~ / /~3~spee ies
/ 3exchanges)
7 species
7exchanges)
H o m e G a r d en
n = 2 4
10
species
16exchanges)
T r a n s i t i o n a l / O r c h a r d s
n = 3 8
Paths o f crop transplantation between hom e gardens and agricultural fields, N uev o Triunfo, Peru.
( 21 s p e c i e s ), f o l l o w e d b y u p l a n d s w i d d e n f i e ld s
( 1 1 sp ec i e s ) , an d t r an s i t i o n a l /o r ch a r d f i e ld s ( sev -
e n s p e c i e s ) , w i t h o n l y o n e c r o p c o m i n g f r o m
s e c o n d a r y f o re s t. T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f l o w l a n d
s w i d d e n s i n c o n t r i b u t i n g s p e c i e s t o h o m e g a r -
d e n s m a y b e a n h i s t o r i c a l a r t i f a c t - - t h e c o m -
m u n i t y m o v e d ( i n 1 9 8 4) f r o m t h e l o w l a n d t o th e
u p l a n d a n d h o u s e h o l d s l i ke l y c h o s e t o s a f e g u a r d
s p e c i e s i n t h e i r h o m e g a r d e n s d u r i n g t h e t r a n -
s it io n . L o w l a n d s w i d d e n s t o d a y i n N u e v o T r i u n -
f o a r e t h e l e a s t d i v e r s e o f t h e f i e ld s s t u d i e d a n d
f e w e r t h a n o n e i n t w o h o u s e h o l d s p o s s e s s f i e l d s
i n t h e l o w l a n d .
W h e r e a s l o w l a n d s w i d d e n s a r e t h e o r i g i n o f
m a n y p l a n t s p e c i e s i n t h e g a r d e n s , j u s t o v e r 6 0
o f t h e s p e c i e s t h a t l e a v e t h e g a r d e n s a r e d e s t i n e d
f o r u p l a n d s w i d d e n s , a n d c r o p s p e c i e s a r e o f t e n
' r o u t e d t h r o u g h ' h o m e g a r de n s . E l e v e n o f t h e
c r o p s p e c i e s , f o r e x a m p l e , t h a t e n te r e d g a r d e n s
f r o m t h e l o w l a n d f i e ld s w e r e t r a n s p l a n t e d t o u p -
l a n d s w i d d e n f ie l d s (i .e ., m o r i c h e p a l m ,
Maur i t ia
f lexuosa;
swee t so p ; s t a r ap p le ;
camu-camu,
Myrca iar ia
s p . ; p e a c h t o m a t o ;
guava, Inga
sp p . ;
b r e a d f r u i t ; p e a c h p a l m ; p l a t a n o ;
umarf;
a n d
uvilla, Pourouma cecropiaefolia ;
a n d s e v e n o f
t h e t e n s p e c i e s t r a n s p l a n t e d f r o m t h e h o m e g a r -
d e n t o t r a n s i t i o n a l / o r c h a r d f i e l d s w e r e i n t r o -
d u c e d f r o m t h e l o w l a n d v i a t h e h o m e g a r d e n .
O n l y t e n s p e c i e s e n t e r t h e h o m e g a r d e n b u t a r e
n o t t r a n s p l a n t e d e l s e w h e r e - - - o l i v e t r e e ;
alvaca,
Ocim um basilicum; ayahuma, Couroupita gui-
anensis; ceiba, Ceiba pentandra; coraz6n de Je-
sus, Caladium bicolor; huito, Genipa ameri-
cana; malva, Malachra capitata; p a p a y a ; p h y s i c
n u t ,
Jatropha
sp . ; an d
sapote, Quararibea cor-
data.
H o m e g a r d e n s t h u s a p p e a r t o l i e a t t h e
c e n t e r o f p l a n ti n g m a t e r i a l f l o w s a m o n g d i s t i n c t
f i e l d t y p e s a n d e n v i r o n m e n t s i n f a r m e r s ' p o r t -
f o l i o s ; t h e y ' c o l l e c t ' a n d s a f e g u a r d g e r m p l a s m ,
a n d h o u s e h o l d s w i t h m o r e f i e l d s t e n d t o h a v e
m o r e s p e c i e s - r i c h g a r d e n s .
KINSHIP AFFILIATION
Kin sh ip a f f i l i a t i o n i s a l so s t r o n g ly r e l a t ed to
h o m e g a r d e n d i v e r s i t y - - m e m b e r s h i p i n k i n
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2004] COOMES AND BAN : HOME GARDENS 427
Fig. 5. Sources of crop planting material for home gardens, Nuevo Triunfo, Peru.
group no. 3 ( Gonz~ilez ) would add alm ost
eight cult ivated plant species to the hom e garden
(i .e. , 50% of mean diversi ty encountered) com-
pared with other kin groups. The Gonz~lez kin
group is the largest of three kin groups in N uevo
Triunfo, with 14 households (109 people); the
Rodrfguez and Garcfa kin groups are comprised
of f ive and four households respectively; only
one household (of one person) is not related to
others in the rest of the village. Larger kin
groups have increased opportunities for encoun-
tering planting material for their gardens, for
reasons similar to why individual households
with more fields tend to have more diverse gar-
dens. In addition, planting stock tends to be ex-
changed primarily along kinship l ines and so
households belonging to larger kin groups (with
more gardens) will have mo re opportunit ies and
perhaps more varied need for exchanging plant-
ing stock among their gardens (Fig. 5). Char-
acteristics of the kin group, beyond size, are also
likely to be important (indeed, we tested kin
group size and found size to be a weaker pre-
dictor than kin group affiliation). Among the
Gonz~ilez group are the founders of the com-
munity , many have served in leadership roles
over the years, and several hold a particular in-
terest in plants and plant diversity ( le gus ta mu-
cho las plantas , the emic explication of high
species diversity in their gardens).
PLANTING MATERIAL EXCHANGE
The final variable related to home garden di-
versi ty is the number of plant species received
from others. Households commonly exchange
planting ma terial-- in cluding seeds, cutt ings, and
suckers--that is incorporated into the garden
and adds to plant diversity. Planting material
tends to be given, rather than sold or bartered,
and the recipient is highly cognizant of species
received, readily recall ing the donor 's name by
plant species; respondents were less able to re-
call the names of all individuals to whom they
had given planting material from their garden.
Our regression model indicates that for each
species received about 0.78 is retained in the
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4 2 8 E CONOMI C BOT AN Y [ VOL . 5 8
TA BL E 4. REGRESS ION MODELS OF NUMBER OF HOME GARDEN PLANT SPECIES RECEIVED AND GIVEN BY
HOUSEHOLDS, NUEVO TR1UNFO.
No. of species received No. of species given
Constant 8 .755 (5.28)*** -2 .04 3 (1.22)
Ag e of household -0 .55 8 (2.17)** 0.099 (1.29)
A ge of household 2 0.018 (2.35)**
Garden divers ityt 0 .217 (2.50)**
R 2 0.21 0.32
F value 2.76 4.87
P(F) 0.09 0.02
No. observations 24 24
Notes: OLS estimations. Absolute values of asymptotic) t-values presented in parentheses.
t Number of cultivated plants species in home garden.
*** P t) ~< 0.01; ** P t) -< 0.05.
g a r d e n , i n d i c a t in g a m e a n p r o b a b i l i t y o f lo s s f o r
a g i v e n p l a n t e n t e r i n g t h e g a r d e n o f a b o u t 2 2 % .
T h i s v a r i a b l e s e r v e s b o t h a s a c o n t r o l a n d a d i -
a g n o s t i c m e a s u r e - - o u r f i n d i n g t h a t t h e n u m b e r
o f s p e c i e s r e c e i v e d a c c o u n t s f o r s o m e b u t n o t all
o f t h e v a r i a n c e i n p la n t d i v e r s i t y s u g g e s t s a s i g -
n i f i c an t r o l e f o r p la n t m a t e r i a l e x c h a n g e b u t a l s o
t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f o t h e r s o u r c e s , i . e. , i n h e ri t a n c e ,
se l f - p r o cu r em en t i n o th e r f i e ld s o r f o r e s t , n a tu r a l
r e g e n e r a t i o n i n s it u o f p r e v i o u s l y c u l t i v a t e d
p l a n t s, a n d ' i m p o r t s ' o f s e e d s b y ro d e n t s a n d
b i r d s . P e r h a p s n o t s u r p r i s i n g l y , t h e n u m b e r o f
p l a n t s p e c i e s r e c e i v e d i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o r r e l a t e d
w i t h t h e n u m b e r o f s p e c i e s g i v e n ( r = 0 . 4 6 , P
= 0 . 0 4 ) , a n d h o u s e h o l d s t h a t e x c h a n g e m o r e
p l a n t i n g m a t e r i a l t e n d t o h a v e m o r e d i v e r s e g a r -
d en s ( r = 0 .4 2 , P < 0 .0 5 ) .
T o a s s e s s t h e f a c t o r s t h a t i n f lu e n c e t h e n u m b e r
o f p la n t s p e c i e s g i v e n a n d r e c e i v e d , w e t e s t e d
u s i n g r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s e s a r a n g e o f h o u s e h o l d
f e a t u r e s a n d f o u n d t w o p r e d i c t i v e m o d e l s o f
n o t e ( T a b l e 4 ) . T h e n u m b e r o f s p e c i e s
re eived
i s m o s t e x p l a i n e d b y h o u s e h o l d a g e a n d h o u s e -
h o l d a g e s q u a r e d ( R 2 = 0 . 2 1 ) - - t h e n u m b e r o f
s p e c i e s r e c e i v e d b y h o u s e h o l d s t e n d s t o f a l l i n i -
t i a ll y ( e a r l y i n t h e h o u s e h o l d l if e c y c l e ) a n d t h e n
r i se f o r h o u s e h o l d s b e y o n d t h e a g e o f a b o u t 1 5
y e a r s . I t w o u l d s e e m t h a t a t i n c e p ti o n , h o u s e -
h o l d s r e c e i v e a c e r t a in s t o c k o f p l a n t s p e c i e s ,
t h e n o t h e r s o u r c e s b e c o m e i m p o r t a n t ; l a t e r i n
l i f e , h o u s e h o l d s r e c e i v e a n i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r o f
p l a n t s p e c i e s f r o m o t h e r h o u s e h o l d s . I n c o n t r a s t ,
t h e n u m b e r o f p l a n t s p e c i e s
given
i s p r ed ic t ed
m o s t s t r o n g l y b y t h e d i v e r s i ty o f t h e h o m e g a r -
d e n ( c o n t r o l l i n g f o r h o u s e h o l d a g e ) ( R 2 = 0 . 3 2 ) .
E a c h n e w s p e c i e s i n t h e g a r d e n i n c r e a s e s t h e
p r o b a b i l i t y o f g i f ti n g a s p e c i e s b y 2 2 % . A s s u c h ,
e x c h a n g e s c o n t r ib u t e t o g a r d e n d i v e r s i t y
( t h r o u g h s p e c i e s r e c e i v e d ) a n d g a r d e n d i v e r s i t y
c o n t r i b u t e s t o m a t e r i a l e x c h a n g e s ( v i a s p e c i e s
g iv en ) .
W h e r e a s t h e e x c h a n g e o f se e d s , c u t t i n g s , e tc . ,
d o e s p r o c e e d a s i n f o r m a l g i f t i n g , a n d a p p a r e n t l y
w i t h o u t e x p l i c i t r e c i p r o c a l o b l i g a t i o n s , t h e
m o v e m e n t o f p l a nt i n g m a t e ri a l i s b y n o m e a n s
' f r e e f l o w i n g ' . O u r d a t a i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e m a j o r -
i ty o f e x c h a n g e s i n N u e v o T r i u n f o o c c u r a m o n g
r e s i d e n t s w i t h i n th e v i l l a g e ( 6 3 % o f p l a n t s p e -
c i e s r e c e i v e d ; 7 8 % o f s p e c i e s g i v e n ) a n d t y p i -
c a l l y a m o n g m e m b e r s o f t h e s a m e k i n g r o u p
( 5 6 % o f s p e c ie s g i v e n ; 4 0 % r e c e iv e d ) . E x c h a n g -
e s w i t h n o n - k i n f o l k ( 2 2 % o f s pe c i e s g i v e n ; 2 3 %
r e c e i v e d ) a n d o t h e r v i l l a g e s ( 2 2 % s p e c i e s g i v e n ;
1 9 % r e c e i v e d ) a r e o f s e c o n d a r y i m p o r t a n c e . 2 I n -
t e r e s t i n g ly , t h e Go n z~ i l ez an d Gar c f a k in g r o u p s ,
w i t h t h e h i g h e s t g a r d e n d i v e r s i t y , r e l i e d m o s t
h e a v i l y u p o n k i n f o l k f o r p l a n t i n g m a t e r i a l ,
w h e r e a s t h e R o d r f g u e z g r o u p ( l o w e s t g a r d e n d i -
v e r s i t y ) r e l i e d m o r e o n n o n - k i n f o l k i n N u e v o
T r i u n f o a n d b e y o n d ( F i g . 5 ) . I n d e e d , d u r i n g i n -
t e rv i e w s w e o b s e r v e d t ha t o u r g u i d e - - a m e m b e r
o f t h e G o n z ~ i l e z g r o u p w h o h o l d s o n e o f t h e
m o s t d i v e r s e g a r d e n s i n t h e v i l l a g e - - w o u l d o n
o c c a s i o n u s e o u r p r e s e n c e t o a c q u ir e n e w s p e -
c i e s f r o m o t h e r h o u s e h o l d s, s o m e f r o m o t h e r k in
g r o u p s . H e d i d s o b y r e m a r k i n g , O h , I d i d n ' t
k n o w y o u h a d t h a t p la n t ; w o u l d y o u m i n d i f I
t o o k a s e e d / c u t ti n g o r t w o ? ; t h e r e s p o n d i n g
h o u s e h o l d w a s c o m p e l l e d b y c o u r t e s y t o o b l i g e .
A l t h o u g h i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t o u r g u i d e w a s t r u l y
u n a w a r e o f th e s p e c i e s c o m p o s i t i o n o f o t h e r
f a m i l i e s ' h o m e g a r d e n s i n s u c h a s m a l l c o m -
m u n i t y , s o m e f a r m e r s d o h o l d ' s p e c i a l ' s p e c i e s
o r v a r i e t i e s t h a t t h ey sec r e t ly cu l t i v a t e ; su ch sp e -
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2 00 4] C O O M E S A N D B A N : H O M E G A R D E N S 4 2 9
c i e s t h o u g h t e n d t o b e f o u n d i n d i s t a n t f i e l d s a n d
f a l l o w s , r a t h e r t h a n i n t h e i r h o m e g a r d e n s .
N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e f a c t t h a t o u r p r e s e n c e f a c i l i -
t a t e d t h e a c q u i s i ti o n o f s e e d s o r c u t t i n g s s u g -
g e s t s t h a t s o c i a l i m p e d i m e n t s t o t h e m o v e m e n t
o f p l a n t i n g m a t e r i a l w i t h i n a t r a d it i o n a l v i l l a g e
a r e s i g n i f i c a n t .
D I S C U S S I O N A N D C O N C L U S I O N S
T h i s s t u d y o f c u l t iv a t e d p l a n t s p e c i e s d i v e r s i t y
i n t h e h o m e g a r d e n s o f a s m a l l t r a d i ti o n a l c o m -
m u n i t y i n th e P e r u v i a n A m a z o n y i e l d s f o u r p r in -
c i p a l f in d i n g s . F i rs t , h o m e g a r d e n s a r e i n d e e d
t h e s i te o f h i g h e s t p l a n t d i v e r s i t y - - i n c l u d i n g
c r o p a n d n o n -c r o p s p e c i e s - - a m o n g c u l ti v a te d
f i e ld s i n f a r m e r s a g r i c u l t u ra l p o r t f o l i o s . D i v e r -
s i t y i n h o m e g a r d e n s i s h i g h e r t h a n i n s w i d d e n s ,
t r a n s i t i o n a l f i e l d s , a n d o r c h a r d s f o r s e v e r a l r e a -
s o n s . U n l i k e f i el d s i n s w i d d e n - f a l l o w s y s t e m s o r
f l o o d p l a i n a g r i c u lt u r e , h o m e g a r d e n s a r e c o n t i n -
u o u s l y c u l t i v a t e d a n d t h e i r r e l a t i v e p e r m a n e n c e
p e r m i t s t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f p l a n t s p e c ie s . F a r m -
e r s t e n d a l so t o u s e h o m e g a r d e n s a s a b r i d g e
a m o n g t h e i r f i e l d s i n d i s t i n c t e n v i r o n m e n t s . I n
N u e v o T r i u n f o , m o s t s p e c i e s e n t e r i n g t h e g a r -
d e n s a r e f r o m t h e l o w l a n d s w h e r e a s t h o s e l e a v -
i n g a r e d e s t i n e d t o u p l a n d f ie l d s; t h e g a r d e n s a c t
a s s t a g i n g a r e a s . A n n u a l f l o o d i n g in th e l o w -
l a n d s l i m i t s t h e d i v e r s i t y p o s s i b l e f r o m p e r e n n i a l
t r e e c r o p s i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e s t a b l e u p l a n d e n v i -
r o n m e n t ; i n d e e d , f i e l d s t u d i e s e l s e w h e r e s u g g e s t
t h a t u p l a n d h o m e g a r d e n s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o r e
d i v e r s e t h a n h o m e g a r d e n s f o u n d i n l o w l a n d
c o m m u n i t ie s o f t h e u p p e r A m a z o n ( L e rc h 2 0 0 0 )
t h o u g h p e r h a p s n o t t h e l o w e r A m a z o n ( S m i th ,
1 9 9 6 ) . H o m e g a r d e n s a l s o c a n f u l f i l l t h e d i v e r s e
n e e d s o f h o u s e h o l d s , b y t h e i r d i v e r s i t y a n d p r o -
p i n q u i t y - - d i v e r s i t y c o n t r i b u t e d b y m e d i c i n a l
p l a n t s , o r n a m e n t a l s , a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n m a t e r i a l i s
p a r t i c u l a r l y e v i d e n t i n g a r d e n s . P r o p i n q u i t y a l s o
a i d s i n t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f s p e c i e s f r o m t h r e a t s o f
a n i m a l p r e d a t i o n a n d t h e ft , f u r t h e r i n g t h e m a i n -
t e n a n c e o f p l a n t s p e c i e s d i v e r s i t y .
S e c o n d , h o m e g a r d e n d i v e r s i t y i s n o r m a l l y
d i s t r i b u t e d b u t r a n g e s m a r k e d l y a m o n g h o u s e -
h o l d s w i t h i n t h e c o m m u n i t y . W h e r e a s t h e t o t a l
n u m b e r o f s p e c i e s e n c o u n t e r e d i n th e g a r d e n s o f
N u e v o T r i u n f o ( 84 ) a n d i n th e m o s t d i v e r s e g a r-
d e n s ( 3 2 ) is c o m p a r a b l e t o o b s e r v a t i o n s f r o m
e l s e w h e r e i n th e A m a z o n ( G u i l l a u m e t e t al .
1 9 9 0 ; L a m o n t e t a l . 1 9 9 9; L e r c h 2 0 0 0 ; O r 6 B a l -
b i n a n d S a m a n i e g o 1 9 96 ; P a d o c h a n d d e J o n g
1 9 9 1 ; S m i t h 1 9 9 6 ), m e a n d i v e r s i t y i s o n l y 1 6
s p e c i e s p e r g a r d e n a n d s o m e g a r d e n s h a v e f e w e r
t h a n f i v e s p e c i e s p r e s e n t . T h i s f i n d i n g s u g g e s t s
t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f a s s e s si n g s p e c i e s d i v e rs i ty
t h r o u g h m o r e e x t e n s i v e s a m p l i n g , a n d t h e li m i -
t a t io n s o f s e l e c t i v e t y p i c a l g a r d e n s t h a t i n e v i -
t a b l y a r e m o r e d i v e r s e t h a n t h e m e a n . I f r e -
s e a r c h e r s s e e k t o b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d t h e u n d e r -
l y i n g d e t e r m i n a n t s o f c u l t i v a t e d p l a n t r ic h n e s s i n
h o m e g a r d e n s , th e n a m o r e c o m p l e t e a s s e s s m e n t
o f d i v e r s i ty i s n e e d e d f o r b o t h s p e c i e s a n d v a -
r ie t i e s. S u c h a s s e s s m e n t s m u s t b e b o t h g e o -
g r a p h i c a l ( i .e . , w h e r e i n A m a z o n i a i s c r o p s p e -
c i e s d i v e r s i t y g r e a t e s t ? ) b u t a l s o s o c i a l l y f o c u s e d
( i . e . , w h o i n s p e c i f i c l o c a l e s h o l d t h e g r e a t e s t
d i v e r s i t y ? ) .
T h i r d , l o c a l v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e d i v e r s i t y o f c u l -
t i v a t e d p l a n t s p e c i e s i n h o m e g a r d e n s a r e s t r o n g -
l y re l a t e d t o g a r d e n c h a r a c t e r i s ti c s , s p e c i f i c
h o u s e h o l d s o c i o - e c o n o m i c f e a t u r e s , a n d a c c e s s
t o p l a n t i n g m a t e r i a l . G a r d e n a g e i s p a r t i c u l a r l y
i n f l u e n t i a l - - o l d e r g a r d e n s t e n d t o b e m o r e d i -
v e r s e , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h r e s p e c t t o p e r e n n i a l f r u i t
t r e e c r o p s , m e d i c i n a l p l a n t s , a n d p l a n t s t h a t p r o -
v i d e m a t e r i a l s f o r c o n s t r u c t io n . I n N u e v o T r i u n -
f o , y o u n g g a r d e n s s o m e t i m e s s e r v e a s p io n e e r
f i e ld s f o r i n c i p i e n t h o u s e h o l d s , a n d t h e g a r d e n s
a r e d o m i n a t e d b y n o n - f r u i t s ta p l e s ; o v e r t i m e ,
f r u i t s p e c i e s , e s p e c i a l l y p e r e n n i a l t r e e c r o p s ,
c o m e to d o m i n a t e t h e g a rd e n s . S u c h s h i f ts i n
d i v e r s it y a n d c o m p o s i t i o n m a y r e f le c t c h a n g i n g
s o i l a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s i n g a r d e n s
o v e r ti m e . G a r d e n s i z e i s n o t r e la t e d t o s p e c i e s
r ic h n e s s , i n p a r t b e c a u s e l a n d r e m a i n s a b u n d a n t
i n t h e v i l l a g e ; e l s e w h e r e , i n m o r e u r b a n i s e d
c o m m u n i t i e s , t h e s i z e o f th e g a r d e n m a y b e i n -
f l u e n t i a l ( L e r c h 2 0 0 0 ) .
O f h o u s e h o l d f e a t u r e s , w e a l t h i n l a n d a n d k i n -
s h i p a f f i l i a t i o n a r e m o s t s t r o n g l y r e l a t e d t o h o m e
g a r d e n d i v e r s it y . H o u s e h o l d s b e l o n g i n g t o l a r g e r
k i n g r o u p s t e n d t o h a v e m o r e d i v e r s e g a r d e n s ;
w h i c h g r o u p a l s o m a t t e r s , i . e . , t h o s e w i t h h i g h
s o c i a l s t a n d i n g a n d a n i n t e r e s t in p la n t s . H o u s e -
h o l d s h o l d i n g m o r e l a n d ( i . e . , m o r e f i e l d s ) a l s o
t e n d t o h a v e m o r e d i v e r s e g a r d e n s ; t h e y h a v e
a c c e s s t o m o r e d i st in c t e n v i r o n m e n t s w h e r e
e d a p h i c c o n d i t i o n s g i v e ri s e to d i st i n c t a s s e m -
b l a g e s o f s p e c i e s a s w e l l a s f i e ld s i n d i f fe r e n t
s t a g e s o f c u l t i v a t i o n a n d s u c c e s s i o n ; t h e h o m e
g a r d e n se r v e s t o b r i d g e s u c h e n v i r o n m e n t s .
B e t t e r o f f h o u s e h o l d s m a y h a v e m o r e i n t e re s t in
p l a n t s p e c i e s d i v e r s i t y , m o r e o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o
c o l l e c t s p e c i e s ( e . g ., v i a m o r e f r e q u e n t a n d / o r
e x t e n s i v e t r a v e l , s o c i a l p o s i t i o n , e t c . ) , a n d m o r e
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4 3 0 E CO N O M I C BO T A N Y [ V O L . 5 8
t i m e t o i n v e s t i n g a r d e n i n g . I n d e e d , h o m e g a r -
d e n d i v e r s i t y a p p e a r s t o b e s e e n l o c a l l y m o r e a s
a s o c i a l th a n e c o n o m i c a s s e t , a s a s o u r c e o f p r i d e
a s w e l l a s g i f t s ( p r o d u c t s o r p l a n t s t h e m s e l v e s )
t h a t c a n s e r v e t o b u i l d s o c i a l c a p i t a l. S u c h f i n d -
i n g s a r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h o s e o f o t h e r r e s e a r c h -
e r s w o r k i n g b e y o n d t h e A m a z o n b a s i n ( e . g . ,
Z i m m e r e r 1 9 9 1 ) - - t h a t w e a l th i e r h o u s e h o ld s
t e n d to h o l d g r e a t e r a g r o b i o d i v e r s i t y - - a n d p o i n t
t o t h e n e e d f o r c l o s e r s t u d y o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n
o f d i v e r s i t y , i ts d e t e r m i n a n t s a n d i m p l i c a t i o n s a t
m i c r o - s c a l e s .
F o u r t h , th e e x c h a n g e o f p l a n t in g m a t e r i a l - - a s
s e e d s , c u tt i n g s , o r s u c k e r s - - i s a k e y f a c t o r in t h e
d e v e l o p m e n t an d m a i n t e n a n c e o f c r o p s p e c i e s
d i v e r s i t y . F a r m e r s a c q u i r e p l a n t i n g m a t e r i a l f o r
t h e i r g a r d e n s b y i n s i tu i n h e r i ta n c e , n a t u r a l p r o p -
a g a t i o n , t r a n s p l a n t a t i o n f r o m o t h e r f i e ld s a n d t h e
f o r e s t , b u t a l s o f r o m o n e a n o t h e r t h r o u g h g i f ti n g .
T o m a i n t a i n d i v e r s i t y , a c o n s t a n t f l o w o f p l a n t -
i n g m a t e r i a l m u s t e n t e r t h e g a r d e n t h a t o f f s e t s
l o s s e s t o n a t u r a l g e r m p l a s m d e g r a d a t i o n , d i s -
e a s e , l i v e s t o c k a n d p e s t d a m a g e , a n d t h e f t.
T h o s e h o u s e h o l d s i n N u e v o T r i u n f o w i t h m o r e
d i v e r s e h o m e g a r d e n s r e c e i v e d a l a r g e r sh a r e o f
t h e i r p l a n t i n g m a t e r i a l t h r o u g h e x c h a n g e t h a n
f r o m o t h e r s o u r c e s , a n d a l s o t e n d t o g i f t m o r e
s p e c ie s . I n d e e d , h o m e g a r d e n d i v e r s i t y a n d
p l a n t i n g m a t e r i a l e x c h a n g e a p p e a r t o b e r e l a t e d
e n d o g e n o u s l y . H o u s e h o l d s t h a t e x c h a n g e m o r e
s e e d s , c u t ti n g s , e tc . w i t h o t h e r h o u s e h o l d s h a v e
m o r e d i v e r s e g a r d e n s a n d v i c e v e r s a - - - d i v e r si t y
b e g e t s e x c h a n g e , a s e x c h a n g e b e g e t s d i v e r s i t y .
M o r e s p e c i f i c a l ly , w h e r e a s g a r d e n d i v e r s i t y d e -
p e n d s o n t h e n u m b e r o f s p e c i e s r e c e i v e d , t h e
n u m b e r o f s p e c i e s g i f t e d i s d r i v e n b y t h e d i v e r -
s i ty o f t h e d o n o r s h o m e g a r d e n . B u t t h e e x -
c h a n g e o f p la n t i n g m a t e r ia l a m o n g h o u s e h o l d s
i s b y n o m e a n s f r e e f lo w i n g . M u c h p l a n t in g
m a t e r i a l f l o w s a l o n g k i n s h i p l i n e s , a n d s o c i a l
i m p e d i m e n t s t o t he e x c h a n g e o f p l a n ti n g m a t e -
r i a l a p p e a r t o b e s i g n i f i c a n t , e v e n i n a c l o s e l y
k n i t tr a d i t i o n a l c o m m u n i t y s u c h a s N u e v o T r i u n -
f o - - o n e t h at l a c k s a t ra d i t io n a l h e a l e r curan-
dero
o r
shaman)
t o f a c i l i t a t e o r m e d i a t e e x -
c h a n g e s . T h e e x c h a n g e o f p l a n ti n g m a t e r i a l
a m o n g t r a d it io n a l f a r m e r s - - w h e r e m a r k e t s fo r
s e e d s , c u t ti n g s , et c . ar e e s s e n t i a l l y a b s e n t - - m e r -
i ts c l o s e r a t t e n t i o n i n s t u d i e s o f a g r o b i o d i v e r s i t y .
N o t o n l y i s a c c e s s to p l a n t i n g s t o c k a n im p o r t a n t
d e t e r m i n a n t o f d i v e r s i ty b u t th e u n e v e n a n d i m -
p e d e d f l o w o f m a t e r i a l e x c h a n g e i n t r a d i t i o n a l
s y s t e m s m a y h a v e i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r in
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A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S
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