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Cooperative Games – The Shapley value and Weighted Voting Yair Zick

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Page 1: Cooperative Games The Shapley value and Weighted Votingarielpro/15896s16/slides/896s16-11.pdf · Shapley value (and the Banzhaf value) is #P complete (counting complexity) • It

Cooperative Games –The Shapley value and Weighted Voting

Yair Zick

Page 2: Cooperative Games The Shapley value and Weighted Votingarielpro/15896s16/slides/896s16-11.pdf · Shapley value (and the Banzhaf value) is #P complete (counting complexity) • It

The Shapley Value

Given a player  , and a set  , the marginal contribution of  to  is 

How much does  contribute by joining  ? Given a permutation  of players, let the predecessors of  in  be 

We write 

Page 3: Cooperative Games The Shapley value and Weighted Votingarielpro/15896s16/slides/896s16-11.pdf · Shapley value (and the Banzhaf value) is #P complete (counting complexity) • It

The Shapley Value

Suppose that we choose an ordering of the players uniformly at random. The Shapley value of player  is 

614 1 129 7 4

49 q = 50

Page 4: Cooperative Games The Shapley value and Weighted Votingarielpro/15896s16/slides/896s16-11.pdf · Shapley value (and the Banzhaf value) is #P complete (counting complexity) • It

The Shapley Value

Efficient: Symmetric: players who contribute the same are paid the same.Dummy: dummy players aren’t paid.Additive: 

The Shapley value is the only payoff division satisfying all of the above!

Page 5: Cooperative Games The Shapley value and Weighted Votingarielpro/15896s16/slides/896s16-11.pdf · Shapley value (and the Banzhaf value) is #P complete (counting complexity) • It

The Shapley Value

Proof: let’s prove it on the board.

Theorem: if a value satisfies efficiency, additivity, dummy and symmetry, then it is the Shapley value.

Page 6: Cooperative Games The Shapley value and Weighted Votingarielpro/15896s16/slides/896s16-11.pdf · Shapley value (and the Banzhaf value) is #P complete (counting complexity) • It

Computing Power Indices

The Shapley value has a brother – the Banzhaf value

It uniquely satisfies a different set of axiomsDifferent distributional assumption –more biased towards sets of size

Page 7: Cooperative Games The Shapley value and Weighted Votingarielpro/15896s16/slides/896s16-11.pdf · Shapley value (and the Banzhaf value) is #P complete (counting complexity) • It

Voting Power in the EU Council of Members

• The EU council of members is one of the governing members of the EU. – Each state has a number of representatives proportional to its population

– Proportionality: “one person – one vote”

• In terms of voting power ‐

Image: Wikipedia Image: Wikipedia

Page 8: Cooperative Games The Shapley value and Weighted Votingarielpro/15896s16/slides/896s16-11.pdf · Shapley value (and the Banzhaf value) is #P complete (counting complexity) • It

• Changes to the voting system can achieve better proportional representation.

• Changing the weights – generally unpopular and politically delicate

• Changing the quota – easier to do, an “innocent” change. 

Selecting an appropriate quota (EU ‐ about 62%), achieves proportional representation with a very small error!

Voting Power in the EU Council of Members

Page 9: Cooperative Games The Shapley value and Weighted Votingarielpro/15896s16/slides/896s16-11.pdf · Shapley value (and the Banzhaf value) is #P complete (counting complexity) • It

• Changes to the quota change players’ power.

• What is the relation between quota selection and voting power?

Changing the Quota

'i 'i(q)

Page 10: Cooperative Games The Shapley value and Weighted Votingarielpro/15896s16/slides/896s16-11.pdf · Shapley value (and the Banzhaf value) is #P complete (counting complexity) • It

A “typical” graph of 'i(q)

The graph converges to some value when quota is 50%…

Lower variation towards the 50% quota

Max at 

Min at 1

Page 11: Cooperative Games The Shapley value and Weighted Votingarielpro/15896s16/slides/896s16-11.pdf · Shapley value (and the Banzhaf value) is #P complete (counting complexity) • It

Weights are a Fibonacci Series

Page 12: Cooperative Games The Shapley value and Weighted Votingarielpro/15896s16/slides/896s16-11.pdf · Shapley value (and the Banzhaf value) is #P complete (counting complexity) • It

Maximizing 

Theorem:  is maximized at 

Proof: two cases: if  is pivotal for  under  then 

, but  . This implies that  is pivotal for  when the threshold is  as well. 

Page 13: Cooperative Games The Shapley value and Weighted Votingarielpro/15896s16/slides/896s16-11.pdf · Shapley value (and the Banzhaf value) is #P complete (counting complexity) • It

Maximizing Lemma: let Then 

for all 

Proof: assume that  . We write

, so Need to show that 

Page 14: Cooperative Games The Shapley value and Weighted Votingarielpro/15896s16/slides/896s16-11.pdf · Shapley value (and the Banzhaf value) is #P complete (counting complexity) • It

Maximizing Need to show that Construct an injective mapping  

Page 15: Cooperative Games The Shapley value and Weighted Votingarielpro/15896s16/slides/896s16-11.pdf · Shapley value (and the Banzhaf value) is #P complete (counting complexity) • It

Maximizing Second case: Let  , then 

and  .By Lemma 

which concludes the proof.

Page 16: Cooperative Games The Shapley value and Weighted Votingarielpro/15896s16/slides/896s16-11.pdf · Shapley value (and the Banzhaf value) is #P complete (counting complexity) • It

Minimizing Not as easy, two strong candidate minimizers:  or 

Not always them, not clear which one to choose. For below‐median players, setting  is worse.

Deciding whether a given quota is maximizing/minimizing is computationally intractable.

Page 17: Cooperative Games The Shapley value and Weighted Votingarielpro/15896s16/slides/896s16-11.pdf · Shapley value (and the Banzhaf value) is #P complete (counting complexity) • It

The expected behavior of It seems that analyzing fixed weight vectors is not very effective… 

even small changes in quota can cause unpredictable behavior; worst‐case guarantees are not great.

Can we say something about the likely Shapley value when weights are sampled from a distribution? 

Page 18: Cooperative Games The Shapley value and Weighted Votingarielpro/15896s16/slides/896s16-11.pdf · Shapley value (and the Banzhaf value) is #P complete (counting complexity) • It

Balls and Bins Distributions

• We have  balls,  bins.• A discrete probability distribution • is the probability that a ball will land in bin 

3 2 5 5 5 4 4

Page 19: Cooperative Games The Shapley value and Weighted Votingarielpro/15896s16/slides/896s16-11.pdf · Shapley value (and the Banzhaf value) is #P complete (counting complexity) • It

0

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0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

Aver

age

Shap

ley

Valu

e

threshold

Agent 1

Agent 2

Agent 3

Agent 4

Agent 5

Agent 6

Agent 7

Agent 8

Agent 9

Agent 10

Huge disparity at 

some thresholds

Near Equality at others…

Changing the threshold from 500 to 550 results in a huge shift in voting power

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Page 20: Cooperative Games The Shapley value and Weighted Votingarielpro/15896s16/slides/896s16-11.pdf · Shapley value (and the Banzhaf value) is #P complete (counting complexity) • It

Balls and Bins: Uniform 

• Suppose that the weights are generated from a uniform balls and bins process with m balls and n bins.

• Theorem: when the threshold is near integer multiples of  , there is a high disparity in voting power (w.h.p.) 

• Theorem: when the threshold is well‐away from integer multiples of  , all agents have nearly identical voting power (w.h.p.)

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Page 21: Cooperative Games The Shapley value and Weighted Votingarielpro/15896s16/slides/896s16-11.pdf · Shapley value (and the Banzhaf value) is #P complete (counting complexity) • It

Balls and Bins: Exponential• There are m voters. A voter votes for player i w.p. pi + 1

• The probability of high‐index players getting votes is extremely low. Most votes go to a few candidates.

• Theorem: if weights are drawn from an exponential balls‐and –bins distribution, then with high probability, the resulting weights are super‐increasing

• A vector of weights (w1,…, wn) is called super‐increasing if 

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Page 22: Cooperative Games The Shapley value and Weighted Votingarielpro/15896s16/slides/896s16-11.pdf · Shapley value (and the Banzhaf value) is #P complete (counting complexity) • It

Balls and Bins: Exponential

• In order to study the Shapley value in the Balls and Bins exponential case, it suffices to understand super‐increasing sequences of weights. 

• Suppose that weights are ( )

• Let us observe the (beautiful) graph that results. 

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Page 23: Cooperative Games The Shapley value and Weighted Votingarielpro/15896s16/slides/896s16-11.pdf · Shapley value (and the Banzhaf value) is #P complete (counting complexity) • It

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Agent 1Agent 2Agent 3Agent 4Agent 5Agent 6Agent 7Agent 8Agent 9Agent 10

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Image: Wikipedia

Page 24: Cooperative Games The Shapley value and Weighted Votingarielpro/15896s16/slides/896s16-11.pdf · Shapley value (and the Banzhaf value) is #P complete (counting complexity) • It

Super‐Increasing Weights• ∑ 2∈ : the binary representation of • : the minimal set  ⊆ such that  • Claim: if the weights are super‐increasing, then 

• the Shapley value when the threshold is  equals the Shapley value when the weights are powers of 2, and the threshold is 

• Computing the Shapley value for super‐increasing weights boils down to computing it for powers of 2! 

• Using this claim, we obtain a closed‐form formula of the SV when the weights are super‐increasing. 

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Page 25: Cooperative Games The Shapley value and Weighted Votingarielpro/15896s16/slides/896s16-11.pdf · Shapley value (and the Banzhaf value) is #P complete (counting complexity) • It

Conclusion

• Computation: generally, computing the Shapley value (and the Banzhaf value) is #P complete (counting complexity)

• It is easy when we know that the weights are not too large (pseudopolynomial time)

• It is easy to approximate them through random sampling in the case of simple games.  

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Page 26: Cooperative Games The Shapley value and Weighted Votingarielpro/15896s16/slides/896s16-11.pdf · Shapley value (and the Banzhaf value) is #P complete (counting complexity) • It

Further Reading

• Chalkiadakis et al. “Computational Aspects of Cooperative Game Theory”

• Zuckerman et al. “Manipulating the Quota in Weighted Voting Games” (JAIR’12)

• Zick et al. “The Shapley Value as a Function of the Quota in Weighted Voting Games” (IJCAI’11)

• Zick “On Random Quotas and Proportional Representation in Weighted Voting Games” (IJCAI’13)

• Oren et al. “On the Effects of Priors in Weighted Voting Games” (COMSOC’14)

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