copyright © 2002 by the mcgraw-hill companies, inc. all rights reserved. 4 - 1 4 4 chapter...

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Copyright © 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

44Chapter

Learning: Theories and

Program Design

Learning: Theories and

Program Design

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ObjectivesObjectivesAfter reading this chapter, you should be able to:After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Discuss the five types of learner outcomes.

2. Explain the implications of learning theory for instructional design.

3. Incorporate adult learning theory into the design of a training program.

4. Describe how learners receive, process, store, retrieve, and act upon information.

5. Be able to choose and prepare a training site.

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Objectives Objectives (continued)(continued)

6. Discuss the internal conditions (within the learner) and external conditions (learning environment) necessary for the trainee to learn each type of capability.

7. Explain the four components of program design: Course parameters Objectives Lesson overview Detailed lesson plan

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IntroductionIntroduction Training at the Culinary Institute of America

(CIA) is designed to teach aspiring chefs how to prepare food (knowledge)(knowledge) as well as develop the necessary motor skills (e.g., chopping onions)(e.g., chopping onions).These are types of learning outcomes.

CIA’s training programs illustrate several conditions necessary for learning to occur:Opportunities to learn by observing an expertPracticingReceiving feedback

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Introduction Introduction (continued)(continued)

As CIA training illustrates, for learning to occur it is important to identify what is to be learned. Identify the learning outcomes.

Understanding learning outcomes is crucial because they influence the characteristics of the training environment that are necessary for learning to occur.

The design of the training program is also important for learning to occur.

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What Is Learning?What Is Learning?

LearningLearning is a relatively permanent change in human capabilities that is not a result of growth processes.

These capabilities are related to specific learning outcomes.

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Learning OutcomesLearning Outcomes Verbal information

Includes names or labels, facts, and bodies of knowledge

Includes specialized knowledge employees need in their jobs

Intellectual skillsInclude concepts and rulesThese are critical to solve problems, serve

customers, and create products

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Learning Outcomes Learning Outcomes (continued)(continued)

Motor skillsInclude coordination of physical movements

AttitudesCombination of beliefs and feeling that pre-

dispose a person to behave a certain wayImportant work-related attitudes include job

satisfaction, commitment to the organization, and job involvement

Cognitive strategiesRegulate the process of learning

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Learning TheoriesLearning Theories

Reinforcement Theory

Social Learning Theory

Goal Theories

Need Theories

Expectancy TheoryAdult Learning

TheoryInformation

Processing Theory

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Reinforcement TheoryReinforcement Theory

Emphasizes that people are motivated to perform or avoid certain behaviors because of past outcomes that have resulted from those behaviors.Positive reinforcementNegative ReinforcementExtinctionPunishment

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Reinforcement Theory Reinforcement Theory (continued)(continued)

From a training perspective, it suggests that for learners to acquire knowledge, change behavior, or modify skills, the trainer needs to identify what outcomes the learner finds most positive )and negative).

Trainers then need to link these outcomes to learners acquiring knowledge, skills, or changing behaviors.

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Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement

Ratio SchedulesFixed-ratio scheduleContinuous reinforcementVariable-ratio schedule

Interval SchedulesFixed-interval scheduleVariable-interval schedule

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Social Learning TheorySocial Learning Theory Emphasizes that people learn by observing

other persons (models) whom they believe are credible and knowledgeable.

Recognizes that behavior that is reinforced or rewarded tends to be repeated.

The models’ behavior or skill that is rewarded is adopted by the observer.

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Social Learning Theory Social Learning Theory (continued)(continued)

Learning new skills or behavior comes from:directly experiencing the consequences of using

behavior or skills, orthe process of of observing others and seeing

the consequences of their behavior Learning is also influenced by a person’s self-

efficacy.Self-efficacy is a person’s judgment about

whether she can successfully learn knowledge and skills.

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Processes of Social Learning TheoryProcesses of Social Learning Theory

Match Modeled

PerformanceAttention Retention Motor

ReproductionMotivational Processes

• Model Stimuli

• Trainee Characteristics

• Coding

• Organization

• Rehearsal

• Physical Capability

• Accuracy

• Feedback

• Reinforcement

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Goal TheoriesGoal Theories Goal setting theoryGoal setting theory assumes behavior results from

a person’s conscious goals and intentions. Goals influence behavior by directing energy and

attention, sustaining effort over time, and motivating the person to develop strategies for goal attainment.

Research suggests that specific challenging goals have been shown to lead to high performance only if people are committed to the goal.

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Goal Theories Goal Theories (continued)(continued)

Goal setting theory is used in training program design.

It suggests that learning can be facilitated by providing trainees with specific challenging goals and objectives.

The influence of goal setting theory can be seen in the development of training lesson plans.

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Need TheoriesNeed Theories Need theories help explain the value that a person

places on certain outcomes. Need theories suggest that to motivate learning:

trainers should identify trainees’ needs, andcommunicate how training program content relates

to fulfilling these needs If the basic needs of trainees are not met, they are

unlikely to be motivated to learn.

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Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory

Expectancy theory suggests that a person’s behavior is based on three factors:ExpectancyInstrumentalityValance

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Expectancy Theory Expectancy Theory (continued)(continued)

Expectancy theory suggests that learning is most likely to occur when employees believe:They can learn the content of the program

(expectancy)Learning is linked to outcomes such as better

job performance, a salary increase, or peer recognition (instrumentality)

Employees value these outcomes

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Expectancy Theory of MotivationExpectancy Theory of Motivation

X X = EffortExpectancyExpectancy InstrumentalityInstrumentality ValanceValance

Effort Performance Performance Outcome Value of Outcome

Does Trainee Have Ability to Learn?

Does Trainee Believe He Can Learn?

Does Trainee Believe Training Outcomes Promised Will Be Delivered?

Are Outcomes Related to Training Valued?

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Adult Learning TheoryAdult Learning Theory Adult learning theory was developed out of a need for

a specific theory of how adults learn. It is based on several assumptions:

Adults have the need to know why they are learning something.

Adults have a need to be self-directed. Adults bring more work-related experiences into the learning

situation. Adults enter into a learning experience with a problem-

centered approach to learning. Adults are motivated to learn by both extrinsic and intrinsic

motivators.

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Implications of Adult Learning Theory for Implications of Adult Learning Theory for Training:Training:

Design Issue Implications

Self – concept Mutual planning and collaboration in instruction

Experience Use learner experience as basis for examples and applications

Readiness Develop instruction based on learner’s interests and competencies

Time perspective Immediate application of content

Orientation to learning

Problem – centered instead of subject – centered

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Information Processing TheoryInformation Processing Theory These theories give more emphasis to the internal

processes that occur when training content is learned and retained.

This information can come from another person or the learner’s own observation of the results of his action.

If the evaluation of the response is positive, this provides reinforcement that the behavior is desirable to be stored in long-term memory for use in similar situations.

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The Learning ProcessThe Learning Process

This material asks three questions:What are the physical and mental processes

involved in learning?How does learning occur?Do trainees have different learning styles?

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The Learning Process:The Learning Process:Mental and Physical ProcessesMental and Physical Processes

LEARNING

ExpectancyPerception

Working Storage

Semantic Encoding

Long –Term Storage

Retrieval

Generalizing

Gratifying

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The Learning Process:The Learning Process:Learning StylesLearning Styles Diverger

Concrete experience Reflective observation

Assimilator Abstract

conceptualization Reflective observation

Converger Abstract

conceptualization Active experimentation

Accommodator Concrete experience Active experimentation

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Implications of the Learning Process for Implications of the Learning Process for Instruction:Instruction:Employees need to know why they should

learn.Employees need meaningful training

content.Employees need opportunities to practice.Employees need to commit training content

to memory.

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Implications of the Learning Process for Implications of the Learning Process for Instruction: Instruction: (continued)(continued)

Employees need feedback.Employees learn through:

ObservationExperienceInteracting with others

Employees need the training program to be properly coordinated and arranged.

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Training ObjectivesTraining Objectives Employees learn best when they understand the

objective of the training program. The objectiveobjective refers to to the purpose and expected

outcome of training activities. Training objectives based on the training needs

analysis help employees understand why they need the training.

Objectives are useful for identifying the types of training outcomes that should be measured to evaluate a training program’s effectiveness.

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A training objective has three A training objective has three components:components:A statement of what the employee is

expected to do (performance or outcome).A statement of the quality or level of

performance that is acceptable (criterion).A statement of the conditions under which

the trainee is expected to perform the desired outcome (conditions).

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Training administration involves:Training administration involves:

Communicating courses and programs to employees

Enrolling employees in courses and programs Preparing and processing any pre-training

materials such as readings or tests Preparing materials that will be used in instruction Arranging for the training facility and room Testing equipment that will be used in instruction

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Training administration involves:Training administration involves: (continued)(continued)

Having backup equipment should equipment fail Providing support during instruction Distributing evaluation materials Facilitating communications between trainer and

trainees during and after training Recording course completion in the trainees’

records or personnel files

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How Trainers Can Make the Training Site How Trainers Can Make the Training Site and Instruction Conducive to Learning:and Instruction Conducive to Learning:

Creating A Learning Setting

Preparation

Classroom Management

Engaging Trainees

Managing Group Dynamics

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Program DesignProgram Design

Course ParametersObjectives

Detailed Lesson PlanLesson Plan Overview

copyright © 2002 by the mcgraw-hill companies, inc. all rights reserved. 4 - 1 4 4 chapter...

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