copyright © 2007 by mosby, inc., an affiliate of elsevier inc. 1 chapter 9 body organization

Copyright © 2007 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 1

CHAPTER 9

BODY ORGANIZATION


Anatomy and PhysiologyAnatomy and Physiology

Four basic properties of life:Four basic properties of life: ReceptionReception

• The ability of the organism to control its actions and The ability of the organism to control its actions and respond to changes in the environmentrespond to changes in the environment

MetabolismMetabolism• The process of taking in and using nutrients to produce The process of taking in and using nutrients to produce

energy and growthenergy and growth ReproductionReproduction

• The ability to reproduce offspring to continue the speciesThe ability to reproduce offspring to continue the species Organization Organization

• How the organism is divided into distinct parts to perform How the organism is divided into distinct parts to perform these functionsthese functions


AnatomyAnatomy

Body structures are organized on five levels:Body structures are organized on five levels: CellsCells

• The smallest units of lifeThe smallest units of life Tissues Tissues

• Combinations of similar cellsCombinations of similar cells Organs Organs

• Collections of tissues working together to perform a Collections of tissues working together to perform a functionfunction

A body systemA body system

• Consists of organs that work together to provide a Consists of organs that work together to provide a major body functionmajor body function

An organism An organism • Being that results when the body systems work together Being that results when the body systems work together

to maintain lifeto maintain life


Cell StructureCell Structure Major structures of a cell are called Major structures of a cell are called organellesorganelles

NucleusNucleus• Controls activity of the cellControls activity of the cell• Directs reproductionDirects reproduction

CytoplasmCytoplasm• Semifluid material that surrounds cell partsSemifluid material that surrounds cell parts• Transports chemicals and nutrients within the cellTransports chemicals and nutrients within the cell

MitochondriaMitochondria• Produces the energy used for cellular processesProduces the energy used for cellular processes

Cell membraneCell membrane• Surrounds the cellSurrounds the cell• Controls which substances enter and leave the cellControls which substances enter and leave the cell


Cell Structure (Continued)Cell Structure (Continued)

LysosomesLysosomes• Helps break down, or digest, moleculesHelps break down, or digest, molecules

RibosomesRibosomes• Attached to the endoplasmic reticulumAttached to the endoplasmic reticulum

• Work to produce protein for the cell structuresWork to produce protein for the cell structures

Golgi apparatusGolgi apparatus• Makes glycoproteins, which help transport proteins made Makes glycoproteins, which help transport proteins made

by the ribosomes out of the cellby the ribosomes out of the cell


Figure 9-1 Cell Structure Figure 9-1 Cell Structure (Continued)(Continued)


HomeostasisHomeostasis

The tendency of a cell or the whole organism The tendency of a cell or the whole organism to maintain a state of balanceto maintain a state of balance Generally refers to maintaining constancy of the Generally refers to maintaining constancy of the

“internal milieu” or fluid surrounding cells of the “internal milieu” or fluid surrounding cells of the organismsorganisms• Composition of the tissue fluid that makes up internal Composition of the tissue fluid that makes up internal

environment is kept constantenvironment is kept constant

• Molecules pass in and out of the cell to maintain balanceMolecules pass in and out of the cell to maintain balance


Homeostasis (Continued)Homeostasis (Continued)

Physiological components of homeostasis or Physiological components of homeostasis or state of balance:state of balance:

Body temperatureBody temperature Gas exchangeGas exchange pH valuespH values Water and ion balanceWater and ion balance Volume and pressure of fluidVolume and pressure of fluid Waste removalWaste removal Nutrient intakeNutrient intake


Table 9-1 Homeostasis and Table 9-1 Homeostasis and Body SystemsBody Systems


ElectrolytesElectrolytes

Electrolytes are compounds made of charged Electrolytes are compounds made of charged particles called particles called ionsions Ions can conduct electrical current in water or in Ions can conduct electrical current in water or in

cytoplasm of cellcytoplasm of cell• Positive charge (cation) creates an acidPositive charge (cation) creates an acid

• Negative charge (anion) creates a baseNegative charge (anion) creates a base

Different electrolytes also have special Different electrolytes also have special functionsfunctions


Table 9-2 Electrolytes of the Table 9-2 Electrolytes of the BodyBody


pHpH

pH of a fluid is a measurement of how much acid pH of a fluid is a measurement of how much acid or base is presentor base is present• Each tissue has a normal pHEach tissue has a normal pH

• Cells do not function properly if normal pH is not Cells do not function properly if normal pH is not maintained for that area of the bodymaintained for that area of the body


pH of the BodypH of the Body


Tissue TypesTissue Types

Four main groups of tissue:Four main groups of tissue: Epithelial tissueEpithelial tissue

• Covers the body, forms glands, and lines the surfaces of Covers the body, forms glands, and lines the surfaces of cavities and organscavities and organs

Connective tissueConnective tissue• Formed by a protein, includes soft tissue such as fat and Formed by a protein, includes soft tissue such as fat and

blood cells and hard tissues such as bones, ligaments, blood cells and hard tissues such as bones, ligaments, and cartilageand cartilage


Tissue TypesTissue Types (Continued)(Continued)

Muscle tissueMuscle tissue• Made of protein fibers, has the unique property of Made of protein fibers, has the unique property of

shortening to produce movementshortening to produce movement

Nervous tissueNervous tissue• Composed largely of specialized cells called Composed largely of specialized cells called neuronsneurons


Body SystemsBody Systems

Physiology is the study of the functions of the Physiology is the study of the functions of the bodybody

Body systemBody system Group of related organsGroup of related organs

Body systems together accomplish functions Body systems together accomplish functions necessary to maintain and support lifenecessary to maintain and support life

There are 12 body systemsThere are 12 body systems


Body Systems (Continued)Body Systems (Continued)

Integumentary system covers the body and Integumentary system covers the body and protects other body systemsprotects other body systems

Cardiovascular system transports oxygen and Cardiovascular system transports oxygen and nutrients to all body parts and removes waste nutrients to all body parts and removes waste productsproducts

Circulatory system includes the blood and Circulatory system includes the blood and lymph that move throughout the bodylymph that move throughout the body

Respiratory system exchanges gases Respiratory system exchanges gases between the air and bloodbetween the air and blood


Body SystemsBody Systems (Continued)(Continued)

Muscular system allows the body to move Muscular system allows the body to move and controls movements within the bodyand controls movements within the body

Skeletal system provides body support and Skeletal system provides body support and protectionprotection

Digestive system processes food and Digestive system processes food and eliminates food wasteeliminates food waste

Urinary system filters the blood and removes Urinary system filters the blood and removes liquid wastesliquid wastes


Body SystemsBody Systems (Continued)(Continued)

Endocrine system coordinates body cavities Endocrine system coordinates body cavities through hormonesthrough hormones

Nervous system regulates the environment Nervous system regulates the environment and directs the activities of other body and directs the activities of other body systemssystems

Sensory system perceives the environment Sensory system perceives the environment and sends messages to and from the brainand sends messages to and from the brain

Reproductive system provides for human Reproductive system provides for human reproductionreproduction


Anatomical PositionAnatomical Position

Standard position of the body used to Standard position of the body used to describe the location of the anatomydescribe the location of the anatomy Person is in an erect standing positionPerson is in an erect standing position

• Mouth closedMouth closed

• Eyes and head facing forwardEyes and head facing forward

• Feet slightly apart with toes facing forwardFeet slightly apart with toes facing forward

• Arms are close to the body and the palms are facing Arms are close to the body and the palms are facing forward with fingers extendedforward with fingers extended


Figure 9-4 Anatomical Position Figure 9-4 Anatomical Position (Continued)(Continued)


Body PlanesBody Planes

Planes are used to describe the bodyPlanes are used to describe the body Three planes: Three planes:

• Coronal or frontalCoronal or frontal Separates the front and back of the bodySeparates the front and back of the body

• TransverseTransverse Divides the upper and lower bodyDivides the upper and lower body

• SagittalSagittal Divides the body into right and left sidesDivides the body into right and left sides


Body Planes (Continued)Body Planes (Continued)

Location of organs is described in relation to these Location of organs is described in relation to these planes:planes:• Inferior (below)Inferior (below)

• Superior (above)Superior (above)

• Medial (close to)Medial (close to)

• Lateral (away from) Lateral (away from)

• Anterior or ventral (in front of)Anterior or ventral (in front of)

• Posterior or dorsal (behind)Posterior or dorsal (behind)

• Other terms used to a point where one organ attaches to Other terms used to a point where one organ attaches to anotheranother

Proximal (close to)Proximal (close to) Distal (away from)Distal (away from)


Figure 9-5 Body Planes (Continued)Figure 9-5 Body Planes (Continued)


Body CavitiesBody Cavities

Five body cavities:Five body cavities: Thoracic Thoracic

• Contains lungs, heart, esophagus, trachea, and major Contains lungs, heart, esophagus, trachea, and major blood vesselsblood vessels

AbdominalAbdominal• Contains stomach, gallbladder, pancreas, intestines, Contains stomach, gallbladder, pancreas, intestines,

liver, spleen, adrenal glands, and kidneysliver, spleen, adrenal glands, and kidneys PelvicPelvic

• Contains reproductive organs, bladder, and rectumContains reproductive organs, bladder, and rectum CranialCranial

• Contains the brain, ventricles, and some glandsContains the brain, ventricles, and some glands SpinalSpinal

• Houses the spinal cord and nervesHouses the spinal cord and nerves


Figure 9-6 Body Cavities (Continued)Figure 9-6 Body Cavities (Continued)


Figure 9-7 Body RegionsFigure 9-7 Body Regions

Abdominal and pelvic cavities are described Abdominal and pelvic cavities are described in terms of regionsin terms of regions Nine regions:Nine regions:

• Right hypochondriacRight hypochondriac• EpigastricEpigastric• Left hypochondriacLeft hypochondriac• Right lumbarRight lumbar• UmbilicalUmbilical• Left lumbarLeft lumbar• Right inguinalRight inguinal• HypogastricHypogastric• Left inguinalLeft inguinal


Figure 9-7 Body RegionsFigure 9-7 Body Regions


Abdominal QuadrantsAbdominal Quadrants

Four quadrants:Four quadrants: Right upperRight upper Right lowerRight lower Left upperLeft upper Left lowerLeft lower


Figure 9-8 Abdominal Quadrants Figure 9-8 Abdominal Quadrants (Continued)(Continued)


Cell FunctionCell Function

Cell reproductionCell reproduction Mitosis is the process by which a cell divides to Mitosis is the process by which a cell divides to

reproduce, creating an identical replica with the reproduce, creating an identical replica with the same chromosomessame chromosomes• Each cell (except gametes) contains 46 chromosomesEach cell (except gametes) contains 46 chromosomes

• All chromosomes (except sex chromosome x and y) are All chromosomes (except sex chromosome x and y) are paired and called paired and called homologous autosomeshomologous autosomes

HeredityHeredity Heredity is the passing on of genetic information Heredity is the passing on of genetic information

that determines the characteristics of an individual that determines the characteristics of an individual personperson


Cell Function (Continued)Cell Function (Continued)

MeiosisMeiosis Cell divides into two parts with only one half of the Cell divides into two parts with only one half of the

chromosomeschromosomes Part of the reproduction processPart of the reproduction process Results in the formation of sex cell (gametes)Results in the formation of sex cell (gametes)

• Fertilization is the combination of two gametes with Fertilization is the combination of two gametes with chromosomes from different parents into one cellchromosomes from different parents into one cell

Offspring inherits any abnormal gene found on the Offspring inherits any abnormal gene found on the chromosome of either parentchromosome of either parent



HeredityHeredity Heredity is the passing on of genetic information Heredity is the passing on of genetic information

that determines the characteristics of an individual that determines the characteristics of an individual personperson

Genes contain the hereditary information in the Genes contain the hereditary information in the cellcell• Made up of protein chains in a molecule called DNA Made up of protein chains in a molecule called DNA

(deoxyribonucleic acid)(deoxyribonucleic acid)



ChromosomesChromosomes Threadlike strands of DNAThreadlike strands of DNA Contain between 50,000 and 100,000 genes Contain between 50,000 and 100,000 genes

• Genotype Genotype Configuration of genetic information in the chromosomesConfiguration of genetic information in the chromosomes PhenotypePhenotype

– Trait or appearance that results from the genotypeTrait or appearance that results from the genotype

• Dominant geneDominant gene

• Recessive geneRecessive gene



• HomozygousHomozygous Two genes alike on the chromosome pairTwo genes alike on the chromosome pair

• HeterozygousHeterozygous Two genes that are different on the chromosome pairTwo genes that are different on the chromosome pair

Genetic information carried on all chromosomes is Genetic information carried on all chromosomes is responsible forresponsible for• The development of all body cellsThe development of all body cells

• Formation of tissues, organs, and body systemsFormation of tissues, organs, and body systems


Cell Formation DiseasesCell Formation Diseases

Genetic disordersGenetic disorders Abnormal genes or chromosomes cause many Abnormal genes or chromosomes cause many

disordersdisorders CancerCancer

The uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells that The uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells that tend to spread (metastasize) and invade the tissue tend to spread (metastasize) and invade the tissue around them around them


Issues and InnovationsIssues and Innovations

Genetic engineeringGenetic engineering 3,000+ disorders are known to result from genetic 3,000+ disorders are known to result from genetic

abnormalitiesabnormalities Advanced techniques and procedures can now Advanced techniques and procedures can now

identify abnormal genes in the unborn fetusidentify abnormal genes in the unborn fetus• Chorionic villus sampling Chorionic villus sampling • Preimplantation diagnosis Preimplantation diagnosis • Gene splicing Gene splicing


Issues and Innovations Issues and Innovations (Continued)(Continued)

Cancer treatmentsCancer treatments Immunotherapy Immunotherapy

• Involves using:Involves using: Chemicals that are isolated from bacteria infected with the Chemicals that are isolated from bacteria infected with the

cancercancer Killed suspensions of bacteriaKilled suspensions of bacteria Biological substances that harm tumors:Biological substances that harm tumors:

– InterferonInterferon– InterleukinInterleukin– Tumor necrosis factorsTumor necrosis factors– Growth factorsGrowth factors


Issues and Innovations Issues and Innovations (Continued)(Continued)

Cancer treatmentsCancer treatments LasersLasers

• Destroy cancerous cellsDestroy cancerous cells

• Photodynamic therapy (fiberoptic technology)Photodynamic therapy (fiberoptic technology)

Hyperthermia (increase in temperature)Hyperthermia (increase in temperature)• Used in combination with radiation to treat some tumorsUsed in combination with radiation to treat some tumors

copyright © 2007 by mosby, inc., an affiliate of elsevier inc. 1 chapter 9 body organization

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