copyright © allyn & bacon 2007 death, society, and human experience 9 th edition robert...

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Death, Society, and Death, Society, and Human ExperienceHuman Experience

99thth Edition EditionRobert KastenbaumRobert Kastenbaum

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Chapter Two:Chapter Two:What is Death?What is Death?

What Does Death Mean?What Does Death Mean?

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Death as Observed, Proclaimed, and Death as Observed, Proclaimed, and ImaginedImagined

• Mary Shelley – Dead bodies which are Mary Shelley – Dead bodies which are reanimated may become Frankensteinsreanimated may become Frankensteins

• Charles Darwin – Thanatomimesis (live Charles Darwin – Thanatomimesis (live animals deliberately appear to be dead to animals deliberately appear to be dead to avoid being killed)avoid being killed)

• Harvard Medical School – One is dead Harvard Medical School – One is dead when the EEG is flatwhen the EEG is flat

• Kenneth Iserson – Death is a complex Kenneth Iserson – Death is a complex process that takes place over timeprocess that takes place over time


Death as Observed, Proclaimed, and Death as Observed, Proclaimed, and ImaginedImagined

• Islam – Death is final when the soul leaves the Islam – Death is final when the soul leaves the bodybody

• Epicurus – Death is one of many events that have Epicurus – Death is one of many events that have no meaning or valueno meaning or value

• Hindu – Reincarnation; we are born to die, and die Hindu – Reincarnation; we are born to die, and die to be rebornto be reborn

• Christianity – Death and sexuality are intertwined; Christianity – Death and sexuality are intertwined; sexual sinfulness can lead to deathsexual sinfulness can lead to death

• New Age – Death is a transition to the next lifeNew Age – Death is a transition to the next life


Death as Symbolic ConstructionDeath as Symbolic Construction

• A mental construction we need because it A mental construction we need because it has so many important referents, has so many important referents, associations, and consequencesassociations, and consequences

• Our concept of death is influenced by Our concept of death is influenced by movies and televisionmovies and television• Deaths are often sensational and violentDeaths are often sensational and violent• Males six times more likely to instigate deathMales six times more likely to instigate death• Females twice as likely to be victimsFemales twice as likely to be victims


Biomedical Approaches: Biomedical Approaches: Traditional Determination of DeathTraditional Determination of Death

• Lack of respiration, pulse, and heartbeatLack of respiration, pulse, and heartbeat• Failure to respond to stimuli, such as light, Failure to respond to stimuli, such as light,

movement, and painmovement, and pain• Lowered body temperature and stiffnessLowered body temperature and stiffness• Followed later by bloating and signs of Followed later by bloating and signs of

decompositiondecomposition


Biomedical Approaches: Biomedical Approaches: Traditional Determination of DeathTraditional Determination of Death

• Jack Kevorkian developed a method based Jack Kevorkian developed a method based on the status of the eyeon the status of the eye

• Observed 51 patients in 1957, published his Observed 51 patients in 1957, published his findings in 1961findings in 1961

• Specifically checked the eye for:Specifically checked the eye for:• Segmentation and interruption of blood Segmentation and interruption of blood

circulationcirculation• A haziness of the corneaA haziness of the cornea• Appearance of homogeneity and palenessAppearance of homogeneity and paleness


Biomedical Approaches to Death:Biomedical Approaches to Death:The Harvard Criteria of Brain DeathThe Harvard Criteria of Brain Death

• Unreceptive and unresponsive (to any Unreceptive and unresponsive (to any external stimuli or internal need)external stimuli or internal need)

• No movements or breathingNo movements or breathing• No reflexesNo reflexes• Flat EEG (no brain activity or brain waves)Flat EEG (no brain activity or brain waves)• No circulation to or within the brain (no No circulation to or within the brain (no

oxygen or nutrition to the brain)oxygen or nutrition to the brain)


Brain Death and Related ConceptsBrain Death and Related Concepts

• Brain DeathBrain Death: Prolonged nonreversible : Prolonged nonreversible cessation of all brain activity with complete cessation of all brain activity with complete absence of voluntary movements, response absence of voluntary movements, response to stimuli, brain stem reflexes, and to stimuli, brain stem reflexes, and spontaneous respirations.spontaneous respirations.

• Minimally Conscious StateMinimally Conscious State: Severe : Severe impairment that can be distinguished from impairment that can be distinguished from coma or vegetative state by occasional and coma or vegetative state by occasional and limited behavioral evidence of awarenesslimited behavioral evidence of awareness


Brain Death and Related ConceptsBrain Death and Related Concepts

• Permanent Vegetative StatePermanent Vegetative State: All cognitive : All cognitive functions, including awareness, are absent, even if functions, including awareness, are absent, even if eyes are open and sounds are nonpurposive eyes are open and sounds are nonpurposive movements are made. Sleep-wake cycles, movements are made. Sleep-wake cycles, autonomic control, and respiration continue. autonomic control, and respiration continue. Condition is of long duration.Condition is of long duration.• Persistent: Caused by brain damage that might be Persistent: Caused by brain damage that might be

moderated or reversed.moderated or reversed.• Transient: Caused by drugs, extreme cold, or injury with Transient: Caused by drugs, extreme cold, or injury with

possibility of recovery.possibility of recovery.


Meanings Given to Death: Meanings Given to Death: Death Is…Death Is…

• An enfeebled form of lifeAn enfeebled form of life• Transformed into a repulsive and pitiable Transformed into a repulsive and pitiable

creature, a decremental model of miserycreature, a decremental model of misery• A continuation of lifeA continuation of life

• Transition to more of the same existenceTransition to more of the same existence• Perpetual developmentPerpetual development

• Transition to a freer mode of existence in which Transition to a freer mode of existence in which continue spiritual and evolutionary growth continue spiritual and evolutionary growth occursoccurs

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• WaitingWaiting• Tension between death and an end-state; Tension between death and an end-state;

waiting for judgment; in limbo or suspensionwaiting for judgment; in limbo or suspension

• Cycling and recyclingCycling and recycling• Death is one position on a constantly turning Death is one position on a constantly turning

wheelwheel




• NothingNothing• Dying and the death even can be observed, but Dying and the death even can be observed, but

death is the absence of life, process, or qualitydeath is the absence of life, process, or quality

• Virtual, and therefore, not really death after Virtual, and therefore, not really death after allall• Death is something without dimension or place, Death is something without dimension or place,

similar to imaginary virtual computer worldssimilar to imaginary virtual computer worlds



Conditions that Resemble DeathConditions that Resemble Death

• Inorganic and UnresponsiveInorganic and Unresponsive• Death as stone or rock – cold and hardDeath as stone or rock – cold and hard• Death as a mechanical failure Death as a mechanical failure

• Sleep and Altered States of ConsciousnessSleep and Altered States of Consciousness• Death as a deep sleepDeath as a deep sleep• Drug and alcohol-induced states are likened to Drug and alcohol-induced states are likened to

deathdeath



• Beings Who Resemble or Represent DeathBeings Who Resemble or Represent Death• Winged hybrid beings, such as Homer’s sirens, Winged hybrid beings, such as Homer’s sirens,

who brought deathwho brought death• The Muses, who sang at funerals and guided The Muses, who sang at funerals and guided

departed soulsdeparted souls• Orpheus, who had power over death through Orpheus, who had power over death through

songsong• The skeleton (utilized since ancient times)The skeleton (utilized since ancient times)


Death Personified: Death Personified: Helps Coping by…Helps Coping by…

• Objectifying an abstract conceptObjectifying an abstract concept• Expressing feelings that are difficult to articulateExpressing feelings that are difficult to articulate• Serving as a coin of communicationServing as a coin of communication• Absorbing some of the shock, pain, anger, and Absorbing some of the shock, pain, anger, and

fear experienced during traumatic eventsfear experienced during traumatic events• Providing symbols that can be reshaped during Providing symbols that can be reshaped during

emotional healing and cognitive integrationemotional healing and cognitive integration


How We Personified DeathHow We Personified DeathResearch from 1971Research from 1971

• The macabre – ugly, menacing, vicious, and The macabre – ugly, menacing, vicious, and repulsive charactersrepulsive characters

• The gentle comforter – serene and The gentle comforter – serene and welcomingwelcoming

• The gay deceiver – elegant, sexually The gay deceiver – elegant, sexually alluring, tempting, and then traps youalluring, tempting, and then traps you

• The automaton – bland, shell of a person The automaton – bland, shell of a person who just goes about his businesswho just goes about his business


How We Personify Death:How We Personify Death:1997 Research1997 Research

• Death is still represented predominately as a Death is still represented predominately as a male, but there is a sharp increase in female male, but there is a sharp increase in female personificationspersonifications

• Gender Differences: Gender Differences: • Women favor the Gentle ComforterWomen favor the Gentle Comforter• Men site a “cold and remote” personMen site a “cold and remote” person

• The Gentle Comforter is still seen as an The Gentle Comforter is still seen as an elderly person, but that is no longer true of elderly person, but that is no longer true of the others (Macabre, Gay Deceiver, and the others (Macabre, Gay Deceiver, and Automaton)Automaton)



• Social Death (external circumstances)Social Death (external circumstances)• Must be defined in context or by situationMust be defined in context or by situation• Based on how a person is treated by othersBased on how a person is treated by others• Person is ignored, discounted, and excludedPerson is ignored, discounted, and excluded

• Phenomenological Death (internal state)Phenomenological Death (internal state)• Type 1: partial death, loss of part of their body Type 1: partial death, loss of part of their body

or identityor identity• Type 2: total self takes on a deadened toneType 2: total self takes on a deadened tone


Death as an Agent of Personal, Death as an Agent of Personal, Political, and Social ChangePolitical, and Social Change

• The Great LevelerThe Great Leveler• Death makes no distinction between peopleDeath makes no distinction between people• Ignoring, for example, race, gender, age, IQ, Ignoring, for example, race, gender, age, IQ,

finances, religion, and personal powerfinances, religion, and personal power

• The Great ValidatorThe Great Validator• A person’s worth in life can be reflected in the A person’s worth in life can be reflected in the

level of mourning and size of the funeral or level of mourning and size of the funeral or memorialmemorial



• Death Unites/SeparatesDeath Unites/Separates• Unites us with those who have already diedUnites us with those who have already died• Separates us from the livingSeparates us from the living

• The Ultimate SolutionThe Ultimate Solution• Death takes us away from all our life-related Death takes us away from all our life-related

problemsproblems• The death of others removes some of our The death of others removes some of our

problems (for example, death of criminals)problems (for example, death of criminals)



• The Ultimate ProblemThe Ultimate Problem• Ends our opportunities to achieveEnds our opportunities to achieve• Closes down our inner experiences, Closes down our inner experiences,

consciousness, and awarenessconsciousness, and awareness• The Ultimate Meaningless EventThe Ultimate Meaningless Event

• Random and senselessRandom and senseless• No answer to the question of why a death No answer to the question of why a death

occurredoccurred


Glossary: New TermsGlossary: New Terms

• Brain DeathBrain Death• CatatoniaCatatonia• Comatose (Coma)Comatose (Coma)• EEGEEG• Intravenous FluidsIntravenous Fluids• MartyrdomMartyrdom• Minimally Conscious Minimally Conscious

StateState

• Respirator BrainRespirator Brain• Transient Vegetative Transient Vegetative

StateState• Vegetative StateVegetative State• Virtual RealityVirtual Reality

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