corrosion of carbon and stainless steels in flue gases ... · corrosion of carbon and stainless...
TRANSCRIPT
Corrosion of Carbon and Stainless Steels in Flue Gases from Municipal Incinerators
PAUL D. MILLER and HORATIO H. KRAUSE Battelle, Columbus Laboratories
Columbus, Ohio
ABSTRACT
Both field and laboratory corrosion studies are discussed. The field work involves operation of corrosion probes and/or analyses of gases and deposits in municipal incinerators in Miami County, Ohio, at Oceanside, New York, and in the Navy Salvage Fuel Boiler at Norfolk, Virginia. Examinations of the surfaces of these probes and of the deposits coming from them using X-ray diffraction and the electron microprobe have shown that compounds containing sulfur, chlorine, lead, zinc, and potassium are contributing to the corrosion reactions.
The results have shown that the corrosion of the carbon and stainless steels used increases as the metal temperature rises from about 350 to 1000 F. The temperature gradient moving from the metal through the deposit to the surrounding gases is also of importance.
The field studies have also included analyses of furnace gases from several incinerators. Average concentrations of corrosive gases such as S02 and HCl were found to be about 100 ppm. Laboratory work and field results have provided an explanation of the corrosion reactions. As might be expected, they are complex and interrelated. It is suggested that HCl, C12 , K2S207, KHS04, NaCl, ZnCl2, and PbCl2 are involved.
Recommendations have been made that water-wall incinerators be operated at low metal temperatures, near 500 F, to minimize corrosion.
300
INTRODUCTION
The disposal of solid waste is becoming of increasing importance throughout this country. Incineration has several promising features, but the technology needs further development. Of particular importance are methods for incinerating municipal refuse in such a way that offensive dusts and gases are not emitted to pollute the atmosphere. Air-pollution standards require that solid particulate matter be removed from such flue gas. This cleaning of me gases can be accomplished by mechanical collectors or by electrostatic precipitators. but the volume of gas must be as small as possible and the temperature should not exceed about 600 F. Three basic methods are used for accomplishing this cooling:
(1) Spraying water into the flue-gas stream;
(2) Diluting flue gas with cool air; and (3) Absorbing heat in flue gas by water-cooled
tubes forming the furnace walls and convection surfaces.
Cooling with water sprays results in wastage of
large quantities of water, the introduction of the need for disposal of contaminated corrosive water. and the production of an unsightly plume.
Cooling with air requires large fans and the power to run them. Such cooling also requires much larger sizes of pollution-control equipment because of the greatly increased gas volumes.
For large-scale municipal units. it is advantageous to absorb the heat from the flue gas. using the same
basic techniques as in conventional boiler furnaces. In addition to simplifying requirements for pollution
control equipment, a heat-utilization scheme provides a useful outlet for the heat generated by
the combustion of the refuse by generating low-pressure steam that can be sent to a turbine. An additional advantage of this procedure is a possible increased throughput because of the rapid heat absorption in the water-cooled furnace.
An attractive design is one in which the refractory
walls of the usual incinerator are replaced with watercooled tubes, much as in modern boiler furnaces, together with tube banks to cool the gases leaving
the combustion zone. One problem faced in water-cooled incinerators is
a presently unpredictably severe loss of metal from convective-heat-transfer tube banks, and also from the furnace wall tubes. A number of instances of severe
metal wastage in incinerators have been reported, along with other details of incinerator operation [1-14]. Most experience has been accumulated in Europe,
particularly in Germany where many plants with boilers are burning municipal refuse. This experience did not provide a complete explanation as to the cause of the corrosion, but did indicate the possible importance of operating conditions (oxidizing versus reducing) and the effect of chlorine-containing compounds in the refuse. That is, reducing conditions and the presence of the chlorides enhanced corrosion.
Because there is increasing interest in the United States in the construction of large water-wall municipal incinerators, the Solid Waste Management Office of the Public Health Service, Environmental Protection Agency, commissioned Battelle-Columbus to study the fireside wastage that could be anticipated in such units and to devise possible methods of alleviation. This research began on March I, 1969, under a gran t program [15] .
As the work progressed, it became apparent that other areas of an incinerator were subject to corrosive attack. Wet scrubbers in particular are quite vulnerable. Accordingly, a companion study has been initiated during the third year of the program on corrosion in wet scrubbers.
CORROSION-PROBE STUDIES IN THE FIELD
Procedures
In order to obtain realistic estimates of tube wastage
and deposit formation, it was necessary to operate probes in the field over extended periods. These were inserted in a refractory-lined municipal incinerator at
301
Miami County, Ohio, and in a water-wall incinerator operated by the Navy Public Works Center at Norfolk,
Virginia [16] . Deposits and gases from an incinerator at Oceanside, New York, were also analyzed. Eleven corrosion probes made up of the following metals were run under controlled-temperature conditions: AI06-Grade B and A213-Grade TIl carbon steels, and AISI Types 304, 3 10, 316, 321, and 446 stainless steels. Metallic coatings of chromium and aluminum were also evaluated.
The probe was designed to include 34 cylindrical specimens nested together end to end and then in-serted into the incinerator through a side wall. The section of the probe extending through the wall was
water cooled. The specimens exposed within the furnace were cooled by air flowing inside the tubular specimens. A computer analysis was used to ascertain the geometry
of the internal support tube required to give the most linear specimen-temperature variation over the range
of abou t 350 to 1 100 F for a probe wi th 34 specimens. Each specimen was about 1.25 in. in OD, 1.00 in. in ID, and 1.5 in. long.
Fig. 1 is a schematic of the final exposure-probe apparatus. The specimens are nested together with lap joints as shown in Detail A, and retained axially at the cooling-air-outlet end by a retainer which is fixed to the internal support tube with webs as shown in Section A-A. The axial restraining force in the internal
support tube is obtained by compressing the spring on the air-inlet end of the probe at assembly. The spring
compensates for differential thermal expansion between the specimens and the internal support tube.
Specimen temperatures are measured at four stations with Type K thermocouples either welded into the wall of the specimens or inserted into recesses drilled lengthwise into one end of the appropriate specimen.
The thermocouple lead wires are brought out of the probe through the center of the internal support tube, so that temperatures can be recorded continuously on a strip-chart potentiometer recorder. Since the computed results indicated that the temperature variation is linear for regions with a constant gap between the internal support tube and the specimens, the four temperatures accurately define the specimen temperatures.
The specimen temperatures are controlled by regulating the amount of cooling air admitted to the
probe. The output from a control thermocouple,
which is attached to the specimen at the same axial location as the Thermocouple 3, is monitored by a proportional temperature controller. During a run, the controller maintains this temperature by varying
Sirip Chorl potenhometric
Spring 10 compensa te tor d"terentlal thermol expanSion 191"---+0'---- 34 specimens - 51"---�-
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4 Olf out
Two (2) stocked auto Olf ti llers .: ....
radlol Specimen radia l gop thermo- Control
gop couples thermocouple
ot 120 trom specimen thermocouple at thiS location
/ i \ I \ :
Inlet silencer
Eleclrlc proparflonal operator
Blowott ' , ::' 1===�§�===== ========� Flue gas U
motor Dela,! A
Speci men Detoils Enlorged
--------'
Section A-A Enlorged
Fig. 1 Schematic of specimen-exposure-probe apparatus.
the amount of cooling air bypassing the probe through a motorized butterfly valve located between the blower and the probe. A Roots-blower air pump delivering up to about 34 cfm was used with a 5-hp motor as a drive
The corrosion probes as removed from the incinerators are covered with scale and deposits. More of these deposits were found at Miami County than at Norfolk. The deposit built up into a V-shaped layer of varying depth lengthwise along the probe, with the apex or point of the V projected into the oncoming
gas stream. These deposits were removed from all probes in a numbered sequence. Thus, the variations in composition as a function of temperature could be determined when the deposits were analyzed.
Corrosion Measurements and Examinations
Individual specimens were separated and examined. They were tested first for the presence of sui fide by placing a drop of sodium azide solution on the surface and viewing the reagent under a binocular microscope. Evolution of nitrogen gas bubbles gave a positive
identification of sulfide. Another area was checked for pH by placing a moistened strip of Universal pH paper
302
over the surface. Thus, the hydrolytic properties of salts present on the surfaces could be determined.
Selected specimens were retained intact for special examinl)tion by X-ray, electron-microprobe, and metallographic procedures.
The other pieces were de scaled by methods which prevented attack of the base metal. The carbon steel specimens were stripped cathodically in 10 percent H2 S04 containing 1-ethylquinolinium iodide inhibitor. The stainless steel specimens were descaled in a twostep process: first with 1 1 percent NaOH and 5 percent KMn04 at 212 F, and then with a mixture of 20 percent HN03 and 2 percent HF at 130 F.
The amount of metal wastage was determined by
weight-loss measurements. On the basis of OD and ID micrometer measure
ments, the overall weight loss was adjusted to reflect the proportion of loss which occurred on the outside surface. This was of significance only in the cases where appreciable oxidation had occurred on the inner surfaces. The wastage rates for the specimens were calculated
and expressed as "mils per month" penetration. Fig. 2 illustrates data for one of the runs made at Miami County.
Comparison of the results from many probes, when
arranged according to the time of exposure shows that the initial corrosion rates are high and that they taper off with time, as illustrated in Fig. 3.
The results suggest that the scale formed during corrosion is protective to some extent and that the rate of attack will decrease appreciably as the exposure time is increased.
Because of this high initial rate, the penetration rates shown in Fig. 2 should not be used to project antiCipated wastage for long-time incinerator operation.
Metallographic studies of sections from specimens of the AI06 and TI l carbon-steel alloys indicated that the attack was uniform. Stainless steel specimens, on the other hand, showed some structural changes and varying degrees of intergranular attack.
Some of the stainless steels failed quickly by stresscorrosion cracking when in contact with incinerator deposits under humid conditions at 170 F. Both sensitized and annealed Type 304 specimens cracked after an exposure of one week. Type 310 cracked after 10 weeks. Type 446 did not crack after 22 weeks,
but was pitted. Because of stress-corrosion cracking and pitting, these stainless steels do not appear as good choices for boiler construction.
Several trends of importance were found when results of all runs were analyzed.
First, for all materials evaluated, (i ) The temperature gradien t through the deposits
that separate the tube metal and the hot gases is an important factor. Corrosion rates were greater when
larger gradients were present. Thus, direct exposure to the flame could increase the attack.
Second, for the AI06-Grade B and A213-Grade Ti l carbon steels,
(I) The rate of corrosion increases as the temperature increases and can range from 5 to 15 mils per month at 325 F to about 20 to 50 mils per
month at 950 F. (2) The two steels are comparable in corrosion
resistance with the AI06-Grade B being slightly superior to the A213-Grade Ti l steel.
Third, for the stainless steels, (1) The corrosion resistance is superior to that for
the carbon steels. (2) The rate of corrosion increases as the tem
perature increases. (3) Types 446 and 310 show less weight loss than
Types 304, 321, and 3 16.
�r--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------' � 40 S E . E
I'o � 10
SpetllTlen
AYertJQe temp. F, 828 hi'" 290 320 3� 390 425 470 500 530 510 600 &40 680 725 780 8K) 860 9(X) 940 1000 100 1020 1030 1040 1060 1010 1080 1090 1100 1115 1130 1140 leo U60 1175
Fig. 2 Tube-wastage rate on probe exposed at Miami County.
70r--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------,
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i 40
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f " 20
10
I�SO«'""" No. 13 � :3:----- , 7 � 13.15 �7 5,3 � 9,1715 15 ____________ � 5 7 13 13 App Specimen No �. 7 �
(Ollmal'temperoture 850 F � �� __ } -------,5_
� 13 b-________ �--------_d� --------�--------��
A�pp�'o="m=o�
I.='.:m �:':OI�U"�4 O�O�F�====�========����====�_d
EIIPOIU'I Tme, hr. °100 200 300 400 ")0 600 700 100 !MX) Probe No. 1 3
Fig. 3 Metal wastage of carbon steel as a function of exposure
time. These probes were exposed at the Miami County,
Ohio, incinerator.
303
9
(4) Stress corrosion cracking and pitting is a severe limitation, particularly during down-time.
Studies of Mechanism
The composition of the deposits removed from the corrosion specimens was carefully determined to provide some idea of possible causes of the corrosion. Significant amounts of chlorine, sulfur, lead, zinc, potassium, and sodium, along with other more inert elements, calcium, silicon, and aluminum, were detected in the deposits from the three incinerators mentioned. The proportions of these constituents depended on the corrosion probe-specimen temperature, and the dis
tributions were consistent with known volatilities of the compounds. A typical distribution of elements
in the deposits as a function of temperature is illustrated in Fig. 4 for two of the Norfolk, Virginia, probes.
The electron microprobe is an instrument which permits examination of a surface to determine the location and relative concentration of individual
20
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f\ II � X
- V 1\ II' � II' '\
.c .2' Q) � 10 5
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� V � 0 c 0 u 5
K K 1\
v f\
f\ K 1\ V 1\ V '\ II'
V 1\ ) � 11'_1\ :> 7 V 1\ K 7 V � 1\ II' ) �"K , 1\ , , V 1\ ) '\ K II' V II II II II II 1\ V , K 1\ , '\ '\ '\ , '\ V 1\ V II' V II II' < II � V :> '\ II , '\ '\ '\ , "- II II ...., II II '\ V I\, 1\ ...., "- II o
elements. An electron microprobe was used to exan1ine the area at the interface of the base metal and the
corrosion scale on sections cut from corroded portions
of boiler tubes removed from the incinerator at Oceanside in 1968, 1969, and 1970. Sections from Miami County Corrosion Probes 2 and 3 were also examined, as were sections of Probe 10 from Norfolk,
Virginia. None of these specimens was descaled prior to sectioning so that the areas could be viewed with some scale intact. It was found that the elements chlorine,
zinc, sulfur, lead, and potassium were concentrated adjacent to the base metal. Table I includes the microprobe results for 18 specimens. The column designated "inner layer" represents the interface between metal and adherent scale, while that designated the "outer
layer" is in the scale, slightly removed from the metal surface. They both are beneath what is normallY con
sidered as deposit, i.e., the massive buildup of material on the tube.
The sodium azide spot test also revealed that sulfide
compounds were present near the metal surface on
R )
r- ) '\ r-II' '\ II'
R - R K � � R V' v 1\ � 1\ V 1\ 1/ 1\ , K 1\ V 1\ � K V V � , V ti' � V II' , 1\ 7 1\ V 1\ 1\ , V- II' '\ � 1\ 1\ V V '\ 1\ II V � II P 1\ 1\ 1\ II K ) � 1\ '\ 1\ II '\ V- II � 1\ ) , , '\ 1\ II' � 1\ II II II' 1-1\, 1\ 1\ 1/
No K Co Pb Zn Fe Al Si CI S 300- 500 F
No K Co Pb Zn Fe AI Si CI S No K Co Pb Zn Fe Al Si CI S 750-1000 F 500-750 F
(825 on No. 10) Probe 8 0 Probe 10 gJ
Fig. 4 Distribution of elements in deposits from Norfolk probes.
304
almost all the probe specimens, particularly on those exhibiting the most severe corrosion.
X-ray diffraction studies identified over 20 compounds in the scale and deposit. Fig. 5 summarizes the data obtained.
Compounds of particular significance are FeCI2 , FeS, KCl, NaCl, ZnS04, and mixed PbO·PbS04 salts.
Gas Analyses
The compositions of the furnace gases at the three incinerator sites mentioned earlier were measured to assist in determining corrosion mechanisms. The sulfurand chlorine-containing constituents were of particular interest. While the S02 content in incinerators is less than is normally found in fossil-fuel-fired power stations, the HCI content is greater. It was found, for example, that average amounts of these gases in incinerators were in the range of 100 ppm, although HCl concentrations of 300 ppm were measured in one instance. Nitrogen oxides were present in amounts near
100 ppm and organic acids ranged up to 340 ppm. HF was detected in amounts ranging from 1 to 6 ppm.
LABORATORY STUDI ES
Laboratory studies were carried out to determine the importance of individual factors on corrosion in incinerators and also to help establish the mechanism by which metal wastage occurs. Since the experiments can be carried out under carefully controlled conditions, it is possible to determine the role of such factors as gaseous components, salts or deposits, and temperature.
Experiments were carried out at 600, 800, and lOOO F using a variety of salt compositions an d under a simulated flue-gas atmosphere containing S02 , HCl,
and, on occasion, HCOOH (formic acid). The data in Fig. 6 indicate that chloride salts added to sulfate salts significantly enhance corrosion, particularly at 800 and 1000 F. For example, at 1000 F, the corrosion rate of carbon steel Ttl is about 7 mils per month in a mixed NaZS04-K2 S04 salt. When 1 percent NaCI was added, the corrosion increased about 10 times. It was also shown that S02 was a necessary
constituent in the gas atmosphere to provide the increased corrosion. At 800 and lOOO F, ZnCl2 and
Table 1.
Results of Microprobe Analyses
bile '''''' Copper SodIUll POll.,. -,-
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Oc�sll.bolltf �be. 1'168
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Qcein5tde bruit( tube. 1970
UliMII Coun� PltIbt 2. A�6B, 6D r
M,., Counly Probe 2. TIl ".." 680 r
M •• , Coull'., Probe 2. Jl4 SiMien 1130 f L
M,aII, ec-.nly probe 2, 12Isl.mlus.II�F
MI_. County Probe J AI06B ".., JXl r
M,., Coooty Plobf 1 AIO\B ".., 110 r
W,"", Counl'y PIObe 3 AIC6BSleei 8M F
"'�I Countv Probe: 3 Til sire � F
MIMII County PIOOt 3 311 slalnless \f'IO� F
NOIIoIII Vi PIObe I(l Til ".., JC! r
Norton, Vi Plobf 10 A 106 slttl 4fl F
NorlOlk. Vi Plobf Ifl ]llslilnltSS�F
HOl1o11t. Va PfObt 10 A 11,6 "", 660 r
Hollollt. Va PIObe 10 AlO6sltt! 150 F
No.lollt. Va PlObt 10 J21 Sla,nltSS 8J� F
VL
ill
ill
VL L
Vl VL
l • IJ
VL
VL
VH
VL
VH
ill
VH ill
VH ill
VH ill
VH
VH
VH
VL
VH
VH VH
VH L
VH VH
VH VH
VH L --- -----Holt VH YPly hlltl H "'I" M modtralt l 10-. III ytr,( low Dash Indla!tS tisnenl nollound In Imalt arta
L' VH
Vl Vl
305
VH ill M ,L
VH
VL M
M VH
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VL
VL ill VL VL
ill
ill VL
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V� VL VH VL
(NOK)ZS04' SiOz•
KzPb{S�)2 , Ca S04• AI, NaZS04• ZnS041 PbS04
----�....-----1-------___4 No2S(4,KOH,SiOz.MgzSiO. White(NaK) zSO. N· CI KC) AI C CO PbO .. 0 , t , 0 3' ,
f..---------l CaSd4• 4PbO. PbS04
Fe Clz,FeS DiscontinOOJs white ond blue-block
900-1100 F
FeClz Continuous white layer
600-800 F
a Fe:P!,Fe304, FeS
FeClz Continuous gold layer
300-500 F
Mixed oxide loyer adherent to substrate
Fig. 5 Schematic location of phases identified by X·ray
diffraction.
PbCI2 were also very corrosive. At 600 F, the most corrosive salts in decreasing order of activity were KHS04, K2 S2 07, and ZnCI2.
DI SCUSSION
The corrosion probe results reported herein agree fairly well with those observed in practice. For
example, Fassler [9] and his associates suggest that high-temperature corrosion begins near 600 F. Hilsheimer [2] has reported accelerated corrosion in high·temperature areas of water·wall incinerators in Germany. Tube life of less than a year has been reported on occasion.
Maikranz [ 17] cited experience with the Munich
refuse-burning power plant in which metal wastage of wall tubes amounted to 1.4 mm in 3500 h of operation. This rate of corrosion is 11.3 mils per month, which is comparable to the wastage found on many of our probe specimens.
Comparison of these results with experience in
U. S. power plants is difficult, because few data of this type are available. Barnhart [18] stated that the corrosion rate in superheaters and reheaters is typically
about 20 mils per year. In extreme cases, austenitic
tube hangers have shown wastage rates of 250 mils
per year. Correlation of the results of the different studies
306
oo
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K2S04 % NozSD4 °10 NoCI% Mise 0/0 Atmosphere
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15 16 18 17 19 21
'78 78 78 78 75 21 21 21 21 20'
100 I I I 5
+++ Fig. 6 Laboratory corrosion results showing effect of chlorides
and sulfur dioxide.
made on the deposits and corroded surfaces combined
with the laboratory results provided at least a possible explanation of the corrosion mechanism.
It is proposed that HCI and Cl2 released adjacent to the tube surfaces are important factors. In addition, S02 and S03 gases, along with sulfur-containing compounds, cause additional corrosion. The roles played by the sulfur- and chlorine-containing compounds in the refuse are of great importance and are closely interrelated. The sequence of chemical reactions that are involved in the corrosion mechanism is depicted in Fig. 7.
Chlorides and oxides reach the tube surface by direct volatilization in the flames and by reaction of the HCl formed during burning with the K2 0 and Na2 0 volatilized. Sodium salts are shown in Fig. 7 by way of example, but similar reactions occur with potassium salts. Chloride salts deposited on the metal surface react with S02 and oxygen near the tube to evolve high concentrations of HCl directly adjacent to the metal. Some of this HCl reacts directly with the iron to
form FeCI2. However, a more serious condition may involve catalytic oxidation of the HCl to C12. The Cl2 is much more reactive with the tube metal and
can take part in a closed cycle of reactions in which
the product FeCl2 is converted to Fe2 03, and
Cl2 is regenerated, as shown on the left side of the diagram.
307
The additional role played by sulfur is tha t of forming low-melting pyrosulfates or bisulfates by reaction of sulfates in the deposit with additional sulfur oxides. This action is shown on the right side of the diagram, where another closed loop is possible. In this case, pyrosulfates or bisulfates react with the iron to form FeS and FeO and regenerate Na2 S04'
The corrosion process is further complicated by the presence of zinc and lead salts which serve to lower
the melting points of the mixtures on the metal surface. It is concluded that water-wall incinerators using
the metals evaluated should not be designed to generate superheated steam, but should be operated at relatively low metal temperatures, near 500 F, to minimize corrosion. The down-time of an incinerator can be important from the corrosion standpoint since acidic salts can become wet by absorption of water when the surfaces become cool.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Louis W. Lefke and Daniell. Keller monitored this program for the Solid Waste Management Office, EPA.
The cooperation of the administrative and operating
staffs of the incinerators at Miami County, Ohio; Navy Public Works Center, Norfolk, Virginia; and Oceanside,
�Deposit __ ......
- " - - ,, " , ....-: --- -.,-..... _ .......
o
Tube metal
NaGI
Fig.7 Sequence of chemical reactions explaining corrosion on
steel tube.
Town of Hempstead, Long Island, New York, is greatly appreciated.
The authors also wish to acknowledge the efforts of Battelle-Columbus staff members W. K. Boyd, R. B.
Engdahl, R. D. Fischer, W. T. Reid, J. E. Reinoehl,
E. J. Schulz, D. A. Vaughan, P. R. Webb, and J. Zupan.
RE FERENCES
[1] F. Nowak, "Considerations in the Construction of
Large Refuse Incinerators". Proceedings of 1970 National
Incinerator Conference, ASME, New York, N.Y., pp. 92-96.
[2] H. Hilsheimer, "Experience After 20,000 Operating
Hours-The Mannheim Incinerator", Proceedings of I 970 National Incinerator Conference, ASME, New York, N.Y.
pp. 93-106.
[3J F. Nowak, "Corrosion Problems in Incinerators",
Combustion, vol. 40, no. 5, November 1968, pp. 32-40.
[4] H. Rousseau, "The Large Plants for Incineration of
Domestic Refuse in the Paris Metropolitan Area". Proceedings
of 1968 National Incinerator Conference, ASME, New York,
N.Y., pp. 225-231.
[5] Wolfgang Ficktner, Karl-Gerog Maurer and Harold Miller, "The Stuttgart Refuse Incineration Plant: Layout
and Operation Experience". ASME Paper No. 66-WA/PID-I0, Winter Annual Meeting, 1966, ASME.
[6] H. Everhardt and W. Mayer, "Experiences With Refuse
Incinerators in Europe-Prevention of Air and Water Pollution, Operation of Refuse Incineration Plants Com-
308
bined with Steam Boilers, Design and Planning", Proceedings
of 1968 National Incinerator Conference, ASME, New York,
N.Y., pp. 73-86.
[7] H. Eberhardt, "European Practice in Refuse and
Sewage Sludge Disposal by Incineration", Combustion, vol. 28,
no. 3, September 1966, pp. 8-15.
[8] K. Matsumoto, R. Asukata, and T. Kawashima, "The
Practice of Refuse Incineration in J apan- Burning of Refuse
With High Moisture-Content and Low Calorific Value", Pro
ceedings of 1968 National Incinerator Conference, ASME,
pp .. 192-196, New York, N.Y. [9] K. Fassler, H. Leib and H. Spahn, "Corrosion in Refuse
Incineration Plants", Mitt. V G.B., vol. 48, April 1968,
pp. 126-139. [10] Rudolf Rasch, "Fireside Corrosion in Incinerators",
BrennstoffWarme-Kraft, vol. 19, October 1967, p. 498
[11] M. Hirsch, "Fireside Corrosion by Burning Chlorine
Containing Refuse", Brennstoff Warme-Kraft, vol. 19,
October 1967, p. 499.
[12] R. Huch, "Hydrogen Chloride Corrosion in In
cinerators", Brennstoff Warme-Kraft, vol. 18, February 1966,
pp. 76-79. [13] J. Angenend, "Behavior of Materials for Boiler
Tubes in Gases Containing Hydrogen Chloride", Brennstoff
Warme-Kraft, vol. 18, February, 1966, pp. 79-81. [14] R. W. Bryers and Z. Kerekes, "Recent Experience
With Ash Deposits in Refuse-Fired Boilers", ASME paper
No. 68-WA/CD-4, Winter Annual Meeting, 1968, ASME.
[15] Paul D. Miller and Horatio H. Krause, "Factors In
fluencing the Corrosion of Boiler Steels in Municipal Incinerators", Corrosion, vol. 27, January 1971, pp. 31-45.
[16] H. Carlton Moore, "Refuse-Fired Steam Generator
at Navy Base, Norfolk, Virginia", Proc. MECAR Symposium
Incineration of Solid Wastes, March 21, 1967, pp. 10-23.
[17] F. Maikranz, "Corrosion in Three Differen t Firing Installations", International Symposium on Corrosion in
Refuse Incineration Plants, Dusseldorf, West Germany,
309
April, 197 O. [18] D. H. Barnhart, Discussion on papers in Section Ib,
The Marchwood Conference, The Mechanism of Corrosion
by Fuel Impurities, Ed. by Johnson and Littler, London,
Butterworths, 1963, p. 183.