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Local uses of tree species and contribution of mixed tree gardens tolivelihoods of Saleman village near the Manusela National Park,

Seram Island, Maluku (Indonesia)

Masters thesis Ariane Cosiaux

Master Biodiversit Vgtale Tropicale 2012

Masters internship from 7 March to 17 August 2012 at :

Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)

Jalan CIFOR, Situ Gede

Bogor Barat 16115

Indonesia

Supervisor :

Yves Laumonier

CIRAD scientist in the research unit Tropical Forest Goods

and Ecosystem Services

Ariane Cosiaux 2012


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Universit Montpellier II

Masters thesis

Master Biodiversit Vgtale Tropicale

Local uses of tree species and contribution of mixed tree gardens tolivelihoods of Saleman village near the Manusela National Park,

Seram Island, Maluku (Indonesia)

Ariane Cosiaux2012

Masters internship from 7 March to 17 August 2012 at :

Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)

Jalan CIFOR, Situ Gede

Bogor Barat 16115

Indonesia

Supervisor :

Yves Laumonier

CIRAD scientist in the research unit Tropical Forest Goods

and Ecosystem Services


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Aknowledgments

I first want to thank Yves Laumonier for allowing me to do this internship, for his availabilityand advices. And I want to thank him for allowing me to discover the amazing Island of Seram.

I would like to thank also Pak Purwanto from LIPI for his invaluable advices and kindness for the ethnobotanical part of my study. I am grateful to him for his help to the realization of myquestionnaire in bahasa Indonesia and his encouragements during the first two weeks of myfield work.

I am so grateful for the hospitality of the Saleman village. First I want to thank Nenek In andHapipa for hosting me during my field work. Then I want to thank my field assistant Jul whohelp me and take care of me. A special thank goes to Bapak Hadir who taught me the name of

plants in bahasa Saleman , for his kindness and availability. I also would like to thank Bapak Mustafa and Mama Ratna who also take care of me and help me for collecting voucher specimens. Finally, I like to thank fAndre, Yaren and all the member of Nenek In family.

At CIFOR, I want to thank the other member of the Colupsia project, Pak Wyono and Pak Danan for their help and thanks to Popi Astriani who took care of all the administrativedocuments.

I am also grateful to Pak Yan for drying my voucher specimen and to Pak Ismael, Bogor Herbarium, for all species identification.

A final thank to my friends and family for their support.


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Contents

Introduction

A. General context1) Deforestation and forest degradation in Indonesia

2) Importance of human-modified landscapes

B. The Colupsia project

1) Partners

2) A study area in Maluku

3) Challenges

C. My study within the Colupsia project

1) Complex agroforestry systems in Indonesia

2) Aim of the study

Site and Methods

A. Study area

1) Island of Seram a )

2) The village of Saleman

B. Participatory mapping and identification of local practices

1) Participatory mapping

2) Management of mixed tree gardens: identify local practices

C. Typology of mixed tree gardens

1) Sampling design

2) Recorded variables

3) Data analysis

D. Ethnobotanical knowledge

1) Interviews on local uses of tree species in mixed tree gardens

2) Free listing

3) Plant voucher specimens

Results

A. of Saleman

1) Customary governance of landscape management

2) Participatory mapping and folk classification of landscapes


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3) Mixed tree gardens: general characteristics and Kebun

B. Structure and floristic composition of mixed tree gardens

1) Structure

2) Floristic composition

C. Local uses of tree and other plant species

1) Local uses of mixed tree garden species

2) The other plants used by communities

3) Important species for each use

Discussion

A. Mixed tree gardens: an integrated land useB. Mixed tree gardens: complex agroforestry systems similar to natural forest

C. Importance of mixed tree gardens for local population

D. The mixed tree gardens inside the Manusela National park

Conclusion


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B. The Colupsia project

1) Partners

In this context of forest degradation an conversion in other land uses, the Center for

International Research on Agronomy and Development (CIRAD), together with its partner the

Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) are conducting a four year project called

land cing by

the European Commission. The project works in two regions: Kalimantan and Maluku.

2) A study area in Maluku

In Maluku, the pilot site is on the island of Seram. The island is part of the Wallacea

biogeographic region and harbors a large diversity of vegetation types, from coastal mangrove

to tropical alpine vegetation (Edwards et al. 1993, Monk et al. 1997). In the central part of the

island lies the Manusela National Park, a conservation area created in 1997, covering an area

of 189 000 ha which represents about 10% of the total island area. The island still largely

plantations. Historically, Seramese people were practicing subsistence activities like hunting-

gathering and swidden agriculture or more intensive forms of permanent agriculture on the

coast (Ellen 1997). Like in Papua and all the Moluccas, a common characteristic of Seramese

people is their dependency to the sago palms ( Metroxylon sagu ) that constitutes staple food.

Sago starch is extracted both from swamp forest area and from gardens closer to settlement

where it is planted. This habit reduces considerably the need to cut forests since highland rice

and subsequent forest opening is not needed (Ellen 1993, 1999, Sasaoka and Laumonier

( Myristica fragrans ) and clove

(Syzygium aromaticum ) occurred very early in the Moluccan history because of the European

demand for spices since the sixteenth century (Ellen 1997). Several agricultural practices still

occur today in Seram: swidden, slash and burn and permanent cultivation described as

complex agroforestry systems including home gardens and mixed tree gardens (Monk et al.

1997).

3) Challenges

For the collaborative land use planning process, it is important to identify and

characterize the different land uses and understand their importance for the local

communities. into account the perception of the local

communities toward forested landscape and natural resources which enables a better


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understanding of local priorities, local challenges according to rural livelihoods, management

of the forested landscape and biodiversity conservation.

C. My study within the Colupsia project

1) Complex agroforestry systems in Indonesia

Definitions and examples

Complex agroforestry systems are tree-crop based systems with a forest-like structure

(Michon and De Foresta 1995, Torquebiau 2007). Such systems account a high number of

component (trees, lianas, herbaceous) and present a multistoried structure close to those

observed in primary or secondary forests (Michon and De Foresta, 1995, 1995). In Indonesia,

Pekarangan in Java

(Wiersum 1982, Christanty et al. 1986). Homegardens are fenced-in gardens surrounding

individual houses, in which several fruits and others trees are planted together with vegetable

herbs and annual crops (Kumar and Nair 2004). They are generally intensively tended.

However most of complex agroforestry systems are smallholder mixed tree plantations or

ged than homegardens.

the Indonesian word for tree garden (Michon and De

Foresta 1995), are complex mixed tree plantations with high species diversity, tree density

and a complex vertical structure. In the literature t

et al. -

Ruokolainen 2003, Wiersum 2004, Belcher et al. 2005). When the term agroforest is

similar agroforestry plots. Then, forest gardens is employed as synonym of agroforest but it

often corresponds to tree based systems with a higher proportion of wild trees (Wiersum

1997a, 1997b, 2004). As example we can cite the multistoried agroforestry gardens in West

Sumatra known as characterized by a complex association of fruit trees like

( Durio zibethinus ), species for commercial purposes ( Myristica fragrans ,

Cinnamomum burmani ) and others useful trees (Michon et al. 1986). In the southeast

diversity (268 plant species) and a structure similar to secondary forest (Gouyon et al. 1993).

In West Java, bamboo-tree gardens with high species diversity have been studied by Okubo et

al. (2010). According to Michon and De Foresta (1995), the villages in the island of Ambon

are surrounded by agroforests which combine nutmeg and clove trees with fruit trees andforest nut trees. On the Saparua Island, there are examples of complex agroforestry systems


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dusun et al. (2002). The major components of these agroforestry

systems are clove, nutmeg and coconut palms ( Cocos nucifera ) with a cortege of other tree

species. In the North of Seram (Masihulan village), complex agroforestry systems such as

durian, coffee or cocoa ( Theobroma cacao ) gardens have been studied by Vallet (2011).

Local management

new agroforestry plot starts by a total removal of patch of primary or secondary forest

(Foresta and Michon 1996, Michon and De Foresta 1997, Gouyon et al. 1993). Sometimes

wild trees are maintained on the plot to make shade or supply woody. These mixed tree

gardens are generally established after a phase of slash and burn agriculture based on food

crops and thus, closely associated with sifting cultivation (De Foresta and Michon 1996,

Michon and De Foresta 1997, Kaya et al. 2002). The management of the agroforestry systems

by farmers presents an intermediate level of input (clearing, cutting, and planting) and is

complemented by the utilization of natural processes to assure soil fertility, tree regeneration

or control weeds (Michon et al. 1986, Belcher et al. 2005).

Contribution to rural livelihoods

The first purpose of most of mixed tree gardens is supplying cash incomes to rural

households. In all of them, a commercially valuable main tree crop is planted to assure the

main or only source of cash income to farmers (De Foresta and Michon 1996, Belcher et al.

2005). In the mixed tree gardens of West Sumatra, cinnamon ( Cinnamomum burmani ),

nutmeg and coffee are planted for commercial purpose (Michon et al. 1986). In the South-Est

rubber latex exported from Indonesia is produced by smallholders in rubber gardens (Gouyon

et al. 1993, Belcher et al. 2005). In bamboo-tree gardens of Java, clove and coffee assure the

same economic function. In Maluku, nutmeg and clove also assure cash income for local

communities (Kaya et al. 2002) like in forest gardens of Sulawesi where cocoa, vanilla(Vanilla planifolia) and nutmeg are the main cash crops. Moreover, supplementary incomes

are generated when farmers sell fruits or other commercially valuable products (Wiersum

1982, Gouyon et al. 1993, Murniati et al. 2001) in the local market. Finally, the tree gardens

systems provide lots of subsistence products like firewood, house construction, fruits,

vegetables or medicines. In bamboo tree garden of Sumatra, 8 categories of uses and 42 tree

species have been identified which assure the daily needs of farmers (Okubo et al. 2010). In

et al. 1986). In traditional gardens of Central Sulawesi, Brodbeck et al . (2003) have inventoried a


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total of 43 to 95 species with subsistence uses. In the traditional tree farming systems

in West Java, tree species assure the household subsistence needs in supplying

food, medicines, construction wood, and firewood (Manurang et al. 2004).

Contribution in biodiversity conservation

As multistoried tree base systems which mimic natural forests with a high species

diversity, agroforestry systems can contribute to biodiversity conservation. First, tree gardens

et al. 2006, Perfecto

and Vandermeer 2008) like the indigenous fruit tree species. Secondly, tree gardens may

Indeed, many wild spontaneous tree species are found in tree gardens and are maintained and

managed by farmers (Michon et al. 1986, Gouyon et al. 1993, Kaya et al. 2002). Moreover,

lots of shrub, lianas or epiphytes and herbs are found in complex tree base systems like in the

rubber jungle of Sumatra where 268 plants species in which 91 tree, 27 shrubs, 97 lianas and

28 epiphyte species have been inventoried (Gouyon et al. 1993, Michon and De Foresta

1995). Then, many of these systems are viewed to be important for the conservation of wild

fauna in supplying a diversity of habitat (Bhagwat et al. 2008 Swallow et al. 2006) and

facilitating the movement of mammals, birds of butterflies between patches of natural forest.

Finally, complex agroforestry systems is an opportunity to reduce the pressure on the

protected areas in forming forested transition zone between protected forests and human

dominated areas (Murniati et al. 2001).

2) Aim of the study

In this study we investigate the importance of mixed tree gardens for the Saleman

community, a village near the Manusela National Park, on Seram Island, Maluku. The study

is divided in three key points. The first one is understand the place occupied by the mixed tree

gardens in the village territory. The second one consist of describing the structure and tree

species composition of the mixed tree gardens and the third one is assess the importance of mixed tree gardens as regards to livelihoods through the inventory of useful plant species and

products supplied by these agroforestry systems.


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Figure 1: Map of Seram Island, Maluku, Eastern IndonesiaSource: Colupsia project

Figure 2: Draft vegetation map of the study site, North coast of Seram IslandMaluku, IndonesiaSource: Colupsia project

Central Maluku Regency


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Site and Methods

A. Study area

1) Island of Seram and the regency of Central Moluccas ( Maluku Tengah )

Seram, the second largest island in Maluku, Eastern Indonesia (Figure 1), covers17 429 km, being about 340 km long and 60 km wide. The island is very mountainous with

the highest peak culminating at 3027 m. The island is non-volcanic, mainly composed of

sedimentary rocks including limestone massifs and metamorphic rocks (Payton 1993). The

temperatures at sea level varying between 25 to 30C. The climate is less humid in the North

coast, with a mean annual rainfall about 2 000 mm with a drier season from April to

September (Lembaga Meteorologi dan Geofisika, 1969), whereas the south coast receives

more than 3 000 mm, with a precipitation peak in July. The Central Maluku regency

) covers 11 595 km (275 097 km when including the sea

territory) and encompasses other islands such as Ambon, Haruku, Saparua and Banda (PBS

2009) (Figure 1). ). In 2010, the regency had a total

population of 361 698 people, with an average density of 31 persons/km (PBS, 2012), and

livelihoods is mainly based on agriculture and fisheries.

2) The village of Saleman

(-

) and its surrounding agroforests and forested landscape during a period of three

months. The village is located on the north coast near the north-west edge of the Manusela

National Park (Figure 2). The total population reaches 1666 inhabitants (BPS, 2010). At the

et al. 1993).

The villagers are Muslim, and the two most common occupations for livelihood are

agriculture and fisheries. The level of education is low; few people have college diplomas or

bachelor degrees. Historically, Saleman people belong to the Seramese Nuaulu indigenous

bahasa Indonesia

bahasa saleman phylum (Ellen 2006).

The village is on the beach, and is surrounded by hilly landscape (Figure 3, 4). The

most common vegetation types around the village are lowland and hill limestone forest,

logged-over (depleted) lowland forest and mixed gardens (Figure 2). Mixed gardens are a

source of conflict with the neighboring national Manusela park authorities because 600 ha

gardens are inside the Park (Pers. com., Park authorities, 2012). In addition in 2006 a conflict


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Figure 3: the village of Saleman, Seram Island

Figure 4: The village of Saleman surrounded by a hilly landscape

A.Cosiaux 2012

A.Cosiaux 2012


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arose between Saleman village and the neighboring village Horale: 10 000 ha of lands are

mutually claimed between Saleman village and Horale village. In 2008, Horale village has

even been attacked by Saleman people, many houses have been burnt.

B. Participatory mapping and identification of local practices

1) Participatory mapping

At the beginning of the study a mapping exercise has been conducted following

general principles of IFAD 2009. The mapping has been conducted with customary leaders

adat to understand their perception of their territory and the place occupied by the gardens

in the landscape. A base map has been previously drawn on a transparency paper,

representing neighboring villages, roads, principal rivers and mountain peaks around the

village (Bujang 2004). Firstly, informants were asked to give the name of the main rivers,

mountains, and locations around the village and draw the boundaries of the village lands, the

borders of the Manusela National Park and the eventual conflict areas. Secondly, I asked them

to enumerate and describe the different land uses found inside the village territory and sketch

them on the map (Martin 1995, Vogl et al. 2004). Once the generic categories of land use

to describe each land use in order to identify the

vegetable fruit garden et al. 2004). Finally, they have

been asked about activities inside each land use type. This exercise was crucial to identify the

different land use around the village, especially the mixed tree gardens for which I will

conduct study in detail.

2) Management of mixed tree gardens: identify local practices

To identify the local practices of management of mixed tree gardens, 15 structured

interviews of farmers have been conducted. A set of questions have been previously prepared,

written that guides interviews. Questions have been asked about the attributes of the garden

and then farmers have been asked about the management practices, from the creation of a new

garden to the usually management practices in an old garden. Other questions address harvest,

tree diseases or problems met by farmers (Appendix 1). All the interviews have been

conducted in Indonesian without translator.


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C. Typology of mixed tree gardens

1) Sampling design

The selection of the sample sites have been based on the participatory map and

discussions with local informants. A total of 22 gardens (approximately 28ha). All the gardens

were located no more than 4 km from the village. In order to study the vegetation

characteristics, small plots of 20 x 20 m has been established in each garden. Plots have been

selected as much as possible at similar elevation, when possible on similar slopes and in area

relatively homogeneous according to environmental conditions. The mean slope within type

of gardens varies between 4 (6) and 16 (9). All the studied gardens are old gardens

established more than 30 years ago. A total of 5 plots (0.2 ha) in each mixed tree garden type

have been sampled. Plot size has been decided according to the methods and empirical

knowledge developed previously by the Colupsia project while studying other agroforestry

systems in other locations. A 400m plot sizes enables to visit several gardens encompassing

all garden diversity, and assure a relative homogeneity inside each plot (slope, soil etc) and

involve a compromise between covering a wide sample of gardens and limit the work time

attributed for each plot.

2) Recorded variables

m have been

inventoried, height estimated, vernacular names recorded and voucher specimens collected.

The position of the tree inside the plot, the height and the crown span has been respected.

Moreover, in each garden visited, other tree species found outside the plot have also been

inventoried (local name and voucher specimens).

3) Data analysis

Structure

nsity, the relative

diameter classes (5-9,9cm, 10-19,9cm, 20-29,9cm etc). In order to analyze height distribution

in each type of garden, all trees were allocated to 1 of 4 height classes (2-7m, 7,1-15m, 15,1-

25m, >25). Then for each type of garden the number of continuous layers have been

determined based on the observation on the field and the previously heights distribution. The

mean heights of the continuous layers have been calculated. The total basal area G has also been calculated. Density, relative density and the total basal area have been systemically


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Parameters and indexes Formulas Explanations

Variables and indexes used to analyze the structure and floristic composition of gardens

Density N Number of tree per unit area

Relative density (Ni/N)*100 With Ni the number of individuals of one species

Individual basal area g With D diameter of the tree

Total basal area G G = N the number of individuals

Relative frequency (number of plots containing a taxon / total frequencies of all taxa)*100

Relative dominance (basal area of a taxon/total basal area of taxa)*100

Importance Value Index(IVI)

(relative density + relative frequency + relative dominance)

Species richness S Number of species

The index of Margalef Dmg (S-1) / ln NThis species richness index take into account the total number of inventoried individuals

Simpson diversity index (1-

D)-1)/N(N-1)

Probability that two randomly selected individuals will not

belong to the sames species. It ranges from 0 to 1.-diversity Index of

Sorensen Cs2j / (a + b)

Where j the number of species common to both sites, a thenumber of species in the site A andd b thee number of speciesin thee site B

Index use to compare free lists content

Similarity indexSI = n s / (nm + nw n s) * 100

With n s the number of shared species by men and women, n mthe number of species cited by men and n w the number of species mentioned by women.

Table 1: Biodiversity and species richness indexes and others variables


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determined for all mixed tree gardens (25 plots) and for each type of mixed tree garden (5

plots).

Floristic composition

The number of family and the species richness (S) have been determined at garden

scale (based on all tree species inventoried in one gardens) and at plots scale (based on the

tree species inventoried inside the plots only). The index of Margalef (D mg) was calculated

(Magurran 2004) at plots scale. The importance value index (IVI) (Cottam and Curtis 1956)

of each species was calculated as the sum of relative density, relative frequency and relative

dominance. For relative dominance, we use the basal area. Based on the IVI the most

important species have been identified for each type of garden and for all gardens. With

regards to vertical structure for each type of garden, the dominant species of each layer have

been identified based on their relative dominance. Then, the Simpson diversity index (1 D)

-diversity of all gardens and of each garden

type. We also used the index of Sorensen (Magurran 1988) of plant similarity to determine the

-diversity among the type of gardens. All the formulas to calculate all the indexes and

variables are summarized in the (Table 1).

D. Ethnobotanical knowledge

In order to determine the role of mixed tree gardens in household livelihoods,

ethnobotanical data have been collected on the local uses of plants by the Saleman people.

1) Interviews on local uses of tree species in mixed tree gardens

To identify the local uses of tree, 15 structured interviews (the same farmers

interviewed on garden management) have been conducted. During these interviews, I walk

with the farmer through his garden, and ask the vernacular names of each tree species. After

that, for each inventoried species, questions have been asked about the local uses following

procedure recommended by Martin (1995) and Vogl et al. 2004 (Appendix 1). When a

species was commercial, the selling prices and locations have been recorded. Theses

interviews have led to identify one part of the local uses of each tree species, and one part of

the use categories supplied by mixed tree gardens.

2) Free listing

Data collection

Free listing is a structured interviewing method used in ethnographic research for

eliciting nlan2005). The free listing consists of asking the respondents to list as many names of X as he or


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Table 2: An example of how determinate the salience S of each item (illness)mentioned by a freelister (Quilan 2005)

the list.

Table 3: An example of how calculate the Composite Salient Value of each item (illness)cited by 3 free listers (Quilan 2005).

The composite salience value of one item is the sum of all Salience score of that item,then divided by the number of free lister.


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she can, where X is the cover term for a cultural domain (e.g. kind of wood for building). Free

listing generates two type of information about a cultural domain: which items belong to it

and how items are structured inside the list (Gravlee 1998). A total of 27 household heads

have been asked to list all the plants they know for a set of 16 uses. For most coherent

domains, 20 to 30 informants are usually sufficient (Weller and Romney 1988). The 27respondents have been randomly selected to ensure including inhabitants from all parts of the

village. Finally, 15 men and 12 women have been interviewed. The uses have been previously

free listing exercise is to identify the plants known by villagers for each use and the second

purpose is to determine the most culturally important plants for each use. All growth forms

and all origins (gardens and forest) have been included in the free listing exercise, in order to

encompass all plant diversity used by communities. This method allows collecting

supplementary data about local uses of mixed tree gardens species and identify other

important useful species.

Data analysis

The two most important results from free listing is the frequency and order with which

each item is cited across all respondents (Gravlee 1998, Quinlan 2005). According to

cognitive anthropology, items frequently mentioned and in the top of the lists are culturally

important. Moreover, lists are mostly featured by a core-periphery structure: a small set of

core items are cited by most respondents, while a much larger set of peripheral items are

mentioned a single respondent (Gravlee 1998). Another result is the differences in list length

and content which light the intra- nlan,

2005). First of all, to determine if there are quantitative differences between men and women

mentioned species, mean list length of men and women for each use have been compared

-test. Next, for each use, regarding to frequency of each species mentioned,

the core species have been identified. The following analysis focuses only on the core species.To quantify the qualitative differences between men and women species a similarity index

(%) has been calculated for each use (Table 1). Then, the composite salience value of each

species for each use has been determined for men and women separately. Salience is a

statistic accounting for rank and frequency of each item cited in the list (Smith 1993). First,

for each use, the salience of listed species (S) has been calculated for each freelister (See an

example from Quilan 2005 in Table 2). Then, for each use, a composite salience value of each

species has been calculated (See an example in Table 3). For each use, and for men andwomen, bar graph has been realized, representing the species classified by descendent order


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Figure 5: Participatory map of the " Petuanan desa " of Saleman, Seram IslandThe gps points correspond to the 25 sampled plots.

tanah marga

Cocoa gardensarea

Nutmeggardensarea

Coconutgardensarea

Duriangardensarea

New National Park boundaryrequested by customary leaders

Conflict area with thevillage of Horale

Clovegardensarea


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regarding to composite salience value enabling to determined highly salient, salient, less

salient plant species based on the observation of salience breaks (or salience threshold)

(Quinlan 2005). The free lists have been analyzed using the software ANTHROPAC 4.0

Analysis has been conducted based on the vernacular names of species.

3) Plant voucher specimens

Plant voucher specimens of each tree species inventoried in mixed tree gardens and

each species mentioned in the free listing have been collected (leaves, fruit and flowers when

possible) in 5 duplicates. The specimens have been conserved in newspapers soaked with

denatured alcohol (spiritus) before drying, and brought to Bogor Herbarium for identification.

It was not possible to collect voucher specimens of 30 species known only through their

vernacular names (Appendix 2).

Results

A. of Saleman

1) Customary governance of landscape management

The village of Salem Negeri Saleman , is an old village established since more

than a century which still apply customary rules as regards to local governance, land

soa ) are represented in the

village: Makuituin, Aloatuan, Rumaolat, Ialuhun, Aloahiit, Upuolat and Makatita cited in

their order of arrival during the establishment of the village. Makuituin is the founder clan of

) assures the management of the everyday

pemerintah adat ) is in charge of

customary rules, traditional rituals, allocation and management of the village land 1. Makuituin

Raja tanah ) while Makatita clan is heading the

local government ( Raja ). The Rumaolat clan assures the function of war leader

Kapitan ). The Makatita clan, which had last arrived, is not a member of the customary

government and has no responsibilities or decision regarding the land. The village land

petuanan desa lahan soa ) (Figure 5) but

Makatita has no lands. Since the first settlement, all the lands belonged to Makuituin the

founder clan, which later distributed land for each other clan except to Rumaolat which shares

the same lands as Makuituin ..

kepala desarepresentative as regard to the Indonesian administration.


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Figure 6a: A small garden surrounding a house (" Kebun kecil " or " Aka kiiti ")A.Cosiaux 2012

Figure 6b: Coconut seedlings inthe small gardenA.Cosiaux 2012

Figure 7: A mixed tree garden (" Kebun coklat " or " Aka coklat ")A.Cosiaux 2012

Figure 8: A managed swamp forest: the " dusun sagu "A.Cosiaux 2012


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Type of gardens Density alltrees

densitytrees 25m


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Since the border creation, six villagers have been arrested by the national park guards and put

in jail for a few months because they had opened new gardens inside the park. Currently, the

customary leaders request moving the border of the park. Saleman is also at the same time in

conflict for land dispute with the neighboring village Horale: people have abandoned their

langsat Langsat

they are in the conflict area (Figure 5). The size of the mixed tree gardens is usually between

0,5 and 1,5 ha. The farmers plant trees like or maintain big wild trees to set the

limits. A mixed tree garden is a private land, managed by a family and transmitted by

heritage. When a new garden is created, it belongs to the person who opened the forest and

planted trees. Like in many places in traditional rural Indonesia, planting a tree is considered

as a way to get property rights on the land. Creating a new mixed tree garden starts by cutting

the vegetation, then burning it (but not always). The small gardens surrounding houses are

used as nursery in preparing seedlings (Figure 6b) to be planted inside the new plot. In the

past, the establishment of new garden started by a period of a few months, during which taro

(Colocasia esculenta ) or cassava ( Manihot esculenta ) were planted, and the garden was

systematically fenced. Currently, farmers directly plant tree seedling and abandoned this

practice (with the exception of few people). The period from opening the forest to plant the

seedlings is of approximately 3 months. The first fruiting period varies between species

(Appendix 3). Farmers used to work in their gardens 3 day per week and usually have several

gardens (1 to 5).

B. Structure and floristic composition of mixed tree gardens

1) Structure

Density, diameter and basal area

A total of 609 trees has been recorded in the 1ha of mixed tree garden (25 plots). The

highest tree density is found in the cocoa garden (170 trees/0,2ha), and the lowest in nutmeg

varies from 19% for nutmeg gardens to 34% for coconut gardens (Table 4). Durian gardens

have the highest total basal area (14m/0,2ha) twice bigger than coconut and nutmeg gardens

which both have a total basal area of 6m/0,2ha. Cocoa and clove gardens both have the lower

total basal areas (4m/0,2ha) more than 3 times lower than durian gardens.

The mean diameters of trunks (dbh) vary from 15cm (10) for cocoa gardens to 25

(20) for nutmeg gardens (Table 4). In cocoa, clove, coconut and durian gardens, most of individuals (From more than 50 to 80%) were in the small diameter size classes (between 5


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Figure 9: Sketch profile of a 20x20m plot in cocoa gardenAriane cosiaux 28/05/12

cocoagardens

coconutgardens

clovegardens

duriangardens

nutmeggardens

lower layer 2-7m 5 1 5 1 5 1 1 -

low layer 7,1-15m 10 2 11 3 12 2 11 3 11 2

medium layer 15,1-25m - 3 - 18 3 21 3

upper layer > 25m - - - 37 7 -

Tableau 5: Mean heights (m) of layers in each type of garden

Species composition (cocoa garden plot)Lower layer:Theobroma cacao : 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11,12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25.Coffea canephora Cinnamomum verum 1.

Upper layer:

Spondias cytherea

Syzygium malaccense

Figure 12: Sketch profile of a 20x20m plot in clove gardenAriane Cosiaux 8/05/12

Species compositionLower layer :Theobroma cacao coklat : 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 10, 11, 13,14, 15, 16, 19, 21, 23, 24, 25, 27.

Gliricidia sepium Upper layer :Syzygium aqueum jembu air : 5.Syzygium aromaticum cengkeh : 7, 8, 12, 22, 26.Cordia myxa

Mallotus ricinoides Lansium domesticum

Figure 13: Sketch profile of a 20x20m plot in duriangarden. Ariane Cosiaux 10/05/12

Species compositionLower layer 2-15m:Theobroma cacao coklat : 1, 2, 10, 16, 23, 25.Syzygium aromaticum

Mangifera odorata Hibiscus tiliaceus Mangifera indica Lansium domesticum langsat : 22.Medium layer 15,1-25m :

Areca catechu 6, 7, 17. Durio zibethinus Upper layer :

Durio zibethinus


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and 19,9cm) (Figure 9). In nutmeg gardens, more than 70% are distributed in the 3 first

diameter classes (5 to 29,9cm). Durian gardens have more individuals in the bigger size class

than other type of gardens (>10%), they represent indeed a considerable phytomass. Coconut

gardens presents also a high proportion (>20%) of individuals in the diameter class 30-

39,9cm.

Vertical structure

The relative distribution oh height varies between garden types (Figure 10). In cocoa,

clove, coconut and durian gardens, most of individuals (>70%) are distributed among the

height classes 2-7m and 7,1-15m. In nutmeg gardens, most of trees are distributed in the

height classes 7,1-15m and 15,1-25m (>70%).

In cocoa gardens there is only one continuous layer (2-7m) dominated by a

discontinuous layer between 7 and 15m (Figure 11). In the continuous layer, Theobroma

Cacao is the most abundant (83%) and the dominant species (73% of the total basal area).In

clove gardens, 2 continuous layers (2-7m and 7,1-15m) surrounded by only a few trees >15m

can be identified (Figure 12). Theobroma cacao mixed with Syzygium aromaticum are the

most abundant (66%) and the dominant species (64%) of the lower layer. The second layer is

also dominated by Syzygium aromaticum (44%). In coconut gardens, there are two lower

layers more or less continuous (2-7m and 7,1-15m) with no clearly dominant species. The

most abundant species of the second one is Cerbera floribunda (20%). The upper

discontinuous layer (15,1-25m) is dominated by Cocos nucifera (Appendix 4). Then, nutmeg

gardens are characterized by two more or less distinct medium continuous layers (Appendix

5) in which Myristica fragrans are clearly dominant. Finally, durian gardens are the most

complex with 4 layers more or less continuous. Durio zibethinus exclusively dominates the

canopy layer characterized by a mean height of 37m (7m) (Figure 13). The species is also

dominant (76,95%) in the medium layer mixed with S. aromaticum (16,07%). Theobroma

cacao is dominant in the lower layer (82,39%) and the two species Syzygium aromaticum (47,07%) and Areca catechu . (16,95%) are dominant between 7 and 15m. The mean height of

each layer is summarized in Table 5. The dominant and most abundant species of each layers

are summarized in Appendix 6).

2) Floristic composition

Within the 22 mixed tree gardens visited (28ha), 110 tree species belonged to 41

families have been inventoried with respectively 76 species in cocoa gardens (8ha), 41 species

in coconut gardens (5ha), 40 species nutmeg gardens (5ha), 37 species in clove gardens (5ha)and 32 species in durian garden (5ha) (Appendix 7). With regard to the number of species


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At plots scale At gardens scale

PlotsNumber of families (all

trees)S (all trees ) 10 cm)

Margalef Index (all

trees)

SimpsonDiversityindex (all

trees)

Type of garden Number of families S

all (1ha) 27 53 45 8,11 0,87 All (28ha) 41 110

cocoagarden(0,2ha) 17 27 22 5,06 0,54 cocoa (8ha) 37 81

coconut garden(0,2ha) 20 32 23 6,37 0,91 coconut (5ha) 24 42

clove garden(0,2ha)

13 17 16 3,38 0,82 clove (5ha) 23 39

durian garden(0,2ha) 11 14 9 2,73 0,84 durian (5ha) 23 34

nutmeg garden(0,2ha) 7 10 9 0,59 nutmeg (5ha) 21 41

Table 6: Families, Species richess and diversity indexes for each type of garden at plots scale and at gardens scale

type of garden cocoa durian nutmeg coconut clove

cocoa - 0,44 0,32 0,41 0,36

durian - - 0,50 0,39 0,52

nutmeg - - - 0,24 0,37

coconut - - - - 0,37

clove - - - - -

Table 7 -diversity between the 5 types of garden based on the qualitative Sorensen index

Figure 14: The distribution of the Importance Value Index among the 53 species.The six most important species are listed on the right.

Cocoa gardens Coconut gardens Clove gardens Durian gardens Nutmeg gardens

pecies IVI(%) SpeciesIVI(%) Species

IVI(%) Species IVI (%) Species

IVI(%)

heobroma cacao 38,5 Cocos nucifera 25,1 Syzygium aromaticum 19,6 Durio zibethinus 42,3 Myristica fragrans 42,9

Durio zibethinus 7,2 Cerbera floribunda 6,6 Lansium domesticum 18,0 Theobroma cacao 13,9 Durio zibethinus 16,6

Artocarpus heterophylla 6,1 Kleinhovia hospita 6,4 Theobroma cacao 16,8 Syzygium aromaticum 10,8 Lansium domesticum 11,5

sum 51,8 38,1 54,4 66,9 71,0

Table 8: The three most important species of each type of gardens according to their Importance Value (%)

Distribution of IVI (%) Durio zibethinus Murr.

Theobroma cacao

Myristica fragrans

Cocos nucifera

Syzygium aromaticum

Lansium domesticumCorr.


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found within families, Moraceae (8 species) and Fabaceae (8 species) are the most diverse

tree families. They are followed by Anacardiaceae (7 species), Euphorbiaceae (6 species),

Myrtaceae (6 species) and Verbenaceae (6 species).

Then, within the 25 sampled plots (1ha), a total of 53 species belonged to 27 families

with 32 species in coconut gardens, 27 in cocoa gardens, 17 in clove gardens, 14 in durian

gardens and 10 in nutmeg gardens have been inventoried (Table 6). Based on the qualitative

index of Sorensen, the highest floristic similarity was found between durian and clove gardens

(0,52) as well as durian and nutmeg gardens (0,50) (Table 7). At plots scale level when all

garden plots are analyzed together, the Margalef index is 8,11. Among each garden types, the

richness index of Margalef varies from 2,06 (nutmeg garden) to 6,37 (coconut gardens) (Table

6). For the 25 plots, the Simpson index is 0,87 and it varies within garden types from 0,91

(coconut gardens) followed by durian gardens (0,84), clove garden (0,82) nutmeg garden (0,

59) and cocoa gardens (0,54)(Table 6). Indeed, in taking in account the relative abundance of

each species, coconut gardens stills the most diversified whereas cocoa gardens are the less

one. Nutmeg gardens with the lower species richness have also a low Simpson index value.

Among the 53 tree species inventoried in the 25 plots, 6 species have a major role

according to their importance value index. Not surprisingly Durio zibethinus , Theobroma

cacao , Myristica fragrans , Cocos nucifera , Syzygium aromaticum and Lansium domesticum

account for 62,94% of the importance value (Figure 14). The three most important species of

each type of gardens are summarized in the Table 8. They encompass 8 species. In each

garden type the species which give its name to the garden have the highest IVI.

C. Local uses of tree and other plant species

1) Local uses of mixed tree garden species

Among the 110 tree species inventoried in the mixed tree gardens (Appendix 7), 108

are useful, 19 species have 1 use only, 67 species between 2 and 5 uses, 15 species between 6

and 6 uses and just 1 species with more than 10 uses. Only 8 species are not used by the local

population. The 8 species with no use are spontaneous and among the 102 useful species, 43

are planted and 59 are spontaneous. The number of uses per species varies between 1 and 18

(Appendix 7). During the interviews of farmers, 23 uses have been identified (Table 9).

The two uses cash crops

supply cash income. The 4 species Myristica fragrans , Syzygium aromaticum , Theobroma

cacao and Coffea canephora are the main source of cash income of farmers in Saleman (Seethe selling prices and estimation of one year production in Appendix 8). The productions are


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Category of uses

Uses Number of species

Proportion of plantedspecies (%)

Proportion of spontaneousspecies (%)

Source of income

Cash crops 4 100 0

Supplementary cash crops 17 94 6

Construction

House construction 58 26 74

Canoe contruction 32 16 84

House furniture 27 26 74

Firewood 81 38 62

ToolsFishing tools 8 38 63

Rope 7 43 57

Food

Staple food 5 100 0

Fruit for food 38 84 16

Vegetable 8 63 38

Condiment 15 67 33

Drink 10 70 30

Sugar 2 50 50

Oil 1 100 0

Medecine 27 59 41

Cosmetic 13 62 38

Ornemental 10 90 10

Gardenmanagement

Fence 4 50 50

Fertiliser 2 50 50

Protection tree 1 100 0

Basketery 1 100 0

Ritual 4 75 25

Other 1 100 0

Table 9: Number of tree species per use and proportion of planted and spontaneous species for each use.

Uses

house construction

firewood

canoe contruction

house furniture

rope

fishing tool

staple food

fruit

egetable

condiment

sugar

drink

oil

medicine

ornemental

cosmetic

Table 10: The 16 usesstudied through the free

listing


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sold in a cooperative in Masohi (the closest city). Coffee is only planted by a few people and

Durio

zibethinus , Cocos nucifera or Mangifera indica , may supply supplementary incomes. Farmers

sell fruits in the village or sometimes in the city when the production is important.

materials, 3 us

Intsia bijuga is used for house

construction, Canarium oleosum for the construction of canoe or Polyalthia lateriflora used to

make furniture. Next, 81 species is used as firewood like clove tree or Cryptocarya densiflora .

Regarding species used to make tools, people use 8 species for making fishing tools (e.g. sago

palm) and 7 species for making rope (e.g. Kleinhovia hospita ). Then, 7 uses cover food

supply: 5 staple food species, 38 fruit tree species, 8 vegetable species, 15 condiment species,

10 species used to make drink, 2 species for making sugar ( Cocos nucifera and Arenga

pinnata ) and 1 species for oil production have been identified. Next, 27 medicinal trees, 13

species used as cosmetic and 10 ornamental trees have been recorded. Cocos nucifera is used

for basketry, and Musa sp ., Arenga pinnata and Areca catechu are used during customary

rituals. Finally, Saleman villagers use 3 species to make fence, 2 species as fertilizer and 1

species as shade tree. Among all the mixed tree gardens species, the five one which have the

more uses are coconut palm, sago palm, banana trees, Canarium oleosum and Areca catechu

which count respectively 18, 8, 8, 8 and 7 uses. Generally speaking, we note that species used

for firewood, construction and tools are mainly wild species (more than 50%), whereas

species assuring other uses are mainly planted species (Table 9).

2) The other plants used by communities

During the free listing a total of 125 other species belonged to 58 families have been

identified (Appendix 7). Among these 125 species, 43 are trees and 82 are herbaceous and

lianas species. Regarding to tree species, 17 have been sampled in small gardens surroundinghouses and 26 in forest (secondary forest and dusun ). Concerning non tree species, 24 have

been sampled in mixed tree gardens, 54 in small gardens surrounding houses and 14 in forest.

Indeed we can see that mixed tree gardens can also contain herbaceous or lianas useful

species and small gardens surrounding houses supply more useful non tree species than other

land use type. To summarize, a total of 235 species have been inventoried including 227

useful species.


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Figure 15a: Composite Salience Value of construction wood(Women)

Figure 15b: Composite Salience Value of construction wood (Men)

Figure 16b: Composite Salience Value of staple food species (Men)gure 16a: Composite Salience Value of staple food speciesWomen)

gure 17a: Composite Salience Value of species used as fishingol (Women)

Figure 17b: Composite Salience Value of species used asfishing tool (Men)


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3) Important species for each use

Intracultural variations

For the 16 use studied during the free listing exercise (Table 10), the number of

species mentioned (using vernacular names) varies between men and women. Significant

difference has been identified for 6 uses (Appendix 9). Next, qualitative differences exist

between species which men and women have mentioned. The number of shared species is low

for 10 uses for which the similarity inde than 60% for 6 uses (Appendix

10). Indeed, differences in list length and content highlight intra-cultural variations in local

knowledge.

From highly salient to less salient species

Highly salient, salient and less salient items have been identified for men and women

for each use (Appendix 11). In order to illustrate the results 3 uses have been chosen. Firstly,

for the construction of house, the highest salient item is according to men and

women (Figure 15a, b) with a high composite salience value. The local name

encompass 2 species: Intsia bijuga and Pongamia pinnata

(Vitew cofassus ( Pterocarpus indicus ) can be identified as salient

kayu besi (Figure 15a). Indeed a threshold in the composite salience

value is observed between the first item and the second one. Next, another salience threshold

is distinguished between and the following item which enables to identify the

less ( Octomeles moluccana ) and ( Durio zibethinus ).

These species are less salient, but they have been mentioned by about a half of the

can also be identified as salient species following the

highly salient species (Figure 15b) . Finally kayu palaka can be

also encompass 2 species: Palaquium obovatum

and Palaquium obtusifolium

item for men and women is ( Metroxylon sagu ) followed by ( Manihot esculenta

(Colocasia ) and ( Ipomea batatas ) (Fugre 16b) and for women

( Musa sp .) and (Figure 16a). Thirdly, the only important species for fishing is

with a very high composite salience value (Figure 17a, b). The local name

refers several species belonged to the sub-family of Bambusoideae.

The contribution of mixed tree gardens and other land uses in livelihood

For each use, the species identified as highly salient, salient and less salient havedifferent characteristics according to growth form and origin (mixed tree gardens, small


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gardens or forest) (Appendix 11). Indeed species used as construction wood, fishing tools,

cosmetic, ornamentation and for making drink are tree species found in mix tree gardens apart

from kunyit ( Curcuma domestica ). Then, species used as firewood are mainly found in mixed

tree gardens, just two of them ( Casearia grewiaefolia ) and

( Mallotus peltatus ) have been sampled in forest. For cooking oil production, the only used

species, coconut tree, is only found in mix tree gardens. On the contrary, salient species used

as vegetable and condiment are from small gardens surrounding house. Most of them are

herbaceous like ( Cymbopogon nardus ) or shrub like ( Capsicum annuum ,

Capsicum frutescens ). For staple food, Metroxylon sagu is mainly from managed swamp

forest whereas the others important species are found in small garden near houses. All fruit

species are trees from mixed tree gardens apart from ( Papaya carica ) exclusively

planted in small gardens. Finally, the most salient medicinal plants are both from mixed tree

gardens and small gardens and are herbaceous or tree species.

Discussion

A. Mixed tree gardens: an integrated land use

The village lands are composed by a mosaic of tree garden systems, secondary forest

and not disturbed forests as in many rural areas in Indonesia (Michon et al. 1986, Hariyadi

and Ticktin 2012). In the past, there were some upland padi fields (ladang ) around the village,

like in other part of west Seram (Ellen 1993), but Saleman farmers abandoned this practice.

The land use system is still controlled by customary law (adat). The village land is divided

among clans and its management is regulated by customary practices which still widespread

in Maluku (Ellen 1985).

The two categories of gardens in Saleman are agroforestry systems. The small garden

surrounding houses may be compared to home-gardens (Kumar and Nair 2004, Kabir and

Webb 2009) which are common in Indonesia (Christanty et al. 1986, Kelhenbeck 2004).

However, not all households have small gardens. Indeed this kind of land use seems to be a

minor component of the land use system. One reason may be the lack of available area

between houses or near the village or the soil fertility because the village is on the sandy

beach front.

The second type of garden is the mixed tree gardens. Their establishment consists in

cutting a patch of forest and planting tree seedlings. The slashed plot is not systematically

tilizer. Indeed fertility is assured by natural


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nutrient cycling processes which constitute one of the characteristic of lots of complex

agroforestry systems (Michon et al. 1986, Wiersum 2004, Belcher et al. 2005). In the past the

practices were different: in recent decades, farmers abandoned planting food crops in the first

phase of establishment of a new tree garden. This change is associated to the abandon of rice

fields. One reason may be the increasing need of cash income which leads farmers to plant

directly trees and focus their input on commercial crops. Another factor may be the easier

1999) accompanied by the introduction of new cash crops like cocoa (Clough et al . 2009).

These smallholders tree plantations integrated in the forested landscape around the

village are private plots owned by farmers. In several other regions in Indonesia where lands

are historically under customary laws and owned by clans, land tenure gradually shift from

common property to more private property when cash crops are introduced in the tree garden

systems (Belcher et al. 2005; Hariyadi and Tickin 2012). Then, the mixed tree gardens are a

source of conflict with the Manusela National Park authorities. Similar conflicts between local

populations and park authorities on the periphery of conservation areas have already been

recorded in many areas in Indonesia (Aumeeruddy and Sansonnens 1994, Murniati et al.

2001, Hariyadi and Tickin 2012). Before the creation of the park boundaries in 1997, 600 ha

of mixed tree gardens were already established there. Since then, the farmers continue to

make new gardens especially because the boundaries are not clear (old original boundaries

with concrete post, new boundaries with wood stick only). In this context of conflict, the

get long term use rights on a land (Michon 2003).

B. Mixed tree gardens: complex agroforestry systems similar to natural forest

The mixed tree gardens are multistoried with 2 to 4 layers. Like in others part of

Indonesia, durian gardens have the most complex structure (Michon et al. 1986). The less

complex coconut gardens are not-shaded. In Sulawesi, lots of smallholder cocoa plantations

are also not-shaded and present a simple structure because farmers remove tree cover to

increase production yields (Clough et al. 2009) The dominant species of the mixed tree

gardens of Saleman, are also dominant dusun system

Kaya et al. (2002). Indeed, similarities exist within agroforestry systems in Maluku.

In comparing the 1ha sampled mixed tree gardens with 1ha lowland limestone forest

in Seram (Ranlund 2011)(428) is close to the density in primary forest (438). However, the total basal area is clearly


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higher in primary forest. As regard to species richness, 95 tree species have been found in

primary forest and 45 species in gardens (25 plots). In other study of lowland forest of Seram,

17 to 54 species have been inventoried in 0,25ha plots (Edwards 1993). Indeed, the phytomass

and the species richness are lower in mixed tree gardens. However, at gardens scale a total of

110 species belonged to 42 families have been identified in the 22 gardens. These results

highlight the effect of sampling effort on the assessment of species richness and also the

possible impact of farmer choice and practices on the spatial distribution of species. Some

species are always planted or grow spontaneously in border of the garden. A plot settled in the

middle of the garden is not able to assure the sample of all species. Finally, we can suggest

that the highest floristic similarity observed between durian and clove garden is due to the

local agroforestry practices and farmer choices.

C. Importance of mixed tree gardens for local population

The mixed tree gardens, with 110 trees and 24 lianas and herbaceous useful species,

can supply fruits, medicine, construction wood, vegetable or cash income in selling

commercial products like lots of tree garden system in Indonesia (Michon et al. 1986,

Brodbeck et al. 2003, Manurang et al. 2004, Okubo et al. 2010). The 3 cash species

Theobroma cacao , Syzygium aromaticum and Myristica fragrans are the major source of

income for Saleman farmers like Hevea brasiliensis (Gouyon et al. 1993) or Shorea javanica

for farmers of Sumatra. Then, mixed tree gardens play a major role in the auto-subsistence of

species), medicines (27 species) or fruits (38 species). These results confirm the key role of

complex agroforestry systems in the auto-subsistence of rural households already identified in

other tree based systems of Indonesia (Christanty et al. 1986, Michon et al . 1986, Gouyon et

al. 1993, Brodbeck et al. 2003, Okubo et al. 2010).

use type

supply complementary products or incomes. The small gardens surrounding houses are the

major source of vegetable, condiment and staple food. They also supply medicinal plants and

fruits for the daily auto-consumption. The natural forest and the ma dusun

also supply useful species and contribute to the rural livelihoods (Sunderlin et al.

2004). The dusun dammar , another example of managed forest habitat, takes part in cash

income supply although the market has been up and down. Indeed I confirm here that the

mixed tree gardens are integrated in an overall land use system, complementing other landuses and complemented by other land uses (Belcher et al. 2005, Wiersum 2004).


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D. The mixed tree gardens inside the Manusela National park

Thus, the local challenge is the reconciliation between the management of the

conservation area with the social and economic needs of the local population. The mixed tree

gardens currently inside the boundaries of the Manusela National Park are characterized by a

forest like structure more or less complex and account an appreciable amount of wild tree

species. Indeed, these gardens may be an opportunity to conserve wild tree species outside the

natural forest and supply a diversity of habitats for the wild fauna (birds, mammals or insects)

and other plant species. Several studies have shown the potential of agroforests to conserve

biodiversity (Michon and De Foresta 1995, Bos et al. 2007, Beukema et al. 2007,). A solution

to present conflicts could be the promotion of this agroforestry system as a buffer zone

limiting further access to the park (Aumeeruddy and Sansonnens 1994, Murniati et al. 2001,),

a transition zone between the park and the surrounding villages.

Conclusion

The results of this study have shown that tree gardening systems of Seram Island are

another example of reconstructed-forest by tropical farmers. These tree gardens, characterized

by a multistoried structure and high species richness play a key role in the economy of

Saleman farmers. The two mains socio-economic function of mixed tree gardens consist of

assuring cash incomes and supplying forest products essential for poor-rural communities.

Moreover, this land use is not isolated, but integrated in a complex land use system where

each land use assure different socio-economic functions and complement each others. Then,

in providing diverse habitats for wild species (plant and animals), the promotion of mixed tree

gardens as a buffer zone between the park and the surrounding villages may be a solution to

the conflict with the Manusela National Park authorities. Moreover, it would be interesting to

study the potential of conservation of these gardens as regards to wild fauna, or other taxa,

and also the role of these systems according to ecosystems services. In the framework of

Colupsia project, the present results associated with the previously studies in others villages

around the Manusela National Park, may offer interesting propositions concerning the land

use planning which take in account the local population priorities.


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Appendixes

Appendix 1: Questionnaire for farmers interviews used on the field

Respondant:

Date:

Age:

Sex:

Attributes of the mixed tree garden

Type of garden: *Cocoa *Coconut *Clove *Durian *Nutmeg

Location name:

Clan:

Size:

Age:

Type of soil:

Boundary: *Fence *Planted trees *Wild trees *Others

Way to get the garden: *Heritage *Open the forest *Buy *Rent

Do you have other gardens? *Yes *No

If yes which type of garden? *Cocoa *Coconut *Clove *Durian *Nutmeg

Establishment and management of mixed tree gardens

A. Establishment of a new garden

Explain step by step, how to make a new garden from opening the forest to plant seeds/seedlings.

How long from opening the forest to plant seeds/seedlings?

Origin of seeds/seedlings:

First fruiting period:

B. Farming practices

Usual activities in gardens: *Planting *Clearing *Cutting *Remove weeds

*Harvest *Others

Utilization of fertilizer: *Yes *No

Pests/Diseases: *Yes *No

How to remove pests and diseases?

C. Main cash crops production (for one garden)

Number of period of harvest per year:

Production per period of harvest:

Locate of production sale:

Selling prices:

D. Local uses of tree species

For each tree species present in the gardens, the following questions have been asked:

Life form:

Local names in bahasa Indonesia :

Local names in bahasa Saleman :

Local uses:Preparation:

Notes:


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Appendix 2: The 29 species known only through their vernacular names not possible to sample.

Vernacular names in bahasa indonesia

Vernacular namesin bahasa Saleman Notes

Vernacular names in bahasa indonesia

Vernacular names inbahasa Saleman

Notes

Benteng - Tree Kayu Kuning/Mengkudu Ai kuni Tree

Buah botol - - Kayu Makila Ai Awarela Tree

Bunga Kamboja - - Kayu Manggi manggi Ai Aati TreeBunga melati - - Kayu Manggi manggi Ai Palun Tree

Daun biana Lamiaceae Keladi hutan - Araceae

Daun Bobo - Palm Kersen - Tree

Daun dilan - - Kisasi - Generic name for epiphytes ferns

Daun gaga - - Lemon suanggi Usi hirin Tree

Daun Galiji - - Obat gunung - Herbaceous

Daun Santang - - Paha - Pandanaceae

Daun suplir - - Pohon Galoba hutan - -

Daun tikar Buri buri Pandanaceae Rumput Teki - -

Jembu kenop - Tree Tali cincin - Liana

Kayu Asoer - Tree Tali Rumah Ayaa luman Liana

Kayu Kira kira - Tree Tali ruri - Liana

Appendix 3: Local practices of management of the 5 main tree garden species.

Species origin of seeds and/or seedling First fruiting period (inyear) desease/pestsPractices to

eradicatedesease/pests

Fertilizer

Theobroma cacao seeds harvested on old cocoa trees / seedlingharvested in gardens

2 to 3 yes fire no

Cocos nucifera seedling from Pulau tujuh (Island near Saleman) 5 to 7 yes fire no

Myristica fragrans seedling from Est Seram or harvested in gardens /seeds harvested on old nutmeg trees

5 to 7 no no

Syzygium aromaticum Seed harvested on old clove trees 6 to 7 yes fire no

Durio zibethinus seeds harvested on durian trees 15 no no


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Appendix 4: Sketch profile of a 20x20m plot in coconut gardenAriane Cosiaux 25/05/12

Appendix 5: Sketch profile of a 20x20m plot in nutmeg gardenAriane Cosiaux 14/05/12

Species compositionLower layers 2-15m:Cynometre cauliflora - : 2, 8, 22.Citrus aurantiCynometre cauliflora namu- :2

Mangifera indica Syzygium malaccense

Areca catechu Flacourtia rukam - Annona muricata Neuburgia moluccana Buchanania arborescens jembu meteng hutan : 25.Upper Layer:

Artocarpus altilis sukun : 1.Cocos nucifera kelapa : 3, 4, 16, 19, 20.

Species composition Myristica fragrans pala : 1, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13,14, 15.

Durio zibethinus durian : 2, 10. Lansium domesticum langsat : 3, 11. Areca catechu pinang : 7.


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Appendix 6: Dominant and most abundant species of each layer.Rdo is the relative dominance and Rde the relative density.

cocoa gardens coconut gardens clove gardens

Dominantspecies Rdo

Most abundantspecies Rde

Dominantspecies Rdo

Mostabundant

species

Rde Dominantspecies RdoMost

abundant

species

Rde

lower layer 2-7mTheobroma

cacao 73%Theobroma

cacao 83% - - - -

Theobromacacao

Syzygiumaromaticum

65%

Theobromacacao

Syzygiumaromaticum

66%

low layer 7,1-15m - - - - - - Cerbera floribunda 20%Syzygium

aromaticum 44%Syzygium

aromaticum 37%

medium layer 15,1-25m - - - -Cocos

nucifera 73% Cocos nucifera 82% -

upper layer > 25m - - - - - - - - -

durian gardens nutmeg gardens

Dominantspecies Rdo

Most abundantspecies Rde

Dominantspecies Rdo

Mostabundant

speciesRde

lower layer 2-7m Theobromacacao 82% Theobromacacao 56% - -

low layer 7,1-15mSyzygium

aromaticum Areca catechu

64%

Syzygiumaromaticum

Areca catechu Lansium

domesticum

57% Myristica fragrans 61%

Myristica fragrans 58%

medium layer 15,1-25m

Durio zibethinusSyzygium

aromaticum

91% Durio zibethinus

Syzygiumaromaticum

70% Myristica fragrans 49% Myristica fragrans 66%

upper layer > 25m Durio zibethinus 100% Durio zibethinus 100% - -


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Appendix 7: List of all the inventoried plant speciesLegend: GF: growth form; T: tree; H:herb; L:liana; S:shrub; NU: number of usesUses: CC: cash crops, SCC: supplementary cash crops, HS: house construction, CaC: canoe contruction,FW: firewood, HF: house furniture, FT: fishing tool, Ro: Rope, SF: staple food, FF: fruit for food, Ve:vegetable, Co: condiment, Dr: drink, Su: sugar, Oi: oil, Me: medicine, Cos: cosmetic, Or: ornamental, Fe:fence, Fer: fertilizer, Pt: protection tree, Ba: basketry, Ri:ritual.

Genus species Family Vernacular name in "bahasaindonesia"

Vernacular name in" bahasa Saleman"

GF CU NU

Tree species in mixed tree gardens

Aglaia sapindina Harms Melliaceae Langsa hutan Ai Mahu wapa T FW

Alangium javanicum (Blume) Wang. Alangiaceae Kayu gufasa talaga / gufasa Ternate Ai Laharu T HC, FW, HF

Alstonia scholaris (L.) R.Br. Apocynaceae Kayu puli / pule Ai Itun T HC, CaC, FW, HF, FT,Me

Annona muricata L. Annonaceae Nangka Belanda /Sirsak Duria Arata T SCC, FW, FF, Dr, Me

Anthocephalus macrophyllus Havil. Rubiaceae Kayu samama Ai Kimama T HC, CaC, FW

Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) R.N.Parker

Melliaceae Kayu mabuk Ai museni T HC, CaC, FW, HF, Me

Aquilaria versteegii H. Hallier Thymelaeaceae Kayu gaharu - T

Areca catechu L. Areacaceae Pinang Hua T SCC, HC, HF, FF, Me,Or, Ri

Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr. Arecaceae Pohon Aren Pohon Gamutu/Ai La T HC, HF, Ro, FF, Dr,Su, Ri

Artocarpua altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg MoraceaeSukun Ai Suun

T HC, CaC, FW, FT, SF,FF, Veg, MeSukun hutan Ai Ulun

Artocarpus heterophylla Lam. Moraceae Nangka bubur -

T SCC, FW, FF, Ve Nangka salak -

Artocarpus integra Merr. Moraceae Campedak / Campadak Laka Laka T FW, FF

Averrhoa carambola L. Oxalidaceae Belimbing manis - A FF

Averroha belimbi L. Oxalidaceae Belimbing asam - T FW, FF, Co

Barringtonia sp. Lecythidaceae - Ai Hutun T HC, FW, Co, Dr

Buchanania arborescens (Blume) Blume Anacardiaceae Jembu Meteng hutan - T FW

Buchanania macrocarpa Lautrb. Anacardiaceae Ketapang hutan Ai Kaea T HC, CaC, FW

Calophyllum soulatri Burm.f. Clusiaceae Bintanggur/ Bintanggur hitam Ai taun T CaC, FW

Cananga odorata Hook.f. & Thoms. Annonaceae Kayu kenangan Ai Sipalin T HC, CaC, HF, FT, Cos

Canarium oleosum (Lamk) Engl. Burseraceae Kayu kenari / kanari Ai Iyan T SCC, HC, CaC, FW,HF, FF, Co, Me

Caryota rumphiana Mart. Arecaceae Pohon Nibung Koran T HC, HF

Cerbera floribunda K. Schum Apocynaceae Kayu mata buta Leka leka T FW

Cinnamomum verum J.S.Presl. Lauraceae Kayu manis Ai Mulele T Co

Citrus aurantifolia Swingle RutaceaeLemon cina Usi sina / Usi timun

T SCC, FW, FF, Co, MeLemon nipis/ Jeruk nipis Usi timun

Citrus maxima Merr. RutaceaeLemon manis buah besar Usi Alata / Usi Mulelemaina T FF, CoLemon papeda Usi Kamasi

Citrus nobilis Lour. Rutaceae Lemon manis buah kecil Usi mulele biasa / UsiMulele kiiti T SCC, FW, FF, Co, Dr

Cocos nucifera L. Arecaceae Pohon kelapa Luin T

SCC, HC, FW, HF, FT,Ro, SP, FF, Ve, Co, Dr,

Su, Oi, Me, Cos, Or,Ba, Ri

Codiaeum variegatum Blume Euphorbiaceae Gadihu - T Or


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Coffea canephora Pierre var Robusta Chevai Rubiaceae Kopi - T CC, FW, FF, Dr

Colona scabra Burret Tiliaceae Kayu marong Ai Huluti T HC, CaC, FW, Ro

Cordia myxa Forsk. Borraginaceae Kayu semang Ai Alupun T HC, CaC, FW, FT

Cryptocarya densiflora Blume Lauraceae Kayu samar putih / kayu samarang Ai rola masahun putih T HC, FW

Cynometra cauliflora L. Fabaceae Namu Namu Lambuti T FW, FF

Dalbergia sp. Fabaceae Kayu Salawaku - T HC, CaC, FW, Fer

Decasperbum bracteatum (Roxb.) A.J.Scott. Myrtaceae Kayu merah daun halus Ai musina T FW

Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f) Danser Loranthaceae Benalu Ai Manunpang T Me

Diospyros korthalsiana Hiern. EbenaceaeKayu belo hitam Alametin T HC, FW, HF

Diospyros pilosanthera Blanco Ebenaceae

Durio zibethinus Murr. Bombacaceae Durian - T SCC, HC, CaC, FW,HF, SF, FF

Dysoxylum densiflorum (Blume) Miq. Meliaceae Kayu mabuk Ai museni T HC, CaC, FW, HF, Me

Endospermum moluccanum Becc. Euphorbiaceae Kayu Raja/ Kayu Semut Ai Kineri T

Erythrina variegata L. Fabaceae Galala/Kayu dadak T HC, Co

Ficus capiosa Steud. Moraceae Gohi Kayohiti T Ve

Ficus congesta Roxb. Moraceae Pohon Gondal buah kecil Ai Mosu T

Ficus lepicarpa Blume Moraceae Sirih Popa Asapulan T HC, FW

Ficus septica Reinw.ex Blume Moraceae Asapulan T

Ficus subulata Blume Moraceae kayu beringin Waringin/Ai Lulu T FW, Ro, Co

Ficus variegata Blume Moraceae Pohon gondal buah besar Ai Mosu T HC, CaC, FW, Me

Flacourtia rukam Zoll.& Mor. Flacourtiaceae Tomi Tomi Tom Tom T FW, FF, Co, Or

Garcinia ma

cosiaux.ariane.stage.m2bvt 2012

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