Speciality: TCE/Biology

Section: “A” and “C”

Ms. MOUNNES Amel

Cotton Plant

Cotton is a plant that produces fibers , which are used to make clothes and other products,

like towels , carpets or sheets . Clothes made out of cotton are especially light

and comfortable .

What Cotton is Used For

Every part of the cotton plant can be used. The long cotton fibers are used to make cloth , the

short fibers can be used in the paper industry. You can make oil or margarine out of

the seeds of the cotton plant. The leaves and stalks of the cotton plant are plowed into the

ground to make the soil better. Other parts of the plant are fed to animals.

Cotton bolls ready for harvest

Where cotton is grown

Cotton is a subtropical plant that grows in many warm areas of the world. It started out as a

plant of the tropics but today it is grown in other warm areas that have at least 200 frost-

free days. The most important cotton-growing countries are the USA, China, India, Pakistan

and Australia.

China produces about 30% of the world’s cotton fibre, mostly in the eastern part of the

country. In the United States cotton is grown in the southern states, the biggest cotton

producer is Texas.

Cotton needs a hot, sunny climate to grow. The plant needs soil that is well - drained and a

lot of rainfall during the growing season. During the harvest season it should be sunny and

dry. Some areas grow cotton on irrigated land.

Cotton needs soil that has a lot of nitrogen in it. Farmers use

chemical fertilizers to improve the soil .

Worldwide production of cotton

Growing and processing cotton

Cotton plants can reach a height of up to 2 meters.

After plowing the soil in spring cotton seeds are planted in rows by hand or machine. Three

weeks after the plants come out flower buds begin to form. They produce white flowers that

turn red and fall off . The flowers have a green fruit, called boll, which has seeds in it.

White fiber of different lengths grows around the seeds . Cotton can be harvested when the

boll bursts open and shows the fibers inside. The longest fibers are up to 6 cm long and are

used for the best cloth . Most fibers, however ,are much smaller.

During the growth period cotton farmers must be careful that their crop does not get

any diseases . They spray insecticides to keep insects away from the plant. Such

insects destroy almost 15 % of the world’s cotton every year. Weeds also do damage to the

cotton plants. They take away moisture that plants need so much.

Cotton is harvested about 150 to 200 days after farmers plant it. In industrial

countries picking machines drive through the fields, harvest the cotton and transport it onto

a trailer . In the Third World cotton harvesting is often done by hand.

Gins separate the cotton fiber from the seeds . Cotton is then combed , dried, cleaned and

pressed into bales . Cotton buyers or brokers buy the raw cotton and then sell it to textile

mills . There, spinning machines spin cotton into yarn . The yarn is woven into cloth, which

is bleached and sometimes dyed .

Word vocabulary

• insecticide = a chemical used for killing insects

• irrigate = to bring water to land, or a field in dry places

• manually = by hand

• moisture = wetness

• natural fiber = a material that grows out of a plant and is not made by people in

laboratories

• organic cotton = cotton that is produced without chemicals

• pesticide = a chemical material used to kill insects and small animals that may destroy a

cotton plant

• picking machine = machine that harvests cotton

• plow = to turn over the earth with a machine so that you can plant the seeds

• raw = natural

• seed = small hard object that is in plants

• soil = the top layer of earth on which plants grow

• spinning machine = machine that makes cotton into thread by twisting it

• stalk = narrow part of a plant that comes up from the ground and has flowers or leaves on

it

• synthetic = not natural, made by man

• textile mill = factory that makes cloth out of cotton and other materials

• valley = land between two hills with a river flowing through it

• weed = a wild, unwanted plant

• well-drained = when water can flow away from the field

• yarn =thick thread made out of cotton

Grammar

Present continuous tense

Present continuous for present time

We use the present continuous tense for an action that is happening now or around now. It is

unfinished and not permanent or habitual. To show we are talking about the present time, we

can use time phrases such as: now, at the moment, currently, at present, nowadays.

• I am living in Colmera at the moment.

• They are going to the meeting. (now)

• I am reading a motorcycle magazine.

• Marcos is repairing his motorcycle.

• At the moment I am teaching English.

• At present we are negotiating a new contract with the Government.

Present continuous for future

Present continuous can also be used for an action happening in the future. In this case we may

add a future word, for example: this afternoon, tomorrow, next week/month/year.

• We are going shopping tomorrow.

• My brother is going to Australia next week.

• My friend is coming back to Timor next year.

Construction of present continuous tense

Subject + verb ‘to be’

+

main verb +

‘ing’

I + am +

walk +

ing

He/she/it + is +

walk +

ing

We/you/t

hey

+ are +

walk +

ing

Present continuous spelling

When the verb ends in ‘e’, delete the ‘e’ and add ‘ing’.

• ache = ach+ing = aching

• drive = driv+ing = driving

• wave = wav+ing = waving

For all other verbs, add ‘ing’.

• stay = staying

• try = trying

• carry = carrying

The past continuous is made from the past tense of the verb be and

the –ing form of a verb:

I was

You were He was

She was It was

We were

working

playing living

talking

etc.

You were

They were

We use the past continuous to talk about the past:

• for something which happened before and after another action:

The children were doing their homework when I got home.

Compare: The children did their homework when (= after) I got home.

This use of the past continuous is very common at the beginning of a

story:

The other day I was waiting for a bus when …

Last week, as I was driving to work, …

• for something that happened before and after a specific time:

It was eight o'clock. I was writing a letter.

Compare: At eight o'clock I wrote (= started writing) some letters.

• to show that something continued for some time:

My head was aching.

Everyone was shouting.

• for something that happened again and again:

I was practising every day, three times a day. They were meeting secretly after school.

They were always quarrelling.

• with verbs which show change or growth:

The children were growing up quickly.

Her English was improving. My hair was going grey.

The town was changing quickly.

We do not normally use the past continuous with stative verbs. We use

the past simple instead:

When I got home, I really needed (NOT was needing) a shower.

Stative verbs often relate to: thoughts and opinions: agree, believe, doubt, guess, imagine, know, mean,

recognise, remember, suspect, think, understand. feelings and emotions: dislike, hate, like, love, prefer,

want, wish. senses and perceptions: appear, be, feel, hear, look, see, seem, smell, taste.

Speciality: TCE/Biology

Section: “A” and “C”

Ms. MOUNNES Amel

Marine biology

Marine biology is the study of the ocean’s plant and animal life. Marine life gives us food, medicine and other raw materials we need. It also maintains tourism and provides us

with an area of recreation. Organisms in the ocean produce oxygen and help regulate the

earth’s climate. Coasts are partly created by marine life; some marine organisms even help to

create new land.

Marine biology ranges from very small organisms, like plankton, to huge 30 meter long

whales. Habitats stretch from the ocean’s surface to the ocean trenches which are over

10,000 meters deep.

About 71% of the Earth’s surface consists of oceans. They are, on average, about 4,000 meters

deep. A large part of the Earth’s life lives in them, even though not all forms of marine life have

yet been discovered.

Studying marine life is a large field of science. The oceans are home to many different species,

including fish, birds, reptiles and other organisms. Scientists also research out how organisms

live in salt water.

Marine animals and plants

Many birds have adapted to life in ocean regions. Seabirds usually live longer and have fewer

young ones than other birds do. Most of them travel thousands of miles a year and cross

the equator from the northern to the southern hemisphere. Humans have depended on

seabirds throughout history. They have shown seafarers the way and guided sailors to land.

Among the best-known are albatrosses and Arctic terns.

Fish belong to the main species that live in the oceans. They range from tiny sardines to

dangerous sharks. Fish serve as one of the main sources of food for humans.

Invertebrates are animals that do not have backbones. Many of them live in the sea and

around coastal regions, like jellyfish, sea worms, shellfish or octopuses.

The largest mammals of the oceans are whales. Dolphins and sea lions are among other

mammals that live in the sea. Sometimes the polar bear is referred to as a sea animal because

it depends on seafood.

Most marine reptiles live in or near the coastal waters. They include sea turtles and saltwater

crocodiles. Many species need to come to land to lay their eggs.

There is a very diverse plant life in the world’s oceans. Algae and sea grass are among the most

common. Such plants have become used to a salty environment. Different types of plants also

grow in areas where the water surface is affected by the rise and fall of the tides.

Habitats

Different forms of life live in various areas of the ocean. Some are limited to the coastal

and shelf areas, while others live in the open sea.

Coral reefs are found in the tropical areas of the world, but they can also exist in colder

water. Reefs are built by corals and other animals that deposit calcium on rocks. They are

home to a vast variety of different life forms. About half of the world’s coral reefs, however,

are in danger because of global warming and a rise in sea temperatures.

Although we do not know very much about what kind of life forms exist in deep

water trenches, marine scientists have found out that a certain type of jellyfish and

a flatfish were seen in the Mariana Trench, the world’s deepest ocean area. Generally these

parts of the ocean have little or no sunlight and many organisms that live here have to produce

their own light.

Marine biologists also study how waves, currents and the tides affect organisms living in the

world’s oceans. Little is known about where certain species travel to breed.

Words

• adapt to = get used to

• affect = to have an effect on

• algae = simple plant without stems or leaves that grows in or near the water

• although = while

• breed = to get together in order to have babies

• calcium = silver white metal that helps form teeth and bones

• coastal = where sea and land meet

• current = a steady movement of water in a lake, sea or ocean

• depend on = need

• deposit = set down

• discover = to find something for the first time

• diverse = very many different kinds

• environment = the world around us

• equator = line that runs around the middle of the Earth

• exist = survive, live

• flatfish = sea fish with a thin flat body

• generally = normally

• global warming = the constant rise in the temperature of the atmosphere

• guide = show

• habitat = natural home of a plant or animal

• hemisphere = half of the Earth

• however = but

• include = consist of

• jellyfish = sea animal with a round body that can sting you

• limit = here: are only in

• maintain = keep up

• mammal = animal that drinks milk from its mother when it is young

• marine = about the world’s oceans

• octopus = sea creature with eight arms

• on average = normally

• oxygen = gas that is in the atmosphere and which we need to breathe

• partly = somewhat

• plankton = very small forms of plants and animals that live in the sea and are eaten by

other sea animals

• provide = give

• range = to go from one type to another

• raw material = things that can be found naturally in our Earth and which we need , like

water, oil, coal, wood etc..

• recreation = things that we do for fun; to enjoy ourselves

• reef = sharp line of rocks near the ocean’s surface

• refer = to be thought of as …

• regulate = control

• reptile = animal, like a snake, whose body temperature always changes according to the

world around it

• research = to find out facts

• sardine = small fish often packed in metal boxes and sold as food

• science = knowledge about the world and nature

• seafarer = sailor or someone who travels mostly by ship

• shark = large sea fish with sharp teeth

• shelf = areas of the ocean where the sea is not very deep;

• source = basis

• species = group of animals who live and have babies together

• stretch = to go from one area to another

• surface = the top layer of something

• throughout = in all of

• tide = the regular falling and rising of the sea

• trench = here: narrow valley on the ocean floor

• variety = range

• various = different kinds of

• vast = very large

Grammar Lesson

Conditional Sentence Type 0

Conditional type zero is used to talk about general truths, scientific facts or things which

always happen under certain conditions.

Form:

If + Simple Present, + Simple Present

Use:

The zero conditional is used to talk about things which are always true, scientific facts,

general truths:

Examples:

If you cross an international date line, the time changes.

Phosphorus burns if you expose it to air.

If I wake up early, I go jogging.

NOTE: you can use "when" instead of "if".

Conditional Sentence Type 1

Often called the "real" conditional because it is used for real or possible situations. These

situations take place if a certain condition is met. It is possible and also very likely that the

condition will be fulfilled.

Form:

If + Simple Present, + Simple Future

Use

Conditional Sentences Type 1 refer to the future. An action in the future will only happen if a

certain condition is fulfilled by that time. We don't know for sure whether the condition

actually will be fulfilled or not, but the conditions seems rather realistic – so we think it is

likely to happen.

Example:

If I have enough time, I'll watch the football match.

I may have time to watch the match but I'm not sure about it.

Conditional Sentence Type 2

Often called the "unreal" conditional because it is used for unreal impossible or improbable

situations. This conditional provides an imaginary result for a given situation. It is very

unlikely that the condition will be fulfilled.

Form:

if + Simple Past, + would + base verb

Were / Was

In conditional type 2, we usually use were" instead of "was" in the if clause " even if the

pronoun is I, he, she or it. "were" here is a subjunctive form.

NOTE "was" is also a possible form.

Example:

If I were a millionaire, I would buy a castle.

Use

Conditional Sentences Type 2 refer to an action in the present that could happen if the present

situation were different. I don't really expect the situation to change because it is very

unlikely.

Example:

If I had a lot of money, I would travel around the world.

Conditional Sentence Type 3

It is impossible that the condition will be met because it refers to the past.

Form:

if + Past Perfect, + would + have + Past Participle

Use

Conditional Sentences Type 3 refer to situations in the past. They express hypothetical results

to past given situations.

Example:

If he had been careful, he wouldn't have had that terrible accident.

Sometimes in the past, he was careless. He drove so fast. So he had a terrible accident

Things to remember

1. The main clause can also be at the beginning of the sentence. In this case, don't use a

comma.

Examples:

"Phosphorus burns if you expose it to air."

" I will send her an invitation if I find her address."

" I would travel around the world if I had a million dollars."

"He wouldn't have had that terrible accident if he had been careful."

2. Main clause and/or if clause might be negative.

Example:

If I don’t see him this afternoon, I will phone him in the evening.

If he had been careful, he wouldn't have had an accident.

The passive vs the active voice:

The Active Voice The Passive Voice

Most countries in Latin America speak

Spanish.

Spanish is spoken in most countries in latin

America.

Use of the passive voice:

1. Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not

known, however, who or what is performing the action.

Example: "A letter was written."

The focus, here, is on the fact that a letter was written. We don't know, however, who

wrote it.

2. Sometimes a statement in passive is more polite than active voice, as the following

example shows:

Example: A vase was broken.

Focus, here, is on the fact that a vase was broken, but we don't blame anyone.

Compare this to: "You broke the vase."

Form of the passive voice:

Subject + the appropriate form of to be + Past Participle

NOTE: The appropriate form of to be = To be is put in the the tense of the active voice main

verb.

When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following:

▪ The object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence.

▪ The form of the verb is the appropriate form of to be (the tense of the active voice main

verb) + the past participle.

▪ The subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is

dropped.)

Example:

Active

Nancy makes Tea

subject verb object

Passive

Tea is made (by Nancy)

object becoming subject verb subject becoming object or is dropped

Examples of the passive voice:

Tense Subject Verb Object

Simple Present

Active: Nancy Makes tea.

Passive: Tea is made by Nancy.

Present

Progressive

Active: Nancy is making tea.

Passive: Tea is being made by Nancy.

Simple Past

Active: Nancy Made tea.

Passive: Tea was made by Nancy.

Past Progressive

Active: Nancy was making tea.

Passive: Tea was being made by Nancy.

Present Perfect

Active: Nancy has made Tea.

Passive: Tea has been made by Nancy.

Past Perfect

Active: Nancy had made tea.

Passive: Tea had been made by Nancy.

Future simple

Active: Nancy will make tea.

Passive: Tea will be made by Nancy.

Future perfect

Active: Nancy will have made tea.

Passive: Tea will have been made by Nancy.

Conditional

Active: Nancy would make tea.

Passive: Tea would be made by Nancy.

Modals

Active: Nancy can make tea.

Passive: Tea can be made by Nancy.

Passive voice sentences with two Objects:

Rewriting an active sentence with two objects in passive voice means that one of the two

objects becomes the subject, the other one remains an object. Which object to transform into a

subject depends on what you want to put the focus on.

Active/Passive Subject Verb Object 1 Object 2

Active: Nancy offered a flower to me.

Passive: A flower was offered to me by Nancy.

Passive: I was offered a flower by Nancy.

Impersonal Passive:

Study these examples:

▪ They say that the planet is in danger.

▪ It is said that the planet is in danger.

This type of passive is called impersonal because we use the impersonal form "it is..." This is

only possible with verbs of perception (e. g. say, think, know ...)

Examples:

▪ It is said that...

▪ It is thought that...

▪ It is believed that...

▪ It is known that...

It is also common that we start the passive form of these sentences with the subject of

the that-clause:

Examples:

▪ They say that the planet is in danger.= The planet is said to be in danger.

▪ They think that women live longer than men. = Women are thought to live longer.

Speciality: TCE/Biology

Section: “A” and “C”

Ms. MOUNNES Amel

The Biological Clock

When the sun rises on a warm and sunny day you can see the trumpet-shaped flowers of

the morning glory open up. When they close late in the afternoon primrose flowers open and

before daylight arrives the next morning they close again.

Biological rhythms, like the opening and closing of flowers happen all over nature. But not all

of them are daily rhythms. Some, like the beating of our heart, occur every second. Other

rhythms are based on months, seasons or years.

Scientists use the term biological clock to describe the timing that controls biological rhythms.

But what is this clock and where can you find it? In animals it is probably controlled by

the brain, but in plants and other living things that have no brain it must be something else.

The biological rhythms of seashore organisms are connected to the rise and fall of the water.

When the tide comes in they open their shells and get food, when the water goes back the shells

close to protect the animals from the dry air.

The migration of animals is also an event that happens when a signal is sent out. When days

become shorter birds leave the northern parts of the world and fly south where it is warm and

they have enough food. In the summer they fly back to have babies .

Humans also have biological clocks that control their daily rhythms. Body temperature, blood

pressure , sleeping and waking up have a 24-hour rhythm. Many illnesses have a yearly

rhythm. Colds and flus often happen in winter. Measles occur mostly during the spring and

summer.

When people travel by plane from one continent to another they often cross many time zones.

Their internal clocks don’t seem to work correctly. We call this jet lag. It makes you feel tired

and it takes many days for your body’s biological clock to get used to the new place.

People who work night shifts also have problems with their biological clocks. In general, they

may not be as alert or active as people who work during the daytime . They also have more

accidents during work. Sometimes they have more health and sleeping problems than other

people.

By using the right medicine you can fight off problems that are connected with different times

of day. Heart attacks and strokes often happen in the morning hours—between the time you

get up and noon. Asthma often occurs between midnight and the morning hours. So when

people with weak hearts take their medicine right after waking up it might prevent a heart

attack.

Biological clocks control many rhythms of life. We are learning more and more about these

rhythms. Doctors are looking for new ways to make travelling more comfortable and

medical treatment more effective.

Words

• alert = watchful, aware and ready to act

• asthma = a disease in which you have problems breathing

• based = have a basis, come from

• biological clock = the system in plants and animals that controls when they sleep, eat,

produce babies etc..

• blood pressure =the force or power with which blood travels through your body

• brain = the organ inside you head that controls how you think, feel and move

• connected = to have something to do with

• daily = every day

• effective = successful, useful

• fight off = to get rid of something

• flu = illness that makes you tired and cough. Sometimes you get fever

• heart attack = if your heart suddenly stops working

• humans = people

• in general = usually, most of the time

• internal = inside your body

• measles = a disease in which you have fever and red spots on your face and body ;

children often have measles

• migration = when birds or animals travel from one part of the world to another

• morning glory = a plant that has white, pink or blue flowers that open up in the morning

and close late in the afternoon

• primrose = a small wild plant with yellow flowers

• protect = defend, guard

• rhythm = if something happens regularly, like every minute or every day

• night shift = when people work during the night

• occur = happen

• prevent =to stop something from happening

• rise = go up

• seashore = near the sea

• scientist =a person who is trained in science

• time zone = a place in the world that has its own time

• shell = the hard outer part of an animal or living thing

• stroke =when a blood vessel in your brain suddenly breaks or becomes blocked so that

blood can no longer flow through

• tide = when water rises and falls

• treatment =something that is done to help or cure an ill person

• trumpet-shaped = it has the form of a trumpet

• weak = not strong

Grammar lesson

Much, many, a lot:

"Much", "many", and "a lot of" indicate a large quantity of something, for example "I have a

lot of friends " means I have a large quantity of friends.

Much, many, and a lot are quantifiers.

Study the examples below:

How much money have you got? I haven't got much money.

I have got a lot.

I have got a lot of money.

How many students are in the classroom? There aren't many.

There are a lot.

There are a lot of/lots of students.

In the interrogative forms we use:

▪ much with uncountable nouns. (money, bread, water...)

Example:

How much money/bread/water...is there?

▪ many with countable nouns. (students, desks, windows...)

Example:

How many students/teachers/desks... are there?

(See the lesson on countable and countable nouns )

In the negative forms we use:

▪ much with uncountable nouns. (money, bread, water...)

Example:

I haven't got much money/bread/water...

▪ many with countable nouns. (students, desks, windows...)

Example:

There aren't many students/teachers/desks...

In the affirmative forms:

In spoken English and informal writing we tend to use:

▪ a lot, a lot of, lots of with countable and uncountable nouns.

Example:

"How many students are there in the classroom?"

"There are a lot."

"How many students are there in the classroom?"

"There are a lot of / lots of students"..

In formal written English:

▪ It is also possible (and preferable) to use many and much rather than a lot of, lots

of and a lot in formal written English.

Example:

There are many students.

Much time was spent on studying.

So if you're speaking or writing to friends (informal), use a lot, a lot of, lots of. But if you

want to be more formal, perhaps it is preferable to use much and many.

Remember:

In affirmative sentences with so, as or too, we also use much / many.

Examples:

▪ "Carla has so many friends."

▪ "She has as many friends as Sue."

▪ "Kevin has too much money."

Summary:

Interrogative Negative Affirmative

How many books are there? There aren't many. There are a lot.

There are a lot of books.

There are lots of books.

There are many books (formal)

How much money have you got? I haven't got much. I've got a lot.

I've got a lot of money.

I've got lots of money.

I have got much money (formal)

What is reported speech?

Reported speech is when you tell somebody else what you or a person said before.

Distinction must be made between direct speech and reported speech.

Direct speech vs Reported speech:

Direct speech Reported speech

She says: "I like tuna fish." She says that she likes tuna fish.

She said: "I'm visiting Paris next

weekend"

She said that she was visiting Paris the following

weekend.

Different types of sentences

When you use reported speech, you either report:

▪ statements

▪ questions

▪ requests / commands

▪ other types

A. Reporting Statements

When transforming statements, check whether you have to change:

▪ pronouns

▪ tense

▪ place and time expression

1- Pronouns

In reported speech, you often have to change the pronoun depending on who says what.

Example:

She says, “My dad likes roast chicken.” – She says that her dad likes roast chicken.

2- Tenses

▪ If the sentence starts in the present, there is no backshift of tenses in reported speech.

▪ If the sentence starts in the past, there is often backshift of tenses in reported speech.

▪ Direct speech Reported speech

(no backshift) “I write poems.” He says that he writes poems.

(backshift) “I write poems.” He said that he wrote poems.

No backshift

Do not change the tense if the introductory clause is in a present tense (e. g. He says). Note,

however, that you might have to change the form of the present tense verb (3rd person

singular).

Example:

He says, “I write poems.” – He says that he writes English.

Backshift

You must change the tense if the introductory clause is in a past tense (e. g. He said).

Example:

He said, “I am happy.” – He said that he was happy.

Examples of the main changes in tense:

Direct Speech Reported Speech

Simple Present

He said: "I am happy"

Simple Past

He said that he was happy

Present Progressive

He said: "I'm looking for my keys"

Past Progressive

He said that he was looking for his keys

Simple Past

He said: "I visited New York last year"

Past Perfect Simple

He said that he had visited New York the

previous year.

Present Perfect

He said: " I've lived here for a long time "

Past Perfect

He said that he had lived there for a long time

Past Perfect

He said: "They had finished the work when

I arrived"

Past Perfect

He said that they had finished the work when

he had arrived"

Past Progressive

He said: "I was playing football when the

accident occurred"

Past Perfect Progressive

He said that he had been playing football

when the accident had occurred

Present Perfect Progressive

He said:"I have been playing football for

two hours."

Past Perfect Progressive

He said that he had been playing football for

two hours

Past Perfect Progressive

He said: "I had been reading a newspaper

when the light went off"

Past Perfect Progressive

He said that he had been reading a

newspaper when the light had gone off

Future Simple (will+verb)

He said: "I will open the door."

Conditional (would+verb)

He said that he would open the door.

Conditional (would+verb)

He said: "I would buy Mercedes if

I were rich"

Conditional (would+verb)

He said that he would buy Mercedes if

he had been rich"

The modal verbs could, should, would, might, needn't, ought to, used to do not normally

change.

Example:

He said, "She might be right." – He said that she might be right.

Other modal verbs may change:

Modal Direct speech Reported speech

can "I can do it." He said he could do it.

may "May I go out?" He wanted to know if he might go out.

must "She must apply for the job." He said that she must/had to apply for the job.

will "They will call you." He told her that they would call her.

3- Place, demonstratives and time expressions

Place, demonstratives and time expressions change if the context of the reported statement

(i.e. the location and/or the period of time) is different from that of the direct speech.

In the following table, you will find the different changes of place; demonstratives and time

expressions.

Direct Speech Reported Speech

Time Expressions

Today that day

Now then

Yesterday the day before

… days ago … days before

last week the week before

next year the following year

Tomorrow the next day / the following day

Place

Here there

Demonstratives

This that

These those

B. Reporting Questions

When transforming questions, check whether you have to change:

▪ pronouns

▪ place and time expressions

▪ tenses (backshift)

Also note that you have to:

▪ transform the question into an indirect question

▪ use the question word (where, when, what, how) or if / whether

Types of questions Direct speech Reported speech

With question word (what,

why, where, how...)

"Why" don’t you

speak English?”

He asked me why I didn’t

speak English.

Without question word (yes

or no questions)

“Do you speak

English?”

He asked me whether / if I

spoke English.

C. Reporting requests / commands

When transforming requests and commands, check whether you have to change:

▪ pronouns

▪ place and time expressions

Direct speech Reported speech

“Nancy,do the exercise.“ He told Nancy to do the exercise.

"Nancy, give me your pen, please." He asked Nancy to give him her pen.

Tenses are not relevant for requests – simply use to / not to + verb (infinitive without "to")

Example:

She said, “Sit down." - She asked me to sit down.

She said, "don't be lazy" - She asked me not to be lazy

For affirmative use to + infinitive (without to)

For negative requests, use not to + infinitive (without to).

D. Other transformations

▪ Expressions of advice with must, should and ought are usually reported

using advise / urge.

Example:

"You must read this book."

He advised / urged me to read that book.

▪ The expression let’s is usually reported using suggest. In this case, there are two

possibilities for reported speech: gerund or statement with should.

Example:

"Let’s go to the cinema."

1. He suggested going to the cinema.

2. He suggested that we should go to the cinema.

Main clauses connected with and/but

If two complete main clauses are connected with ‚and or ‚but, put ‚that after the conjunction.

Example:

He said,“I saw her but she didn't see me.“ – He said that he had seen her but that she hadn't

seen him.“

If the subject is dropped in the second main clause (the conjunction is followed by a verb), do

not use ‚that‘.

Example:

She said,“I am a nurse and work in a hospital.“ – He said that she was a nurse and worked in

a hospital.“

Speciality: TCE/Biology

Section: “A” and “C”

Ms. MOUNNES Amel

Toucans - Exotic Birds with Colourful Bills

Toucans are birds that are famous for their brightly coloured bills. They

are related to woodpeckers and live in the tropical regions of Central and South America.

Some types of toucans live high up in the Andes Mountains. There are over forty types of

toucans. The name toucan comes from tucano, which is what birds are called in Brazil.

A toucan can grow to a length of up to 60 cm. It has short, round wings and a long tail. It's

most famous feature is its large bill. Although it seems too heavy for the bird to carry it

is actually made up of light, hollow bone. It can be seen in yellow, green, white and red or a

combination of colours. The colour of the bill helps you keep the toucans apart and it also

helps scare away other birds. Most toucans have black feathers and bright colourful spots on

the chest.

Toucans eat mainly fruit, but they also like insects, snakes and frogs. Sometimes they eat

young songbirds or their eggs. A toucan grabs the food with the front part of its bill and moves

its head back so that the food goes down the throat.

Toucans can be very loud birds in the forest. They make all kinds of noises and attract other

toucans so they can get to their food.

Toucans often live together in natural holes in trees. Sometimes they use holes

that woodpeckers built. A female toucan can lay two to four eggs that hatch 16 days later. The

small toucans have their eyes closed when they are born. Their distinctive bill is wide and

short bill. The parents care for them until they are ready to fly.

Words

• bill = the hard pointed mouth of a bird

• brightly = to shine strongly

• chest = the front part of your body between your neck and your stomach

• hatch = the egg breaks and a young bird comes out

• hollow = empty inside

• songbird = a bird that can make musical sounds

• spot = area, mark

• tail = the part that sticks out of a bird's body

• throat = the long narrow passage that starts at the back of your mouth and goes down to

your stomach

• wide = not narrow

• woodpecker = a bird with a long-pointed mouth that it uses to make holes in trees

Grammar

Forming yes-no questions

Questions with the verb ‘to be’

With the verb ‘to be’, we move the verb to the front. The verb must still agree with the subject.

sick today.

sick today?

• Is she your sister?

• Are you busy?

• Was the examination difficult?

• Were the students late?

Sentences with an auxiliary

All other questions need an auxiliary. If the statement has an auxiliary, then move the auxiliary

to the front, before the subject. Auxiliaries include: ‘to be’ for present continuous, ‘have’ for

present perfect, and modal auxiliaries such as can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would.

This example shows how to form a question in the present continuous tense.

go to work today.

go to work today?

• Would you like to go to the party?

• Can you play chess?

• Are you going to work tomorrow? (present continuous)

• Is he watching television at the moment? (present continuous)

• Have you had lunch yet? (present perfect)

• Has your sister returned from Australia? (present perfect)

Sentences without an auxiliary

If a statement does not have the verb ‘to be’, and does not have an auxiliary, then you need to

add the auxiliary ‘do’. The auxiliary verb must still agree with the subject, as usual, the main

verb stays in the infinitive.

S tatement :

Q uestion :

He

I s he

is

Positive :

Question :

They

Will they

will

Auxiliary ‘do’

(agrees with subject)

Subject Main verb

(infinitive)

Rest of

sentence

Does your sister live in Dili?

Do you play football?

Did John like the movie?

‘WH’ question words

‘WH’ questions are ‘open’ questions. They are used to find information. This is how the

different ‘wh’ words are used. As in all questions, the verb comes first, after the ‘WH’ word.

who person • Who is the duty manager today? John is.

• Who did you go with? I went with Martin and Jo.

when time • When is your flight to Singapore? Tomorrow

afternoon.

• When did you arrive in Dili? Last Thursday.

Whose owner • Whose bicycle is that? It belongs to Julia.

• Whose house did you go to? We went to auntie

Di’s.

what thing/event • What is this? It’s an ‘X box’.

What did she say? She said, “No!” What

happened? He resigned.

• What is the date today? Today is

the 15th.

what + noun What time is the meeting? It is at 8pm.

• What size are you looking for? A size 8.

• What kind of music do you like? Jazz and rock.

• What type of mobile did you buy? A Nokia.

why reason Why is the plane late? Because there was a big

storm.

where place Where is the meeting being held? At Hotel

Timor. Where are you going? I’m going to the university.

which choice between alternatives • Which is the best cafe: Cafe Aroma or City Cafe?

I prefer Cafe Aroma.

• Which one do you prefer? I prefer that one.

how general information • How is your family? They’re all well. • How was the meeting? It was long and boring.

means, method • How do you spell that please? It’s spelled ‘J O’. • How do you turn this computer on? Press on that

button there.

how +

adjective

degree • How long did you stay in Bali? Two weeks.

• How old is your daughter? She is ten.

• How far is the airport from the city? Eight

kilometres.

• How many bags do you have? Three.

Comparisons

When we compare two (or more) people or things we use a ‘comparative’ adjective plus ‘than’. o John is taller than Bill.

When we want to say that someone is taller or smarter than everyone else we use ‘the’ plus a ‘superlative’ adjective. o I am the tallest. = I am taller than everyone else.

Comparative adjectives

With adjectives of one syllable: we add ‘er’. o

large > larger (than)

o small > smaller (than)

With two-syllable adjectives ending in 'y'; we delete the ’y’ and add ‘ier’. o easy > easier (than)

o busy > busier (than)

With other adjectives with two or more syllables we use ‘more’ followed by the adjective.

o expensive > more expensive (than)

o difficult > more difficult (than)

Superlative adjectives

With adjectives with one syllable we use ‘the’ and add ‘est’. o

large > the largest;

o small > the smallest

With two-syllable adjectives ending in 'y'; we delete the ’y’ and add ‘iest’. o easy > the easiest

o busy > the busiest

With other adjectives with two or more syllables we use ‘the most’ followed by the adjective.

o expensive > the most expensive

o difficult > the most difficult

Spelling

When an adjective ends in a vowel + a consonant, we double the consonant.

o big > bigger (than) or the biggest o thin

> thinner (than) or the thinnest

Irregular forms

There are some adjectives that do not follow these rules. You need to memorise them.

COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

good better (than) the best

bad worse (than) the worst

little less (than) the least

much more (than) the most

many more (than) the most

far futher (than) the furthest

Speciality: TCE/Biology

Section: “A” and “C”

Ms. MOUNNES Amel

The Human Brain

The human brain is a very powerful organ. It controls all parts of the body and allows you to

think, feel, move your arms and legs and it helps you stay healthy. The brain looks like a

pink sponge and consists of a mass of nerve cells. It is protected by the skull.

Main Parts of the Brain

Cerebrum

The biggest part of the brain is the cerebrum. It makes up about 85 % of the brain's weight.

Its surface has a lot of wrinkles and cracks. The cerebrum is the thinking part of the brain. It

controls your muscles and makes them move when you want them to. When you think hard, try

to solve a math problem or draw a picture you use your cerebrum. It is also

the area which stores your memory.

The cerebrum has two halves. Some scientists think that the right half helps you think about

things like music, colours or shapes. The left half helps you think logically and controls

your speech. The right half of the cerebrum controls the left side of your body and the left half

controls the right side.

Cerebellum

The cerebellum is a lot smaller than the

cerebrum and sits at the back of the brain. It's

very important because it

controls balance, movement and the way

your muscles work together.

It allows you to stand on your feet without

falling down or lets you balance your weight.

The brain stem is below the cerebrum and in

front of the cerebellum. It connects the brain to your spinal cord. This part of the brain controls

the functions your body needs in order to stay alive and it is in charge of things that happen

automatically. Breathing, body temperature, pain, hunger and heartbeats are all managed by the

brain stem.

It tells your heart to pump more blood when you go jogging and need more oxygen, or it tells

your stomach to digest the food that you eat. It sends messages back and forth between your

brain and other organs of your body.

The Nervous System

The brain is made up of millions and millions of nerve cells called neurons. Almost all of them

are there when you are born but they are not connected with each other. When you learn things

as a child the brain starts to create pathways between the neurons. As time goes on things

become easier for you to do and you don't have to think about them because you do them

automatically.

Words Vocabulary:

artery = a tube that carries blood from your heart to the rest of your body

blood pressure =the force with which blood travels through your body

breathe = to take air into your lungs and send it out again

cell = the smallest part of a living thing that can exist by itself

conscious = to be awake; if you are able to see and understand the things around you

crack =a line that splits an object apart, but it doesn’t break

disorder = an illness which does not let parts of your body work in the correct way

genetic =what you get from your parents

membrane = a thin piece of skin that covers or connects parts of your body

pathway = many nerves that give information to each other

skull = the bones of the head

spinal cord = the thick string of nerves that lies in your back. It transports messages to and from your brain

sponge =soft material that can absorb water; it is used for washing and cleaning

wrinkles = lines in your skin

Grammar lesson

1/Simple present tense

Function of simple present tense

The simple present tense is used for an action that is repeated or usual. The action can be a

habit, a hobby, a daily event, a scheduled event or something that often happens. It is also used

for future planned events.

Here are some examples of simple present tense:

• Fact (or something we believe to be true)

Beijing is the capital of China.

Exxon and Royal Dutch Shell are very big oil companies.

All my friends live in Bacau.

• Opinion:

A job in the oil industry has a good future.

I think that is a good idea.

• Habit:

My husband usually gets up at 6.00 o’clock every day. We always have lunch at 12.30pm.

We normally go to the market on Saturdays.

• Timetables, schedules and rosters:

The plane from Darwin arrives at 9.00am.

Your shift begins at 8.30am.

• Future: for future events or programmes

The meeting starts at 9.00am tomorrow.

The bus leaves at 10 o’clock.

Structure of present tense The verb ‘to be’ is irregular:

Subject Verb

I am

he/she/it is

we/you/they are

For all other verbs, we put ‘s’, ‘es’ or ‘ies’ on the third person singular form.

Where the verb ends in ‘y’ we delete the ‘y’ and add ‘ies’

carry = carr+ies = carries

Where the verb ends in ‘o’ or an ‘s’-like sound (‘x’, ‘z’, ‘ss’, ‘ch’, or ‘sh’), we add ‘es’

go = goes

fix = fixes

buzz = buzzes

miss = misses

catch = catches

wash = washes

There is only one irregular form

have = has

2/Simple Past Tense

Function of simple past tense

The simple past tense is used to describe actions that happened at a past time, which have been

completed at the time of speaking.

We can use a time phrase when we use the past tense, for example: yesterday, last week, two

weeks ago, last night.

• Last night I watched television with my family.

• I started my new job yesterday.

• My brother bought a new motor cycle last week.

• I lived there many years ago.

Structure of past tense

The verb ‘to be’ is irregular:

Subject Verb

I/he/she/it was

we/you/they were

Where the verb ends in a consonant plus ‘y’ we delete the ‘y’ then add ‘ied’.

carry = carr+ied = carried

dry = dr+ied

For all other verbs, add ‘ed’.

= dried

• employ = employed

• walk = walked

• start = started

Some verbs are irregular. These needs to be learned. There is a list of irregular verbs in section

Pronunciation

The pronunciation of final ‘ed’ depends on the last sound in the verb.

If it is ‘t’ or ‘d’, then the sound is ‘ed’.

started started

decide decided

If it is any other voiceless consonsant (p, k, s, ch, sh), then the sound is ‘t’.

Word Pronunciation

helped helpt

asked askt

missed mist

watch watcht

wished wisht

If it is a vowel or any other voiced consonant (b, g, z, v, l, m, n, r, w, y) then the sound is ‘d’.

Word Pronunciation

Tied tied

Baged bagd

Gazed gazd

received receivd

Formed formd

Turned turnd

answered answerd

Flowed flowd