Cotton Production

Cotton ProductionEdited by

Khawar JabranNiğde Ömer Halisdemir University, Niğde, Turkey

Bhagirath Singh ChauhanThe University of Queensland, Gatton, Queensland, Australia

This edition first published 2020© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

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v

Contents

List of Contributors xvii

1 An Introduction to Global Production Trends and Uses, History and Evolution, and Genetic and Biotechnological Improvements in Cotton 1Khawar Jabran, Sami Ul‐Allah, Bhagirath Singh Chauhan, and Allah Bakhsh

1.1 Introduction 11.2 Global Production Trends of Cotton 21.3 Uses and Products of Cotton 51.4 History and Evolution of Cotton 51.5 Genetic Improvement in Cotton 8

1.5.1 Genetic Improvement for Yield and Fiber Traits 81.5.2 Genetic Improvement for Biotic and Abiotic Stress Tolerance 9

1.6 Role of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering in Improving Cotton 111.7 Biotech Cotton Against Biotic and Abiotic Stresses 12

1.7.1 Insect Resistant Cotton 121.7.2 Herbicide Resistant Cotton 131.7.3 Wilt‐resistant Biotech Cotton 141.7.4 Virus‐Resistant Biotech Cotton 14

1.8 Biotech Cotton with Enhanced Resistance Against Abiotic Stress 141.8.1 Drought Resistant Biotech Cotton 151.8.2 Salt Tolerant Biotech Cotton 15

1.9 Conclusions 15References 16

2 Morphology, Physiology and Ecology of Cotton 23Abdul Rehman and Muhammad Farooq

2.1 Introduction 232.2 Morphology of Cotton 24

2.2.1 Vegetative Development 242.2.1.1 Germination and Seedling Development 252.2.1.2 Development of Root Systems 272.2.1.3 Leaf and Canopy Development 27

vi Contents

2.2.2 Reproductive Development 292.2.2.1 Development of Fruiting Sites 292.2.2.2 Seed and Fiber Development 292.2.2.3 Source/Sink Relationships 30

2.3 Temporal Dynamics of Cotton Leaves, Canopies, and Fiber Development 322.4 Physiology of Defoliation in Cotton Production 322.5 Physiology of Insect‐Cotton Plant Interaction 332.6 Effect of Abiotic Stresses on Cotton Physiology 33

2.6.1 Drought 342.6.2 Salinity 352.6.3 Temperature Extremes 352.6.4 Flooding 36

2.7 Agronomic Management of Cotton 372.8 Organic Cotton Production 382.9 Conclusion 39References 39

3 Water Management in Cotton 47Avishek Datta, Hayat Ullah, Zannatul Ferdous, Raquel Santiago-Arenas, and Ahmed Attia

3.1 Introduction 473.2 Water Uptake in Cotton 483.3 Germination and Growth of Cotton in Relation to 

Water Availability 493.3.1 Germination and Stand Establishment 493.3.2 Emergence to First Square 503.3.3 First Square to First Flower 503.3.4 First Flower to Peak Bloom 503.3.5 Peak Bloom to Open Bolls 51

3.4 Water Management Methods 513.4.1 Surface Irrigation 523.4.2 Bed and Furrow System 533.4.3 Drip Irrigation 533.4.4 Sprinkler Irrigation 54

3.5 Drought Stress in Cotton: Impacts and Management 543.6 Conclusions 56References 56

4 Nutrient Management in Cotton 61Jingxiu Xiao and Xinhua Yin

4.1 Introduction 614.2 Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms in Cotton 62

4.2.1 Symptoms of Nitrogen (N) Deficiency 624.2.2 Symptoms of Phosphorus (P) Deficiency 624.2.3 Symptoms of Potassium (K) Deficiency 634.2.4 Symptoms of Magnesium (Mg) Deficiency 644.2.5 Symptoms of Sulfur (S) Deficiency 64

Contents vii

4.2.6 Symptoms of Iron (Fe) Deficiency 654.2.7 Symptoms of Zinc (Zn) Deficiency 654.2.8 Symptom of Boron (B) Deficiency 654.2.9 Symptoms of Copper (Cu) Deficiency 66

4.3 Diseases and Cotton Nutrition 664.4 Macronutrient Management 674.5 Micronutrient Management 704.6 Drip Irrigation and Cotton Nutrients 724.7 Foliar Fertilization 734.8 Conclusion 74References 75

5 Insect Pest Management in Cotton 85Muhammad Razaq, Robert Mensah, and Habib‐ur‐Rehman Athar

5.1 Introduction 855.2 Genetically Modified Cotton: Benefits and Threats 875.3 Evolution of Resistance to BT Cotton and Management Strategies 885.4 Management of Resistance to BT Crops 895.5 Sucking Insect Pests 905.6 Impact of Genetically Modified Cotton on Sucking Insect 

Pests and their Management 925.7 Chemical Insecticide Use, Modes of Action, and Resistance 935.8 Modes of Action of Insecticides Used on Cotton 945.9 Modes of Action and Toxicity 94

5.10 Integrated Pest Management 965.11 Avoidance of Pests 96

5.11.1 Cultural Control 975.11.2 Host‐Plant Resistance 98

5.12 Sampling and Monitoring Pest Populations for Effective IPM Programs 985.12.1 Sampling Protocols 995.12.2 Economic Thresholds 995.12.3 Conserving Major Beneficial Insects in Cotton IPM Programs 99

5.12.3.1 Use of Refuge or Nursery Crops in IPM to Conserve Beneficial Insects 100

5.12.3.2 Use of Supplementary Food Sprays in IPM to  Conserve Beneficial Insects 100

5.12.3.3 Appropriate Use of Insecticides in IPM 1015.13 Conclusions 101Acknowledgments 102References 102

6 Weed Management in Cotton 109Nadeem Iqbal, Asad M. Khan, and Bhagirath Singh Chauhan

6.1 Introduction 1096.2 Weed Flora of Cotton 1106.3 Impact of Weeds on Cotton 1106.4 Herbicide‐resistant Weeds 113

viii Contents

6.5 Preventive Weed Management 1146.6 Cultural Weed Management 115

6.6.1 Crop Rotation 1156.6.2 Cover Crops 1166.6.3 Primary Tillage 1166.6.4 Stale Seedbed 1176.6.5 Soil Solarization 1176.6.6 Sowing Date and Plant Density 117

6.7 Mechanical Weed Management 1186.8 Chemical Weed Control 118

6.8.1 Pre‐emergence (Soil‐applied) Herbicides 1196.8.2 Post‐emergence Herbicides 120

6.9 Integrated Weed Management in Cotton 1216.10 Conclusions 122References 122

7 Integrated Management of Major Fungal, Bacterial, Viral, and Nematode Diseases of Cotton 127Lily L. Pereg and Tamene T. Tolessa

7.1 General Background 1277.2 Fungal Diseases of Cotton 128

7.2.1 Fusarium Wilt of Cotton 1357.2.2 Verticillium Wilt of Cotton 1357.2.3 Fungal Seedling Diseases of Cotton 136

7.3 Bacterial Diseases of Cotton 1387.4 Viral Diseases of Cotton 1387.5 Disease Caused by Nematodes 1397.6 An Overview of Cotton Disease Management 1407.7 Conclusions 141References 141

8 Seed Production, Harvesting, and Ginning of Cotton 145Gautam Majumdar, Suman Bala Singh, and Sujeet Kumar Shukla

8.1 Basic Principles for Seed Production in Cotton 1458.1.1 Growing Genetically Homogeneous Seed 146

8.1.1.1 Technical Control During Seed Multiplication 1468.1.2 Hybrid Seed Production 1498.1.3 Seed Production 149

8.1.3.1 India 1498.1.3.2 Pakistan 1498.1.3.3 USA 1508.1.3.4 Egypt 1508.1.3.5 Australia 1508.1.3.6 Turkey 1508.1.3.7 Seed production in Africa 1518.1.3.8 Zimbabwe 1518.1.3.9 Kenya 151

Contents ix

8.1.3.10 Tanzania 1518.1.3.11 Mali 1518.1.3.12 Ghana 1528.1.3.13 Uganda 152

8.2 Harvesting 1528.2.1 Introduction 1528.2.2 Hand Picking Cotton Globally 1548.2.3 Types of Automated Pickers 155

8.2.3.1 Manual Picker 1558.2.3.2 Machine Harvesting of Cotton 156

8.2.4 Pre‐requisites for Machine Harvesting 1578.2.5 Harvest Aid Chemicals 1588.2.6 Mechanism and Operation of Spindle Pickers 1588.2.7 Mechanism and Operation of Cotton Stripper 160

8.3 Ginning 1618.3.1 Introduction and Importance of Ginning 1618.3.2 Developments in Ginning Technology 1638.3.3 Principle of Operation of Ginning Technologies 163

8.3.3.1 Single Roller Gin 1638.3.3.2 Double Roller Gin 1648.3.3.3 Rotary Knife Roller 1658.3.3.4 Saw Gin 165

8.3.4 Impact of Ginning Technology on Fiber Parameters 1668.3.5 Criterion for Selection of a Ginning Technology 1678.3.6 Recommended Machinery for Appropriate Ginning 168

8.3.6.1 Handpicked Cotton Processing 1688.3.6.2 Machine Harvested Cotton Processing 170

8.4 Conclusions 171References 172

9 Cotton Production in China 175Mao Shuchun, Li Yabing, Wang Zhanbiao, Zhi Xiaoyu, Li Pengcheng, and Xue Huiyun

9.1 Introduction 1759.2 The Development of Cotton Production 175

9.2.1 Cotton Production, Area and Yield 1759.2.2 Planting Area 1769.2.3 Yield per Unit 1779.2.4 The Technology for Cotton Production 177

9.3 Division of Cotton‐Producing Regions and Innovation of the  Cotton Farming System 1779.3.1 Cotton‐Growing Regions 177

9.4 Planting Systems 1809.5 Cotton Varieties and Genetic Modification 180

9.5.1 Commercial Cotton Varieties 1809.6 Cotton Genetic Modification 181

9.6.1 Exogenous Gene Transfer 1819.6.2 Utilization of Heterosis 1819.6.3 Improvement of Quality 181

x Contents

9.7 Technologies for Cotton Production 1829.7.1 Tillage and Soil Preparation, Seed and Sowing 1829.7.2 Cotton Seedling and Transplantation and Plastic Film Mulching 1829.7.3 Field Preparation, Pruning, Topping, and

Chemical Regulation 1859.7.4 Cotton Fertilization 1869.7.5 Integrated Pest Management 1869.7.6 Irrigation and Waterlogging 1879.7.7 Cotton Harvesting 1879.7.8 Cotton Processing 188

9.8 Prospects for Further Cotton Production Development 1899.8.1 Challenges and Opportunities 189

9.9 Conclusion 190References 190

10 Cotton Production in India 193D. Blaise and K. R. Kranthi

10.1 Introduction 19310.2 History, Importance, Area, and Production 193

10.2.1 History 19310.2.2 Importance 19510.2.3 Area and Production 195

10.3 Land Preparation and Planting 19610.4 Seed Rate and Spacing 19710.5 Cotton Based Cropping Systems 19810.6 Major Production Constraints 19910.7 Fertilizer Management 201

10.7.1 Nitrogen 20110.7.2 Phosphorus (P) 20210.7.3 Potassium (K) 20210.7.4 Secondary and Micronutrients 20210.7.5 Foliar Nutrition 203

10.8 Cotton Insect Pests in India and Their Management 20310.9 Cotton Diseases in India and Their Management 206

10.10 Cotton Weeds in India and Their Management 20710.11 Harvesting and Yields 20810.12 Processing and Products 20910.13 Challenges and Opportunities 210

10.13.1 Challenges 21010.13.2 Opportunities 211

10.14 Conclusions 211References 212

11 Cotton Production in the United States of America: An Overview 217Tyson B. Raper, Cristiane Pilon, Vijay Singh, John Snider, Scott Stewart, and Seth Byrd

11.1 History, Production Areas, and Yield 21711.2 Varieties and Genetic Improvement 219

Contents xi

11.3 Cotton Production Methods 22311.4 Seedbed Preparation 22311.5 Planting 22411.6 Early‐Season Management 22511.7 Mid‐Season Management 22611.8 Pre‐Harvest 22711.9 Harvesting 227

11.9.1 Strippers 22711.9.2 Pickers 22811.9.3 Ginning 229

11.10 Crop Nutrition and Pest Management 23011.10.1 Fertilizer 230

11.11 Weed Management 23111.12 Insect Management 23411.13 Major Production Constraints 234

11.13.1 Water 23411.13.2 Temperature 23611.13.3 Challenges and Opportunities 237

11.14 Irrigation Scheduling 23811.15 Conclusion 241References 242

12 Cotton Production in Pakistan 249Muhammad Amjad Ali, Jehanzeb Farooq, Asia Batool, Adil Zahoor, Farrukh Azeem, Abid Mahmood, and Khawar Jabran

12.1 Introduction 24912.2 History, Importance, Area, and Production 250

12.2.1 Origin and History 25012.2.2 Importance, Area and Production 25212.2.3 Cotton Production Decline, 2015–2016 (A Case Study) 25312.2.4 Cotton Based Cropping Systems in Pakistan 25412.2.5 Varieties and Genetic Improvement in Pakistan 25512.2.6 Breeding History of Desi Cotton Cultivars in Pakistan 25612.2.7 Germplasm Enhancement of Upland Cotton Varieties in Pakistan 258

12.3 Breeding Methods 25812.3.1 Introduction 25912.3.2 Phenotypic Selection 25912.3.3 Progeny Row Testing Techniques 25912.3.4 Breeding Methods Followed After Crossing 26012.3.5 Pedigree Method of Selection 26012.3.6 Backcross Breeding 260

12.4 Land Marks in History of Cotton Breeding in Punjab, Pakistan 26012.5 Cotton Production Methods 264

12.5.1 Seed Selection 26412.5.2 Seed Treatment 26412.5.3 Time of Sowing 26412.5.4 Land Preparation 26412.5.5 Planting Methods 265

xii Contents

12.5.6 Fertilizer Application 26612.5.7 Irrigation 26612.5.8 Thinning 267

12.6 Weeds of Cotton 26712.7 Cotton Production Constraints in Pakistan 26712.8 Challenges and Opportunities 26912.9 Pest Management 270

12.10 Harvesting and Yields 27112.11 Processing and Products 27212.12 Conclusions 272References 273

13 Cotton Production in Brazil and Other South American Countries 277Lucia Vieira Hoffmann, Ivan Bonacic Kresic, Jorge Gabriel Paz, Diego Alberto Bela, Nydia Elisa Tcach, Fernando Mendes Lamas, and Valdinei Sofiatti

13.1 Introduction 27713.2 History 27813.3 Varieties and Genetic Improvement 27913.4 Cotton‐Based Cropping Systems in Brazil and Argentina 28213.5 Major Production Constraints 28513.6 Challenges and Opportunities 285

13.6.1 Soil Conservation and Pest Management 28613.7 Harvesting 29013.8 Processing and Products 29113.9 Conclusions 291References 291

14 Cotton Production in Turkey and Europe 297Huseyin Basal, Emine Karademir, Hatice Kubra Goren, Volkan Sezener, Mehmet Nedim Dogan, Ibrahim Gencsoylu, and Oktay Erdogan

14.1 Introduction 29714.2 History of Cotton Production and Textile Manufacturing in Turkey 29814.3 Cotton Production in Turkey 29914.4 Organic Cotton Production in Turkey 30014.5 Cotton Based Cropping Systems 30214.6 Varieties and Genetic Improvement 30214.7 Cotton Production Methods 30414.8 Major Production Constraints 30414.9 Challenges and Opportunities 305

14.9.1 Challenges 30514.9.2 Opportunities 30614.9.3 Fertilizer Management 30714.9.4 Insect Pest Management 308

14.10 Cotton Diseases and Control 30914.10.1 Verticillium Wilt (Verticillium dahliae Kleb.) 309

Contents xiii

14.10.2 Cotton Seedling Diseases (Rhizoctonia solani Kühn., Pythium spp., Fusarium spp.) 310

14.10.3 Cotton Bacterial Blight (Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. malvacea [Smith] Vauterin et al.) 310

14.11 Weed Control in Cotton Production in Turkey 31014.11.1 Importance of Weeds and Related Yield Losses in Cotton 31014.11.2 Weed Species Occurring in Cotton in Turkey 31114.11.3 Optimum Timing for Weed Control (Critical Period) 31114.11.4 Weed Control in Cotton 312

14.12 Harvesting and Yield 31214.12.1 Processing and Products 313

14.13 Cotton Production in Europe 31514.13.1 Cotton Production in Greece 315

14.14 Cotton Production in Spain 31614.15 Cotton Production in Bulgaria 31614.16 Conclusions 316References 317

15 Cotton Production in Central Asia 323Mahsa Pourali Kahriz, Parisa Pourali Kahriz, and Khalid Mahmood Khawar

15.1 Introduction 32315.2 History, Importance, Area, and Production 32415.3 Uzbekistan 32515.4 Cotton Based Cropping Systems 32615.5 Varieties and Genetic Improvement: Cotton Production Methods 32615.6 Major Production Constraints 32815.7 Fertilizer and Pest Management 329

15.7.1 Challenges and Opportunities 32915.8 Processing and Products 33115.9 Turkmenistan 332

15.10 Tajikistan 33215.11 Kazakhstan 33315.12 Kyrgyzstan 33415.13 Conclusions 335References 335

16 Cotton Production in Australia 341Parminder Kaur, Tejinder Bhagria, Navneet Kaur Mutti, Abhimanyu Rinwa, Gulshan Mahajan, and Bhagirath Singh Chauhan

16.1 Introduction 34116.2 History, Importance, Area, and Production 34216.3 Varieties and Genetic Improvement 34316.4 Production Technology 344

16.4.1 Planting Time 34416.5 Row Spacing and Plant Population 345

16.5.1 Ultra‐Narrow Row (UNR) 345

xiv Contents

16.5.2 Double Skip 34516.5.3 Modified Skip 34516.5.4 Narrow/Wide Rows 345

16.6 Crop Development 34616.7 No‐Till Planting of Cotton into Cereal Stubble 34616.8 Growth Regulators in Cotton Production 34616.9 Irrigation 347

16.9.1 Rainfed Cotton 34716.9.2 Irrigated or Semi‐irrigated Cotton 348

16.10 Cotton‐based Cropping Systems 34816.11 Fertilizer Management 34916.12 Insect‐pest Management 349

16.12.1 Major Insects of Cotton 34916.12.2 Emergent Insect‐pests: Mirids 35016.12.3 Other Emerging Insect‐pests 35016.12.4 Insect‐pest Control and Emerging Issues 35016.12.5 Integrated Pest Management: A Holistic Approach to

Dealing with Insect‐Pests 35116.13 Weed Management 351

16.13.1 Harvesting and Yields 35216.14 Major Production Constraints 352

16.14.1 Water Stress 35216.14.2 Cultivation on Marginal Soils 35216.14.3 Pests 35316.14.4 Glyphosate‐resistant Weeds 35316.14.5 Volunteer Cotton Plants 353

16.15 Challenges and Opportunities 35316.15.1 Rising Production Costs 35316.15.2 Restricting Cotton Cultivation to Productive Areas Only 35416.15.3 Assured Water Supply 35416.15.4 Encouraging Varietal Diversification in Cotton 35416.15.5 Encouraging Crop Rotation, Intercrops with Legumes 35416.15.6 Integrated Pest Management 35516.15.7 Managing Development of Resistance in Pests 355

16.16 Conclusions 355References 355

17 Cotton Production in Africa 359Khizer Amanet, Emmanuel Obianuju Chiamaka, Gabriel Willie Quansah, Muhammad Mubeen, Hafiz Umar Farid, Rida Akram, and Wajid Nasim

17.1 Introduction 35917.2 History, Importance, Area, and Production 36017.3 Cotton Based Cropping System in African Countries 36217.4 Varieties and Genetic Improvement of Cotton in Africa 36317.5 Major Production Constraints in Africa 363

17.5.1 Insect Pests 36317.5.2 Fertilizer 364

Contents xv

17.5.3 Labor 36417.5.4 High Cost of Input 36517.5.5 Climatic Constraints 36517.5.6 Insufficient Extension Activities 36517.5.7 Irrigation 36517.5.8 Seed 366

17.6 Challenges and Opportunities 36617.6.1 Cotton Research 36617.6.2 Favorable Weather 36617.6.3 Wide Acceptance and Number of Cotton Growers 366

17.7 Harvesting and Yields 36717.8 Conclusion 367References 367

18 Challenges and Opportunities in Cotton Production 371Mahboobeh Mollaee, Ahmadreza Mobli, Navneet Kaur Mutti, Sudheesh Manalil, and Bhagirath Singh Chauhan

18.1 Introduction 37118.2 GM Cotton 372

18.2.1 Opportunities and Constraints of GM Technology in Cotton 37318.3 Conservation Agriculture in Cotton 374

18.3.1 Challenges and Future Prospects 37518.4 Cotton Production under Salt Stress and Water Logging 37518.5 Climate Change and Cotton Production 37718.6 Cotton Hybrids 37818.7 Cotton Wastes for Energy 37918.8 Crop Modeling in Cotton 38018.9 Organic Cotton Production 380

18.10 Conclusions 382References 383

Index 391

xvii

List of Contributors

Rida AkramDepartment of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Vehari, Pakistan

Muhammad Amjad AliDepartment of Plant Pathology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

and

Centre of Agricultural Biochemistry and Biotechnology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

Khizer AmanetDepartment of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Vehari, Pakistan

Raquel Santiago-ArenasDepartment of Food, Agriculture and Bioresources, School of Environment, Resources and Development, Asian Institute of Technology, Pathum Thani, Thailand

Habib‐ur‐Rehman AtharInstitute of Pure and Applied Biology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan

Ahmed AttiaAgronomy Department, Zagazig University, Sharqia, Egypt

and

Interdisciplinary Center of Energy Planning, State University of Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil

Farrukh AzeemDepartment of Bioinformatics and Biotechnology, GC University, Faisalabad, Pakistan

Allah BakhshDepartment of Agricultural Genetic Engineering, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Technologies, Nigde Ömer Halisdemir University, Nigde, Turkey

Huseyin BasalDepartment of Crop Science, Adnan Menderes University, Aydın, Turkey

xviii List of Contributors

Asia BatoolDepartment of Plant Pathology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

and

Pulses Research Institute, AARI, Faisalabad, Pakistan

Diego Alberto BelaInstituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria INTA – EEA Sáenz Peña, Resistencia, Argentina

Tejinder BhagriaUniversity of Canberra, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia

D. BlaiseICAR‐Central Institute for Cotton Research, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India

Seth ByrdTexas A&M University, Lubbock, TX, USA

Bhagirath Singh ChauhanThe Centre for Crop Science, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Gatton, Queensland, Australia

Emmanuel Obianuju ChiamakaNational Horticultural Research Institute, Ibadan, Nigeria

Avishek DattaDepartment of Food, Agriculture and Bioresources, School of Environment, Resources and Development, Asian Institute of Technology, Pathum Thani, Thailand

Mehmet Nedim DoganDepartment of Plant Protection, Adnan Menderes University, Aydın, Turkey

Oktay ErdoganDepartment of Biosystem Engineering, Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli University, Nevşehir, Turkey

Hafiz Umar FaridDepartment of Agricultural Engineering, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan

Jehanzeb FarooqCotton Research Station, Ayub Agricultural Research Institute (AARI), Faisalabad, Pakistan

Muhammad FarooqDepartment of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

and

List of Contributors xix

Department of Crop Sciences, College of Agricultural and Marine Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, Al‐Khoud, Oman

and

The UWA Institute of Agriculture, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia, Australia

Zannatul FerdousDepartment of Food, Agriculture and Bioresources, School of Environment, Resources and Development, Asian Institute of Technology, Pathum Thani, Thailand

Ibrahim GencsoyluDepartment of Plant Protection, Adnan Menderes University, Aydın, Turkey

Hatice Kubra GorenDepartment of Crop Science, Adnan Menderes University, Aydın, Turkey

Lucia Vieira HoffmannEmbrapa Algodão, Campina Grande, Paraíba, Brazil

Xue HuiyunState Key Laboratory of Cotton Biology, Institute of Cotton Research of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Anyang, China

Nadeem IqbalThe Centre for Crop Science, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Gatton, Queensland, Australia

Khawar JabranDepartment of Plant Production and Technologies, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Technologies, Niğde Ömer Halisdemir University, Niğde, Turkey

Mahsa Pourali KahrizDepartment of Plant and Animal Production, Ardahan Technical Sciences Vocational School, Ardahan University, Ardahan, Turkey

Parisa Pourali KahrizDepartment of Plant and Animal Production, Ardahan Technical Sciences Vocational School, Ardahan University, Ardahan, Turkey

Emine KarademirDepartment of Crop Science, Siirt University, Siirt, Turkey

Parminder KaurUniversity of Canberra, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia

xx List of Contributors

Asad M. KhanThe Centre for Crop Science, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Gatton, Queensland, Australia

Khalid Mahmood KhawarDepartment of Field Crops Faculty of Agriculture, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey

K. R. KranthiICAR‐Central Institute for Cotton Research, Nagpur, Maharashtra, IndiaCurrent address: International Cotton Advisory Committee, Washington, DC, USA

Ivan Bonacic KresicInstituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria INTA – EEA Sáenz Peña, Resistencia, Argentina

Fernando Mendes LamasEmbrapa Agropecuária Oeste, Dourados, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil

Gulshan MahajanThe Centre for Crop Science, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Gatton, Queensland, Australia

Abid MahmoodAyub Agricultural Research Institute (AARI), Faisalabad, Pakistan

Gautam MajumdarDivision of Crop Production, Central Institute for Cotton Research, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India

Sudheesh ManalilThe Centre for Crop Science, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Gatton, Queensland, Australia

and

School of Agriculture and Environment, Institute of Agriculture, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Crawley, Australia

and

Amrita University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India

Robert MensahNSW Department Primary Industries, Australian Cotton Research Institute, Narrabri, New South Wales, Australia

Ahmadreza MobliDepartment of Agronomy, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran

List of Contributors xxi

and

The Centre for Crop Science, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Gatton, Queensland, Australia

Mahboobeh MollaeeDepartment of Agronomy, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran

and

The Centre for Crop Science, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Gatton, Queensland, Australia

Muhammad MubeenDepartment of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Vehari, Pakistan

Navneet Kaur MuttiThe Centre for Crop Science, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Gatton, Queensland, Australia

and

School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, Gatton, Queensland, Australia

Wajid NasimDepartment of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Vehari, Pakistan

Jorge Gabriel PazInstituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria INTA – EEA Sáenz Peña, Resistencia, Argentina

Li PengchengState Key Laboratory of Cotton Biology, Institute of Cotton Research of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Anyang, China

Lily L. PeregSchool of Science and Technology, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales, Australia

Cristiane PilonUniversity of Georgia, Tifton, GA, USA

Gabriel Willie QuansahCouncil for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Soil Research Institute, Kumasi, Ghana

Tyson B. RaperUniversity of Tennessee, Jackson, TN, USA

Muhammad RazaqDepartment of Entomology, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences & Technology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan

xxii List of Contributors

Abdul RehmanDepartment of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

and

Department of Crop Science and Biotechnology, Dankook University, Cheonan, South Korea

Abhimanyu RinwaThe Centre for Crop Science, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Gatton, Queensland, Australia

and

Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab, India

Volkan SezenerCotton Research Institute, Republic of Turkey Ministry of Food Agriculture and Livestock, Aydin, Turkey

Mao ShuchunState Key Laboratory of Cotton Biology, Institute of Cotton Research of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Anyang, China

Sujeet Kumar ShuklaGinning Training Centre, ICAR‐Central Institute for Research on Cotton Technology (CIRCOT), Nagpur, Maharashtra, India

Suman Bala SinghDivision of Crop Improvement, Central Institute for Cotton Research, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India

Vijay SinghTexas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA

John SniderUniversity of Georgia, Tifton, GA, USA

Valdinei SofiattiEmbrapa Agropecuária Oeste, Dourados, Brazil

Scott StewartUniversity of Tennessee, Jackson, TN, USA

Nydia Elisa TcachInstituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria INTA – EEA Sáenz Peña, Resistencia, Argentina

Tamene T. TolessaSchool of Science and Technology, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales, Australia

List of Contributors xxiii

Hayat UllahDepartment of Food, Agriculture and Bioresources, School of Environment, Resources and Development, Asian Institute of Technology, Pathum Thani, Thailand

Sami Ul‐AllahCollege of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Bahadur Sub‐Campus Layyah, Layyah, Pakistan

Jingxiu XiaoCollege of Resources and Environment, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China

Zhi XiaoyuState Key Laboratory of Cotton Biology, Institute of Cotton Research of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Anyang, China

Li YabingState Key Laboratory of Cotton Biology, Institute of Cotton Research of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Anyang, China

Xinhua YinDepartment of Plant Sciences, The University of Tennessee, Jackson, TN, USA

Adil ZahoorDepartment of Plant Pathology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

Wang ZhanbiaoState Key Laboratory of Cotton Biology, Institute of Cotton Research of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Anyang, China

Cotton Production, First Edition. Edited by Khawar Jabran and Bhagirath Singh Chauhan. © 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

1

Chapter 1

1.1 IntroductIon

Cotton is the most important fiber crop in the world and belongs to the family Malvaceae and the genus Gossypium, and this genus has nearly 50 species. Four cultivated species of cotton are Gossypium hirsutum L., Gossypium barbedense L. (Egyptian cotton), Gossypium herbaceum L. (Asiatic cotton), and Gossypium arboreum L. (Asiatic cotton), out of these, upland cotton (G. hirsutum) is the most cultivated (on >90% area of total worldwide cot-ton cultivation) species all across the world, which is mainly due to its high yields. The oldest remains of the cotton fiber belonging to the sixth millennium bce have been found in the Neolithic burial that is in Kachi Plains of the Mehrgarh region (near Indus River) of Pakistan (Moulherat et al. 2002).

Globally, cotton is grown in 75 countries of the world (USDA 2018b), and significantly improves the economies of many countries through the provision of fiber, oil, and several other products. The most important products of cotton may include garments, gloves, mufflers, bags, socks, jackets, beds, vegetable oil, curtains, bed sheets, and others.

Cultivated cotton is grown as an annual plant; however, the species originally possessed a perennial growth habit. Morphology and physiology of cotton have been explained in

An Introduction to Global Production trends and uses, History

and Evolution, and Genetic and Biotechnological

Improvements in cotton

Khawar Jabran1, Sami Ul‐Allah2, Bhagirath Singh Chauhan3, and Allah Bakhsh4

1Department of Plant Production and Technologies, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Technologies, Niğde Ömer Halisdemir University, Niğde, Turkey

2College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Bahadur Sub‐Campus Layyah, Layyah, Pakistan3The Centre for Crop Science, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI),

The University of Queensland, Gatton, Queensland, Australia4Department of Agricultural Genetic Engineering, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Technologies,

Nigde Ömer Halisdemir University, Nigde, Turkey

2 Cotton Production

detail in Chapter 2 of this book. The crop is sensitive to biotic and abiotic stresses, most important of which are insect pests, drought and salt stress, diseases, weeds, viruses, and heat stress (Dogan et al. 2014; Constable and Bange 2015; Jabran 2016). Poor seed germi-nation in cotton is another issue that is noted in many important cotton growing countries of the world. Development of genetically modified cotton cultivars has been among the important innovations that helped to control insect pests and weeds in the cotton fields. Cotton has contributed to improving the lives of people in many unprivileged areas of the world such as West Africa (Hussein et al. 2005).

This chapter discusses the global production trends of cotton, cultural, economic importance and uses of cotton, history and evolution of cotton, and the role of biotechnol-ogy in improving cotton production.

1.2 GloBAl ProductIon trEnds of cotton

Cotton is mainly grown in the Asia continent (~70%) followed by the Americas, which has nearly 20% of the global cotton cultivation (FAO 2018; Figure 1). Africa grows nearly 6% of the total world cotton cultivation while Europe grows less than 2% of it.

The cotton cultivation area has ranged between 30 and 35 million hectare (m ha) during the last 60 years (FAO 2018; Table 1). In the year 2016, the global cotton cultivation area was 30.2 m ha, out of which 19.5 m ha was contributed by Asia, 3.8 m ha by the North America, 1.6 m ha by the South America, 4.5 m ha by Africa, 0.28 m ha by Australia, and 0.4 m ha by the Europe (Table 1). During the last 50 years, the cotton cultivation area has been increased in the Asia (~15 to ~20 m ha), Australia (~0.02 to ~0.28 m ha), and Africa (~4.0 to ~4.5 m ha) while it has been decreased in North America (~6.3 to ~3.8 m ha), the South America (~3.0 to ~1.6) and the Europe (~3.0 to ~0.4 m ha) (Table 1). Global seed cotton production has increased from 27.5 million tons (m tons) in 1961 to 65.4 m tons in

Asia

20%

70%

6%

2%

Americas Africa Europe Oceania

2%

figure 1 Seed cotton production share contributed by different areas of the world; data is average of 2007–2016 . Source: FAO, 2018.