coudrat, rogers - 2009 - cambodian wildlife a survey of primates and nocturnal mammals in phnom...

8/8/2019 Coudrat, Rogers - 2009 - CAMBODIAN WILDLIFE a Survey of Primates and Nocturnal Mammals in Phnom Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary, Cardamom Mountains

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2009

CAMBODIAN WILDLIFE: A survey of

primates and nocturnal mammals inPhnom Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary,



remaining wildlife inhabiting the Samkos basin and as the population of the surrounding villages increases so will the threats to the wildlife.

There is a pressing need for continued research into the densities of mammals in and around the Samkos WS, and into the behaviour andecology of these species in order to compile an action plan for theirconservation. A burning cycle plan needs to be put into effect and strictlyfollowed to preserve the evergreen forest that is left and to halt theconversion of dry dipterocarp forest into grassland.



ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to extend our thanks and gratitude to all whose help, guidance andsupport has made this project possible:

This project could not have succeeded without our supervisor Dr. Anna Nekaris;

we thank her for her determination, passion, and precious advices and guidance.

Our thanks go as well to all other lecturers of the MSc Primate Conservation

program who provided us valuable knowledge on conservation matters and

supported us in the completion of the project; in particular Dr. Vincent Nijman,

Dr. Simon Bearder and Dr. Giuseppe Donati.

The present research was conducted with the collaboration of Fauna & Flora

International (FFI) Cambodia Program in Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary, CardamomMountains, southwest Cambodia. We are grateful to FFI’s staff for recognising the

potential in this project and facilitated the logistic process with authorisations

from the government and permissions to access the study site. I would

specifically like to thank Oliver Nelson, Emily Woodfield, Tim Wood, Neang Thy,

Choun Phirom and especielly Toby Eastoe for answering our numerous requests



We want to express gratitude to Primate Conservation Inc. for providing funding

for the fieldwork of this project.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLEPAGE...................................................................................................................................iEXECUTIVESUMMARY..............................................................................................................iiACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.............................................................................................................iiiTABLE OF

CONTENTS................................................................................................................ivLIST OFTABLES...........................................................................................................................vLIST OFFIGURES.........................................................................................................................vi

S O



OF THE SAMKOS BASIN IN THE CARDAMOM MOUNTAINS,CAMBODIA ......................62.1INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................................62.2 RESEARCHMETHODS...............................................................................................................................62.2.1 Surveymethod..........................................................................................................

...............................62.2.Behavioursampling...................................................................................................................................72.2.3 Statisticalanalysis...................................................................................................................................8

2.3.AIMS………………………………………………………………………………...................................................82.4RESULTS.........................................................................................................................................................82.5DISCUSSION...................................................................................................

12



3.4DISCUSSION................................................................................................................................................213.5RECOMMENDATIONS…………………………………………………………............................................25

CHAPTER 4:REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………..........……..27

APPENDICES...................................................................................................................................31APPENDIX 1.VEGETATIONSAMPLING……………………………………………...........................33APPENDIX 2. PRIMATE SIGHTINGS DURING THE WHOLE STUDY PERIOD.

…………………38



LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Ethogram: Descriptions of behavioural categories at first

contact...................7

Table 2.2 Relative abundance and density estimates for all speciesencountered across the study area in Samkos WildlifeSanctuary....................9

Table 3.1 Priority status for primate species of conservation concern inCambodia........................................................................................................24

Table A.1 Species richness and density estimates for the two differenthabitattypes..........................................................................................

.....................34

Table A.2 Complexity, connectivity and connectivity levels for the twohabitat

types................................................................................................................35

Table A.3 Percentage of small medium and large trees (measured by



LIST OF FIGURES

Figure1.1 Map of Cambodia showing the Mekong River, which flows fromnorth to south, the Tonle Sap lake in the centre andmountainous

areasto the north and southwest.....................................................................2

Figure1.2 Location of Samkos wildlife Sanctuary within the CardamomMountains and locality in

Cambodia.................................................................4

Figure 2.1 Map of the position of Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary withinCambodia

(inset right), The location of the study site within Samkos WS(right)

and sightings of nocturnal mammals on transects within the

study area(left).................................................................................................9

Figure 2.2 Percentage occurrence in lowland evergreen forest and drydipterocarp forest for individual

species.........................................................10

Figure 2.3 Percentage of time individuals spent in specific behaviourst th i t f fi t



LIST OF PLATES

Plate 1.1 Dry dipterocarpgrassland……………………………………………………………………………3

Plate 3.1 Indochinese silvered langur infant caught for primatetrade, Pramoy village, April

2009....................................................................20

Plate 3.2 Illegal logging during a patrol in Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary,August

2009.....................................................................................................22



LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ADP Asia Development Bank

a.s.l Above sea level

BUAV British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection

CBH Circumference at Breast Height

CI Conservation International

DBH Diameter at Breast Height

DD forest Dry dipterocarp forest

FFI Fauna Flora International

IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature

LE forest Lowland evergreen forest

MAFF Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries

MoE Ministry of Environment

MLMUPC Mi i t f L d M t U b Pl i d C t ti



CHAPTER 1: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

1.1. INTRODUCTION‘The global decline of biodiversity is now recognised as one of the mostserious environmental issues facing humanity’ (Smith, 2001pp. iii.).Biodiversity plays an important role in supporting local communities, byproviding for their economic, ecological and cultural needs. The full scaleof the biodiversity of Cambodia is still unknown, however it is thought tocontain high diversity due to its tropical location and low population

density with large areas of natural forests still intact (Smith, 2001).

Cambodia has recently emerged from years of violent conflict that haveprevented any scientific exploration of its natural areas. As the situationhas stabilised (Long & Swan, 2000) more research is being carried out anda clearer picture of the diversity of flora and fauna is appearing.

War has varying effects on the natural resources of a country and can beboth negative and positive. The war in Cambodia has had disastrouseffects on both human livelihoods and the ecosystems on which theydepend (McNeely, 2003), especially in terms of the illegal logging tradepromoted both by military commanders and by the government who viewthe forest as a supplemental source of income. Logging in the forests isproceeding at a rate that the Asian Development Bank say could, withinfive years, clear all the forests of economically useful timber (McNeely,2003) Th ti f i C b di l l ti f



1.2.1. CambodiaCambodia is a tropical country located in Southeast Asia. The countryconsists of 24 provinces (NIS, 2008) and shares borders with Thailand tothe west and north, Laos to the north, Vietnam to the north and south andthe Gulf of Thailand to the west. The total landmass of Cambodia is181,035 km2 (ADB, 2000), which makes it the second smallest country inAsia (Smith, 2001). The major geographical features of Cambodia includethe Mekong river, which flows from north to south and provides azoogeographical boundary, Boeng Tonle Sap (Great Lake), their floodplains

and some mountainous areas to the southwest and the north (ADP, 2000;Lawrence, 2004; Traeholt et al, 2005) (Figure 1.1). Cambodia’s forestcover is higher than any other in the Indo-china bioregion and is currentlyestimated at around 52.9%. The country is unique in still having forest inthe lowland plains (Tani et al, 2007).



The total population of Cambodia is 13,388,910 people (NIS, 2008), themajority of the population is ethnic Cambodian (90%) with the rest madeup from Vietnamese, Chinese and other minority groups (Traeholt et al,2005). The population is slowly extracting itself from many years of war,isolation, genocide and hardship during which well over 1.5 million peopledied and many more fled the country (Zimmer & Kim, 2002). One of themost significant effects of the war was the devastation of forests and thewildlife that inhabits it (Le Billon, 2000). McKenny et al. (2004) claimedthat forest cover has decreased dramatically since the 1960s due touncontrolled logging during the war (as sited in: Momberg & Weiler,1999)

and the legal and illegal logging that continues today at approximatelyseven times the sustainable level (Smith, 2001). After the war there was amassive repopulation of the country by refugees who had fled toneighbouring countries. The majority of these refugees returned to theirown villages in the rural areas. The rural areas still account for 90% of thetotal population and many have no access to suitable or sustainable waterresources (Turton, 2000).

The rural communities living in and around the forests are almost whollydependent on the forest for their food, fodder, fuel, shelter and medicine(Heng & Key, 1995). Encroachment on the forests by these villagers issignificant and extremely damaging to the natural ecosystem. Indeed,agriculture is the most dominant sector for villagers who clear patches of forest for farming (rice is the principal crop) and for cattle grazing (ADB,2000; Turton, 2000). Hunting of animals from the forest is low in

i t th t i th i hb i t i h ith th



The Cardamom Mountains are one of the most dominant geographicalfeatures of Cambodia, consisting of three mountain complexes: MountSamkos, Central Cardamom Mountains and Mount Aural (Momberg &Weiler, 1999). Mount Samkos reaches 1717 m a.s.l. and Mount Aural,which is the highest point in Cambodia, reaches 1771 m a.s.l. (Long &Swan, 2000). Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary (Samkos WS) and Phnom AuralWildlife Sanctuary were recognised through a Royal Decree in November1999 establishing them as National Protected Areas (Lawrence et al,2004).

Plate 1.1: Dry dipterocarp grassland

The study was carried out in Samkos WS, a protected forest area situatedin the Cardamom Mountains of south west Cambodia (Figure 1.2). SamkosWS encompasses 3338 km2 (Daltry & Momberg, 2000). The study wasbased in a lowland area which has been called the ‘Samkos Basin’ (Webb,2005): the camp site was at 12°21’N and 103°07’E measured by GPS

(Garmin eTrex Vista®HCx).



average annual rainfall between 3,000 and 4,000 mm (Daltry & Momberg,2000; and Rollet, 1972).This study was conducted just after the onset of the rainy season.



CHAPTER 2: A PRELIMINARY SURVEY OFTHE NOCTURNAL MAMMALS OF THE SAMKOS

BASIN IN THE CARDAMOM MOUNTAINS,CAMBODIA

Lara Rogers, D.

2.1. INTRODUCTION

Most research on the biodiversity of the Cardamom Mountains to date hasfocused on the large diurnal mammals (Long, Swan & Masphal, 2000). There are over 4500 mammal species across the globe and Cambodia isthought to have at least 100 terrestrial mammal species (Smith, 2001).

Research suggests that the Cardamom Mountains could have up to 50different mammals with species from all families (Momberg & Daltry,2000).

The number of large mammals in an area is a good indicator of howhealthy that ecosystem is (Momberg & Dalty, 2000), as large mammalsare extremely vulnerable to habitat loss. This feature is one factor

ib i bi d h d f l l h



Nekaris et al., 2008) have found greater numbers using red rather thanwhite light, as these lights are far less disturbing to the animals. A total of ten randomly selected transects, each 1 km long were walked twice, oncebetween 19:00 and midnight and two weeks later between midnight and04:00.

On location of an animal the following data were recorded: transectlength, number of individuals sighted, perpendicular distance of animalfrom transects, habitat type, and behaviour at first contact (Table 2.1). Transects 1-4 were in lowland evergreen forest (LE forest) and transects 5-

10 were placed in an area which was mostly dry dipterocarp forest (DDforest).

The indices used for assessing the relative abundance of nocturnalmammals were the linear encounter rate per kilometre and density (thenumber of animals encountered per square kilometre. Density (D) wasestimated following the formula D=n/2wl, where (w) is the strip widthdetermined by the furthest observations on either side of the transect lineand (l) is the length of the transect and (n) is the number of loris observed(Sutherland, 2002).

2.2.2 Behaviour sampling

Systematic data collection took place between May and June 2009 using

f l i l li ( l ) d i i li



When feeding events were observed on an instantaneous sample point,data were collected on the food item consumed, feeding behaviour andtree species fed on if food was vegetation. Tree species that lorises werefound in were identified on site or flagged for later identification if unknown.

During the study period the sun set by 19:30 and began to rise at 04:20.As Bengal slow lorises are fully nocturnal, observations took placebetween 20:00 to 04:00 hours.

2.2.3. Statistical AnalysesAll data were tested for normality with a Komolgorov-Smirnov test. Weanalysed Data not meeting the criteria for normality with non-parametrictests, and present medians and interquartile ranges. For normal data,when means are presented they are coupled with standard errors ratherthan standard deviations due to the relatively small sample size.

2.3 AIMS

I. To document the distribution and density of the Bengal slow loris and allother nocturnal mammals in Samkos WS.

i k l d b h i i b d f h i d



Figure 2.1: Map of the position of Samkos WS within Cambodia (inset right), The location of the study site within Samkos WS (right) and sightings of nocturnalmammals on transects within the study area (left)



squirrelNorthern redmuntjac

20 1 0.05±0.05 2.08±1.04

Red spiny rat 20 2 0.15±0.07 4.17±1.39Masked palmcivet

20 1 0.05±0.05 2.08±1.04

Bengal slow loris 20 9 0.45±0.08 18.75±8.48Nb. All encounter rates and density estimates are rounded 2 degrees of freedom.a Means with standard error.

Common palm civet:A total of seven common palm civets were

encountered during the survey producing amean linear encounter rate of 0.35/km(Table 2.2). Paradoxurus hermaphrodituswas observed in both LE forest and DDforest, but were most often encountered (86%) in LE forest (Figure 2.2).

©WCS The civets were encountered intrees most of the time apart from on two occasions when they were seen

walking on the ground. Behaviour at first contact varied with the mostcommon being alert due to being disturbed by the observers (Figure 2.3).On one occasion they were seen feeding on fruit from an unknown treespecies. All other behaviours observed were moving and resting (Figure2.3).



Three giant squirrels (Petaurista spp) were encountered during the studyperiod, producing a mean linear encounter rate of 0.15/km (Table 2.2). Itwas impossible to determine the species due to the extreme height of thetrees in which they were found (15, 17, 19 m). They occurred mainly inthe DD forest (67%) (Figure 2.2) and were either feeding on what waspresumed to be fruit (67%) or resting (33%) (Figure 2.3).

Northern red muntjac.One northern red muntjac (Muntiacus vaginalis) wasencountered in the LE forest and was feeding at the time of contact. Nightly throughout the study they were heard‘barking’ and were often seen out of survey time, in both LEforest and DD forest suggesting the density could be muchhigher than the 0.05/km (Table 2.2) recorded during the study period.Future studies ©WCS should consider employing a triangulationmethod of density estimation for this highly vocal species.



moved around the dense undergrowth and did not flee.©antbase.net

Masked palm civet.One masked palm civet (Paguma larvata) wasencountered producing a relative abundance of 0.05/km (Table 2.2). The civet was found in LEforest (Figure 2.3), high in a tree where it wasmaking considerable noise as it moved around.

©WCS

Bengal slow loris.Nycticebus bengalensis was the second must abundantnocturnal mammal encountered at Samkos WS; thelinear encounter rate for this species was 0.45/km (Table2.2). Nycticebus bengalensis were mainly encountered

in the DD forest habitat (67%) (Figure 2.2) with a largeproportion of them occurring in the grasslandsconnected to the DD forest. All three observations of theloris in LE forest were in the later surveys between midnight and 3am. The behaviour at first contact ©Charlotte Packman

records showed the lorises spend most of their time resting (56%) andthen equal amounts of time being alert or moving (33%) (Figure 2.3). It is



There are a number of possible explanations for the Bengal slow lorismoving out to this habitat, one being the greater abundance of flyinginsects during the earlier parts of the evening, which they were observedcatching. There is an increase in light availability, which attracts insectsand enables this active prey to be more easily caught. Anotherexplanation could be a decrease of predators in the area. Lorises arepresumed to be predated on by reptiles such as snakes (Wiens &Zitzmann, 1999), civets and owls (Bearder, et al 2002). Of all the civetsightings, not one was in the DD forest. Other studies have found that

civets prefer evergreen forests and put this occurrence down to a lowerabundance of known food items in the DD forest (Rabinowitz, 1991).Studies of lesser mouse deer in Cambodia have found them to be entirelyabsent from DD forests especially in areas that are regularly burnt(Timmins et al, 2009). In our study lesser mouse deer were found ontransects deemed DD forest, however they only inhabited extremely thickpatches of forest.

Cambodia is unique in still having forest in the lowland plains (Tani et al,2007). These areas are at greater risk from human encroachment thanany in the Cardamom Mountains. There is a high probability that many of the areas that are now DD forest used to be semi evergreen forests(Smith, 2001), and have developed due to human habitation andexcessive burning. Dipterocarp forest varies from closed canopy to verysparse grassland, which is a result of too frequent fires (Webb, 2005).



A knock on effect of illegal logging is the increase in hunting. There arethree different scales of hunting occurring in Cambodia: subsistence,sideline and organized. Within areas of illegal logging it is the sidelinehunting that increases. Loggers carry guns for protection and loan themto villagers to assist in the hunting of wildlife. They may also hunt wildlifethemselves (Lawrence et al., 2004). Hunting is low in Cambodia comparedto other countries (Smith, 2001), however it is on the increase. With thespread of the wildlife trade, Cambodia has shifted from a local market toan international one, due to increased access from logging tracks thatallow transport of a larger mass of wildlife (Lawrence, 2004) that can be

sold to neighboring countries as well as locally. All species of mammalfound in this survey, bar the red spiny rat, have been found in the marketseither dead or alive and have been confiscated by TRAFFIC (Walston &Ashwell 2008). By far the most prevalent of these species is the Bengalslow loris, which is used in Cambodia for traditional medicine. Due to thehigh off-take rates of slow loris and their ongoing popularity in traditionalmedicine within and around Cambodia they were recently transferred fromAppendix II to Appendix I of CITES (Nekaris & Nijman, 2007). The lessermouse deer and the northern red muntjac have been shown to be adept atsurviving in areas of very heavy hunting (Timmins et al, 2009 a; Timmins etal, 2009b). However, even small-scale hunting can result in a dramaticdecrease in numbers because they already occurring low densities (Dattaet al., 2008).

Large mammals have been the focus of most of the research conducted in



detrimental effect on the remaining nocturnalmammals that show preference for the LE forest



As habitat loss should affect all primate species, monitoring of thisimportant conservation area is critical, as it is said to harbour six of eleven

Cambodian primate taxa. We thus aimed to provide an update to the lastprimate survey in the Cardamom Mountains, and to assess the presentstatus and distribution of these species in Cambodia. In order to reachthese aims, two objectives were fixed before the study:

• To conduct a survey on foot of primate species in Samkos WS

• To evaluate potential threats that primate species are facing in thearea

To date, nine diurnal taxa of primates are confirmed to occur in Cambodia,of which eight are in danger of extinction (IUCN, 2008). We present in thenext section the global status of each species occurring in Cambodia.Because of a lack of knowledge on Cambodian primates, a definitive statusand distribution at a national level is not yet available. National rangepresented in the following section is based on the most recent confirmed

records.

All wildlife species considered as “rare and endangered” are protected bylaw in Cambodia (Anon, 2002 in Walston & Ashwell, 2005 p.16). Inaddition, the forestry law “ensures the sustainable management of forestsfor their social, economic and environment benefits, includingconservation of biological diversity and cultural heritage” (MLMUPCCambodia, 2002 Article 1: p.1). Global status Categories and Criteria of



coucang, making it the second of two loris species in Cambodia (with N. pygmaeus) – see previous Chapter..

In the last primate survey report, the rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta)and the grey-shanked douc langur (Pygathrix cinerea) were considered aspotentially occurring in Cambodia although no record had been madeproving their occurrence. To date, their presence is still not confirmed inCambodia. Thus, we did not include them in our report. The presence of new species is however considered.

Slow loris (Nycticebus bengalensis)Global range: Bhutan, Burma, Cambodia, Southern China,

Northeastern India, Laos, Thailand (north of theIsthmus of Kra), Vietnam

National range: West of the Mekong River: Cardamom Mountains,Samkos WS (Rogers, Unpublished data; Long & Swan,

2000; Boonratana, 1999).East of the Mekong River: Mondulkiri and RatanakiriProvinces (reported from local people: Long, Swan &Marshal, 2000), but never seen by Starr (Starr, pers.comm.)

Global conservation status: Vulnerable A2acd+3cd+4acd (IUCN, 2008)



West of the Mekong River: Mondulkiri Province (inSBCA: Pollard et al., 2007; Long & Swan, 2000).

Global conservation status: Least Concern (IUCN, 2008)

Stump-tailed macaque (Macaca arctoides)Global range: Eastern Bangladesh, Northern Burma, Cambodia,

Southwestern China, Eastern India (southeast of theBrahmaputra river), Laos, northern & westernMalaysia, Thailand.

National range: East of the Mekong River: Mondulkiri Province (in

SBCA: Pollard et al., 2007).West of the Mekong River: no confirmation of itspresence in the Cardamom Mountain; one sighting inKirirom National Park by WCS, 2000 (Eastoe, pers.comm.)

Global conservation status: Vulnerable A3cd+4cd (IUCN, 2008)

Indochinese silvered langur (Trachypithecus germaini )Global range: Unclear – Western Cambodia (Roos et al., 2008)National range: West of the Mekong River: Cardamom Mountains

(Long & Swan, 2000)Global conservation status: Endangered A2cd (IUCN, 2008)

Annamese silvered langur (Trachypithecus margarita)Global range: Unclear – Eastern Cambodia (Roos et al., 2008)



Yellow-cheeked gibbon (Nomascus gabriellae)Global range: Southern Laos, Southern Vietnam, Eastern CambodiaNational range: East of the Mekong River: Mondulkiri and Ratanakiri

Province (Pollard et al., 2007; Rawson, 2004; Traeholtet al., 2005; Phan, pers. comm.).

Global conservation status: Endangered A2cd (IUCN, 2008)

3.2 METHODS

3.2.1 Survey methodology

We conducted fieldwork for a total of five weeks, from the 22nd of April tothe 31st of May. We concentrated our effort using foot surveys. We usedthe traditional line transect walk, in addition, with the purpose of enhancing our animal detection given the time constraints, we exploredthe forest without following any transect (tracking) in areas whereprimates were known to occur according to our local guide. We cut tenstraight transects measuring 1 to 1.5 km randomly selected within ourstudy site (approximately 466 ha) and covering the two main forest typesof the area. We walked each transect twice as slowly and quietly aspossible: two transects were walked every morning for five daysconsecutively and two transects were walked every afternoon for five



We confirmed the presence of four diurnal primate species in theCardamom Mountains out of five thought to occur in the area. Unlike the

last primate survey, visual sightings were made to confirm the presence of each species (see Figure 3.1). Details of each primate sighting arecompiled in Annexe 2. We report the details of nocturnal primate sightingsin the previous chapter.

Northern pig-tailed macaque (Macaca leonina)

Pig-tailed macaques were observed on four occasions. They were always sighted in the morning (between 6h50and 10h00), in the lowland evergreen forest and duringsunny days at an average of 20 m from the observer.We failed to estimate group size because of poorvisibility and used Caldecott’s (1986) (in Rowe, 1996)estimation of 27.50 individuals per group. Encounterrate of pig-tailed macaque was estimated at 0.05 groups per hour, and1.38 individuals per hour. One male was observed feeding on the sametree where a group of Indochinese silvered langur had just fled from.

Long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis)Long-tailed macaques were observed on two occasionsin the afternoon (14h02 and 17h00), in lowlandevergreen forest on sunny days at an average distance



presence of the species west of the Mekong, although it was recorded onthe east side of the River.

Indochinese silvered langur (Trachypithecus germaini ) The Indochinese silvered langur was sighted a total of eight times. All observations were made in the lowlandevergreen forest on sunny days at an average of 23.50 mfrom the observer. Five detections were made in the

afternoon (ranging from 12h58 to 15h50), while threeothers were made in the morning (from 5h30 to 11h00).On one occasion we observed a group with infants, juveniles, males and females by our camp (21st May 2009,5h30 a.m.) for forty minutes. The group was spread overapproximately 25 m, individuals were engaged in various behaviours(playing, eating, moving, and resting); they did not seem aware of thepresence of the observer at the beginning until a male made an alarm callto demonstrate it had detected our presence though the group did not runaway. However, the species fled on every other occasion we saw them andfollowing a group was difficult in this terrain. We estimated theirencounter rate at 0.08 groups per hour, and using an estimation of 12.50individuals per group, at 1.04 individuals per hour. In Parmoy village onthe 22nd of April 2009 before the field study, one infant was observed,probably for sale as a pet (Plate 3.1).



and 10h02) and the two other times in the afternoon (13h17 and 12h33).Each time we observed a group of five individuals with one male, onefemale and three juveniles; they were observed moving, resting and

playing. Groups observed are likely to correspond to a single group givenits same composition and approximate locality. On one occasion weobserved a vocal agonistic interaction between the male of a group of pileated gibbons and a male of a group of long-tailed macaques. Theinteraction stopped when the gibbons fled. We estimated an encounterrate for the species at 0.07 groups per hour, and 0.33 individuals per hour.



concessions (Long & Swan, 2000). At the moment, the situation of illegallogging is dramatically increasing (pers. obs.; Eastoe, pers. comm.) (seePlate 3.2). Primate species are likely to be highly threatened by habitat

destruction if trends in deforestation continue to increase.



often captured for the biomedical industry and exported internationally(BUAV, 2008).

We followed the categories of priority status described by Long & Swan(2000) to assess conservation priority for each species (Table 3.1). Prioritystatus for future conservation work are defined as follow, information inbrackets is added to the definition of Long & Swan (2000):

Priority I: Species specific conservation efforts are required. Theseshould involve distribution surveys, active hunting patrols, trade

restrictions and awareness programmes. [Taxonomic research isrequired for some species].

Priority II: More information is required to assess the threats facing

the species accurately. [National distribution maps of the speciesare needed; GIS modelling may be a first step to identify priority

survey areas]. Conservation goals can be achieved in the contextof protected area management, law enforcement and trade

restrictions if primate specific activities are initiated.Priority III: Distribution surveys, population monitoring, control of huntingand awareness programmes should be sufficient to ensure thelong-term survival of the species.



Nomascusgabriellae

Restricted range; globallly Endangered; population inMondulkiri Province could represent the largest globalpopulation of the species; research on phylogenetic should

be made to assess relationships of the yellow-cheekedgibbon populations from Mondulkiri Province and ViracheyNational Park (Traeholt et al., 2005)

Trachypithecusgermaini

Phylogenetic work needed to confirm the classification byRoos et al. (2008), if confirmed, the species has a restrictedrange and the population in the Cardamom Mountainsshould be considered as a priority; globally Endangered

Trachypithecusmargarita Phylogenetic work needed to confirm the classification byRoos et al. (2008) and assess the global status of thespecies as well as its distribution; population easternCambodia could represent the largest globally

II

Nycticebusbengalensis

relatively wide spread in Southeast Asia, but numbers lowor absent in most places where they have been studied;phylogenetic work needed; likely to be several species or

subspecies which will greatly impact conservation status;trade demand high and unsustainable

Nycticebus pygmaeus

High and unsustainable trade demand principally fortraditional medicine in Cambodia, but throughout Asia, andindeed elsewhere, as pets; numbers rapidly declining andmay move to Priority I

Macaca arctoides National and international distribution unclear, little studied



different species, (iv) an environmental education program throughout thecountry, (v) a law enforcement on and control of illegal activities.

3.5 RECOMMENDATIONS

• Local people education - Visits to local schools should be organisedto raise awareness of young public on primate pet and medicinaltrade. A country-specific and culturally sensitive education plan

should be developed to increase local people’s awareness on impactof hunting, and deforestation on local wildlife using posters invillages and organising workshops.

• Make the information on the Cardamom Mountains available on anational and international level with aid of publications in peer-reviewed journals. This will promote research in the area. Thedevelopment of a field school in the area would be advantageous to

promote research in the area with local or international students inconservation.

• Develop study on primate species in the area. More extensivesurveys are needed to gain a comprehensive understanding of thehabitat types frequented and preferred by primates. Studies on theabundance of each species in the area would be of great value; thedry season may permit more access to an increased number of



per 20 km². Otherwise efforts should be concentrated on smallerareas (Leader-Williams et al., 1990).

• Involve local rangers in the conservation of wildlife throughworkshops on local wildlife biology and training on field techniques(use of GPS, compass, species identification, census etc.).



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transect, spaced at least 500 m apart. Below we describe variables thatwere collected in each plot, on trees with CBH > 30 cm (DBH> 10 cm). Inaddition, tree height was measured with the aid of a clinometer and a tape

measure. Once tree heights were calculated they were converted intotree height categories where small = 0-<10 m, medium = 10-<19 m andlarge = 19m or larger. Five photographs of the canopy were taken atrandom points within the plot and from these the percentage of skycovered by the canopy was estimated. Categories included: 0-25, 26-50,51-75 and 76-100 % cover.

• Trees were identified to species, first by obtaining a local Khmername from the guides, which were later translated into scientificnames where possible with the aid of a botanist.

• Connectivity was measured by the number of branches and vinesconnecting it to the nearest tree (Nekaris et al in review), categoriesincluded: 0 connectors, 1-2 connectors, 3-5 connectors and 5+connectors.

• The horizontal density at the herb layer was measured by estimatingthe complexity enclosed within a circle with a 1 meter radius aroundthe base of each tree (0-0.5 m above ground level), categoriesincluded; 0-25, 26-50, 51-75 and 76-100 % cover (Stokes et al,2004).

• Canopy cover was estimated by percentage density of canopy: 0-25,26-50, 51-75 and 76-100%. This method was devised due to faultyequipment in the field leaving us unable to measure radius and



The Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index was employed using the formula:H = ∑pilnpi. We chose this index as it has low sensitivity to sample sizeand has been widely used (Cao & Zhang, 1997) to determine amount of

tree diversity.

Results

We sampled a total of 478 trees (DBH>10), representing 74 differentspecies. 47% of the trees could be identified to species level, 5% to genus

level and 46% could not be recognised from their Khmer name (Table A.4). The transects in this study can be loosely divided into two habitat types. Transect 1-4 were all lowland evergreen forest and for transects 5-10 theforest type was predominantly dry dipterocarp interspersed with smallpatches of lowland evergreen and moist evergreen forest.

Table A.1: Species richness and density estimates for the twodifferent habitat types.

Lowlandevergreen

Drydipterocarp

Species richness 21.75 21.17Density / Km2 53437.50 54791.67Shannon DiversityIndex

-2.88 -2.81

Mean basal area 2157.11 815.33



(measured by height) within the two different habitats.

Lowlandevergreen

Drydipterocar

pSmall 26 30Mediu

m27 33

Large 47 37

For the complexity measures (Table A.2), there was no difference in the

mean horizontal density for the two habitat types (0-25% cover). However,there was a significant difference between the two habitats’ horizontaldensity at ground level, with DD forest having a larger amount of treeswith 75-100% ground cover ( x2

=21.53; df.=3; p≤0.001): no other analysesshowed any significant difference. The mean canopy density for each treeshows a difference for the habitats. Evergreen forest had a dense canopywith a median of 75-100% leaf cover whereas dry dipterocarp forest hadmuch lower canopy density with only a median of 26-50% leaf cover. Not

surprisingly the canopy sky cover for the evergreen forest was a median of 76-100% producing a closed canopy. Dry dipterocarp forest had a verypatchy forest canopy cover with a median result of 50-75%. Tree heightsalso showed a difference between habitats (Table A.3). Lowlandevergreen forest had a much greater percentage of larger trees (47%)than small (26%) and medium trees (27%), whereas dry dipterocarp forestshowed almost even abundance of small, medium and large trees (30, 33



4 pelang nut

2 pichuck Shorea obtusa Dipterocarpaceae

13 piou

3 plome wan

1 plong

9 po pun Baccaurea sp. Phyllanthaceae

3 pong domray

1 potril al

4 pro ducTerminaliamucronata

Combretaceae

4 semoanNepheiliumhypoleucum

Sapindaceae

1 smat

3 Som ra

38 sralaoLagertroemia

calyculataLythraceae

12 stio

3 swai preaMangifera

duperreanaAnacardiaceae

4 tateil plat

3 tnung chim-wanPterocarpusmacrocarpus

Leguminosae

3 tom

4 koki Hopea odorata Dipterocarpaceae

19 Unkonwn

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combretaceae

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sapindaceae

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lythraceae

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combretaceae

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sapindaceae

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lythraceae



APPENDIX 2: PRIMATE SIGHTINGS DURING THE WHOLE STUDY PERIOD. (SHADED ZONE CORRESPONDS TO SIGHTINGSMADE DURING CENSUS PERIOD (LINE TRANSECT AND TRACKING).

#Date

TimeTrans

ectSpecies Habitat

Weather

GPSLongitudeLatitude

estimatedAnimal-

Observerdistance

Sign of presence

126 April

200915h50 1 Silvered langurs

Evergreen

Sunny12,20480

6103,07686

140 m Sighting

2 4 may2009

10h00 2 Pig-tailed macaques Evergreen

Sunny 12,20240205

103,0624082

20 m Sighting

37 may2009

17h00 4Long-tailedmacaques

Evergreen

Sunny12,20773

52103,06557

7710 m Sighting

412 may2009

16h05 1 Silvered langursEvergree

nCloudy

12,20613551

103,0646152

13 m Sighting

518 may2009

9h08 -Pig-Tailedmacaques

Evergreen

Sunny12,20041

092103,06487

3120 m Sighting

618 may2009

12h58 - Silvered langursEvergree

nSunny

12,21512946

103,063336

20 m Sighting

718 may

200913h17 -

Gibbons (5

individuals)

Evergree

nSunny

12,21559

583

103,06502

2810 m Sighting

818 may2009

14h02 -Long-tailedmacaques

Evergreen

Sunny12,21454

415103,06924

735 m Sighting

919 may2009

12h33 -Gibbons (5individuals)

Evergreen

Sunny12,21402

456103,06646

1810 m Sighting

1021 may2009


nSunny

12,20729859

103,0658242

10-20 m Sighting

1121 may2009

6h50 - Pig-tailed macaquesEvergree

nSunny

12,20729859

103,0658242

10-20 m Sighting

1221 may2009


Evergreen

Sunny12,20922

2103,06180

620-25 m Sighting

13 22 may2009 9h04 - Pig-Tailedmacaques Evergreen Sunny 12,20167835 103,0662779 25 m Sighting

14

22 may2009

13h48 - Silvered langurs(same group

followed)

Evergreen

Sunny12,21589

339103,06295

0140 m Sighting

22 may2009

14h01 -Evergree

nSunny

12,21590672

103,0634266

30-40 m Sighting

1523 may2009


Evergreen

Sunny 10 m Sighting

53

23 may2009


Sunny12,21451

683103,06213

3625 m Sighting



162009

10h49 Silvered langurs(same group

followed)

nSunny

683 3625 m Sighting

23 may2009

11h08 -Evergree

nSunny

12,21464792

103,0621266

25 m Sighting

1723 may2009


nSunny

12,20859527

103,0636444

10 m Sighting

1825 may2009


nSunny

12,204083

103,066583

25 m Sighting

coudrat, rogers - 2009 - cambodian wildlife a survey of primates and nocturnal mammals in phnom...

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