The Courage of HallajFr. John D’Alton – Antiochian Orthodox priest, Monash Uni.

The martyrdom of Mansur al-Hallaj in Baghdad in 922CE was the culmination of a spiritual

journey involving frequent courageous provocation of the Islamic state authority. Hallaj persistently demanded martyrdom, but was only

killed when his presence became too destabilizing. In many ways Hallaj is a variant of Peter Brown’s “holy man”, occupying a unique space between the community and the divine,

often at odds with official religion.

Hallaj

• Abū al-Mughīth Husayn Mansūr al-Hallāj (c. 858 – 26 March 922 CE)

• Persian mystic/Sufi teacher, missionary.• Born in Fars, Persia. Son of a cotton-

carder, grandson of a Zoroastrian.• Trained by Sahl al-Tustari, and followed

Junayd’s teaching in many ways.• Imprisoned in 913 for 8 years.

Known as the great “carder of souls” (Arabic hallaj)

Actions of Hallaj that are usually seen as enigmatic

• He openly espoused tawhid as unity of everything in God, (almost pantheism).

• He referred to the martyrdom of Christ, saying that he also wanted to die “in the supreme confession of the cross”.

• He provoked the rulers, insisting that they must kill him!

• Is this courage or madness?

Peter Brown’s “Holy Man” as a lens

• There was an increasing sense of distance from God in the late Roman empire which meant the role of living and dead saints became very important.

• Compare Hallaj. While Sunnis taught a vast separation between God and humans, Hallaj emphasised hulul (Arabic means descending and incarnation).

• This was more a Christian, Shi’a or Ismaili teaching.

1. Courageous preaching

• Hallaj taught the desire for oneness with God, and thus many Muslims criticized him as a "'crypto-Christian' for distorting the monotheistic revelation in a Christian way." (Mason, p. 25).

• Hallaj claimed to teach people how to unite directly with God and taught that the spiritual Hajj (pilgrimage) was more important than the physical!

• Compare- Christian ascetics and their clashes with bishops.

2. Courageous Death

• Attar calls his death an “heroic action”.• Hallaj said that his execution would have

redemptive significance, (cf. Christ), believing that his death "was uniting his beloved God and His community of Muslims against himself and thereby bore witness in extremis to the tawhid (the oneness) of both." (Mason, p. 25)

• Martyred like a Christian on a Cross (Arabic salib)

• Note the changed imagery due to scandal.

• The authorities tried to keep Hallaj’s execution a quiet affair which shows their concern for possible popular reaction. Just as in late Roman cities, civic unrest was a constant worry for the authorities.

• Christian asceticism “unsettled ancient Roman status markers” (Elizabeth Clark) and created a new form of elite. Hallaj did the same.

3. Courageous Provocation

• Brown’s “holy men” often mediated between locals and the emperor and his officers, sometimes provoking them.

• The authorities had an ambivalent sensitivity to the power of “holy men”.

• Cf. Hallaj’s easy access to the court, and yet preaching from Hanbal’s tomb. (d. 855CE). Hanbal was almost martyred because of his challenge to Abassid rule.

Abassid rule in decline• Peak in 850CE; by 922 serious decline.

By 950CE

• Hallaj said “Kill me my trustworthy friends, for in my killing is my life.” “God has given you my lawful blood, quick, kill me; Then you will be soldiers in the jihad and I a martyr.”

• His statement “I am the Truth” was bound to incite the condemnation of “heretic”, and has an obvious Christian pre-cursor.

• Hallaj fasted for 12 months at Ka’aba, where the “pure soul” (Nafs Zakiya) was supposed to be sacrificed.

Other similarities with Christian holy men

• Miracle of fire from Hallaj’s fingertips in Jerusalem church cf. Abba Joseph (4th century) who advised “become like flame”.

• Brown’s holy man was a “patron” who was especially powerful in prayer for others because of his special relationship with God. Cf. Hallaj seen as “friend of God”.

• Power over demons. Hallaj was accused of pact with the jinn (demons).

Other similarities with Christian holy men (cont.)

• Hallajjian doctrine that the “Uncreated Divine Spirit which proceeds from God can be united to the spirit of the ascetic” (O’Leary). Cf Maximos etc.

• Radical asceticism eg hair shirt and 400 raka’ah a day (cf Simon Stylites).

• According to Hanbal, the radically ascetic Muslims “will be close to Jesus at the judgement”.

How much Christian-Muslim interaction?

Which is the Muslimand which theChristian?

13th century CE image of late 700s CE meeting.

Other similarities with Christian holy men (cont.)- Apocalyptic

• Brown notes the displacement in late-antiquity of the notion of “an everlasting universe” by the Christian conception of creation and a soon-coming judgement day.

• This was heightened in Islam by the frequent emphasis on the “Day of Judgement” in the Quran and hadith.

• Brown says that people lived in a “perpetual twilight” before the coming of the Final Day, where it was unclear whether blessings came from God or the jinn. Only the holy man could discern.

Other similarities with Christian holy men (cont.)- Apocalyptic

• Hallaj even focussed his later preaching on the Turks, their conversion being understood as an apocalyptic sign.

• Like the Shi’a, Hallaj viewed the year 290 AH (902 CE) as a prophetic date and possible judgement day, and he journeyed to Mt Ararat seeking annihilation in God.

• Apocalyptic very important in Syriac Christian areas.

Other similarities with Christian holy men (cont.)- Asceticism

Arabic and Syriac words are almost identical- note identical triliteral roots

Meaning Arabic Syriacprayer salat selotaremembrance dhikr dukhranaabstinence sawm sawmrenunciation zuhd zuhdsoul nafs nafsrepentance tawba tethubaspirit ruh ruh

Significance

• Hallaj has “become a symbol of the intoxicated saint and martyr” (Ernst).

• Hallaj’s martyrdom has been defining for Sufi martyrology and contrasts with eg Wahhabi view.

• Hallaj is a link to Christianity. He calls on Jesus as Intercessor, teaches that Jesus is the coming Mahdi, and he even says that he wants to return to Baghdad to die there “in the confession of the Cross”.

Significance

• Hallaj’s extremely influential marginality defines the limits of acceptable Sufism.

• Hallaj’s peculiar position exemplifies the quest for authentic individual spirituality in the face of growing institutionalisation.

• His courageous martyrdom provides a significant alternative exemplar to the current stereotypical violent Muslim martyr.

A new lens for understanding

• Interpreting Hallaj through the lens of Peter Brown’s “holy man” makes Hallaj’s courage and actions much more understandable.