cover proceeding 2012
TRANSCRIPT
Organized by
Research and Development Unit for Biomaterials – LIPI
Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere – Kyoto University
Supported by
Center for South East Asian Studies (CSEAS) – Kyoto University
International Center for Interdisciplinary and Advanced Research (ICIAR)-LIPI
National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (LAPAN)
Sumitomo Chemichal
August 29, 2012Auditorium LAPAN, Bandung, INDONESIA
ISSN 2088-9127
PROCEEDING
“ Balancing Efforts on Environment Usagein Economy and Ecology ”
ndTHE 2 INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR SUSTAINABLE HUMANOSPHERE
The 2nd
International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 i
PROCEEDINGS THE 2
nd INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM FOR
SUSTAINABLE HUMANOSPHERE
Balancing Efforts on Environment Usage in Economy and Ecology
August 29, 2012 Auditorium LAPAN, Bandung
INDONESIA
Organized by Research and Development Unit for Biomaterials – LIPI
Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere – Kyoto University
Supported by Center for South East Asian Studies (CSEAS) – Kyoto University International Center for Interdisciplinary and Advanced Research
(ICIAR)-LIPI National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (LAPAN)
Sumitomo Chemichal
Published by Research and Development Unit for Biomaterials - LIPI
2012
ii ISSN 2088-9127
SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE
Editor-in-Chief
Dr. Wahyu Dwianto, M.Agr.
Editorial Boards
Dr. Suprapedi, M.Eng.
Prof. Dr.Ir. Bambang Subiyanto, M.Sc.
Prof. Dr. Sulaeman Yusuf, M.Agr.
Prof. Dr. Subyakto, M.Sc.
Dr. Lisman Suryanegara, M.Agr.
Dr. Ir. Euis Hermiati M.Sc.
Research and Development Unit for Biomaterials
Indonesian Institute of Scinece
International Peer Reviewers
Prof. Tsuyoshi Yoshimura
Prof. Mamoru Yamamoto
Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere
Kyoto University
Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan
Formatted Team
Ari Kusumaningtyas
Sukma Surya Kusumah
Lilik Astari
Syam Budi Iryanto
Danang Sudarwoko Adi
The 2nd
International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 iii
PREFACE
The 2nd International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere 2012 attracted the interest of
scientists from Indonesia and Japan. The symposium covered the disciplines of atmospheric science
(equatorial atmosphere; space environment, radar observations; space weather), biosphere science
(animal ecology; empowerment of local communities), geosphere science (land resource management
option for global warming mitigations; water management system), marine science (development of
marine ecosystem, fishery products processing), wood science and technology (wood cell wall
formation; cellulose; wood biochemistry; wood deteriorating organisms; wood preservation; timber
structure; wooden construction; wood-based material; carbonized wood based composites; wood
adhesives; chemical, physical and mechanical properties of wood; biomass conversion; bio-
composites; wood for energy; termites for new energy options), and forest science (biodiversity in
tropical plantation forests; peat swamp forest ecosystem; forest biomass). The technical program
consisted of 12 oral presentations under 4 sessions and 15 poster presentations.
This publication is a compilation of presented papers. Every effort has been carried out to retain
the original meaning and views of authors during the editing processes. All claims on trade products
and processes and views expressed do not necessarily imply endorsement by the editors.
We believe that this publication will be a useful source of information and achieved its primary
objective of disseminating new experiences and information to researchers, academics, policy makers
and students.
The organization of this international gathering and compilation of the proceedings could not
have been achieved without the combined effort of all members of the organizing committee and the
supports of Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere (RISH), Center for South East Asian
Studies (CSEAS) Kyoto University, International Center for Interdisciplinary and Advanced Research
(ICIAR)-LIPI, National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (LAPAN) and Sumitomo Chemichal. The
editors hereby wish to acknowledge the contributions of all parties.
Editors
February 18, 2013
iv ISSN 2088-9127
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Scientific Committee ii
Preface iii
Table of Content iv
Paper
CHARACTERISTICS OF STRANDS AND PULP FROM OIL PALM
FRONDS AND VETIVER ROOTS
Firda Aulya Syamani, Lilik Astari, Subyakto, Sukardi, Ani Suryani 1
BIOPULPING OF BAMBOO USING WHITE-ROT FUNGI Schizophyllum
Commune
Fitria, Riksfardini Annisa Ermawar, Widya Fatriasari, Triyani Fajriutami, Dede Heri Yuli Yanto, Faizatul Falah, Euis Hermiati 8
THE RESISTANCE OF POLYSTYRENE TREATED-
Sandoricum koetjape AND Durio zibethinus WOODS TOWARDS DECAY
FUNGI AND TERMITES
Widya Fatriasari, Anis S. Lestari, A. Heru Prianto, Firda A. Syamani 14
COMMUNITY ACCESS ON MANGROVE FOREST AREA: A
CONFLICT RESOLUTION IN KUBU RAYA
Tuti Herawati 23
STUDY OF CARBON POTENCY IN KOMODO NATIONAL PARK
Aah Ahmad Almulqu 30
PATENT DATA ANALYSIS AND INNOVATION TREND IN AIR
POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM
Diah Anggraeni Jatraningrum 38
SEEDLINGS PERFORMANCE OF INDIGINEOUS SPECIES WITH
FERTILIZER ADDITION AND WEEDING IN EARLY STAGE
REFORESTATION IN MT. PAPANDAYAN NATURE RESERVES, WEST
JAVA
Gibran Huzaifah Amsi El Farizy and Endah Sulistyawati 43
GREEN BUILDING MATERIALS FROM NATURAL FIBERS
REINFORCED CEMENT
Ismail Budiman, Mohamad Gopar, Subyakto and Bambang Subiyanto 50
CULTURAL AND PRACTICAL USE OF FOREST PLANT RESOURCES
IN DAYAK TUNJUNG COMMUNITY AT KELEKAT VILLAGE, EAST
KALIMANTAN
Okta Noviantina and Endah Sulistyawati 54
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International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 v
COMPARISON OF FIBER MORPHOLOGY OF THE BRANCHWOOD
BETWEEN Acacia mangium AND Paraserianthes falcataria AS RAW
MATERIAL FOR PULP MANUFACTURE
Ridwan Yahya 60
TREE INVENTORYAND CARBON STOCK MEASUREMENT ON ITB’s
GANESHA CAMPUS
Sidiq Pambudi and Endah Sulistyawati 64
THE EFFECT OF Cerbera manghas (APOCYNACEAE) SEED EXTRACT
AGAINST STORAGE PRODUCT PEST Sitophilus oryzae
(COLEOPTERA: CURCULIONIDAE)
Didi Tarmadi, Ikhsan Guswenrivo, Arief Heru Prianto, Sulaeman Yusuf 70
EFFECT OF LOW ASH COAL ADDITION ON THE PROPERTIES OF
BIO-PELLET FROM BAMBOO BETUNG (Dendrocalamus asper)
Wida B. Kusumaningrum, Ismail Budiman, Sasa Sofyan Munawar 76
DRY FOREST BIOMASS IN EAST NUSA TENGGARA
Aah Ahmad Almulqu 81
HYDROTHERMAL SYNTHESIS OF RECYCLED K-RICH ASH
OBTAINED FROM EMPTY FRUIT BUNCH AND ITS APPLICATION
FOR CO2 CAPTURE AND MINERAL CARBONATION
Anggoro Tri Mursito, Widodo, Anita Yulianti, Eki Naidania Dida, Djupriono, Fuad Saebani, and Syamsul Rizal Muharam 87
THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND COMPRESSION TIME ON
PHYSICAL, MECHANICAL AND DURABILITY PROPERTIES OF
PULAI (Alstonia scholaris (L) ROBERT BROWN) DENSIFIED WOOD
Farah Diba 93
PRODUCTION OF WOOD VINEGAR FROM LABAN WOOD (Vitex
pubescens VAHL) FOR CONTROL SEED FUNGI OF PINE (Pinus merkusii
JUNGH ET DE VRIESE)
Wahdina, Farah Diba, and Hasan Ashari Oramahi 100
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITE PRODUCTS FROM
RICE HUSK AND OIL PALM FROND FIBERS
Lilik Astari, Firda Aulya Syamani, Sasa Sofyan Munawar 107
RECYCLING RUBBER WOOD WASTE MATERIAL (Hevea brasiliensis
Will) FOR EXTERIOR WALL IN MINIMALIST GREEN HOME AS AN
ADAPTATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE USING OTTV ANALYSIS
Dany Perwita Sari and Sukma Surya Kusumah 111
THE DISTRIBUTION OF Gonocephalus SPECIES (REPTILIA, IGUANIA,
AGAMIDAE) ON SUMATRA, INDONESIA
Yunfika Rahmi, Mistar Kamsi, Jimmy A. McGuire, David P. Bickford, and Djoko T. Iskandar 119
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FERMENTATION OF HEMICELLULOSES BIOMASS FOR
MANNANASE PRODUCTION FROM Aspergillus ustus BL5
Ahmad Thontowi, Nanik Rahmani and Yopi 129
CELLULOSIC BIOMASS FOR OLIGOSACCHARIDES PRODUCTION
Yopi, Nanik Rahmani, Awan Purnawan, Ahmad Thontowi and Apridah C. Djohan 136
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES AND SUGAR RELEASED OF SENGON
(Paraserianthes falcataria (L) NIELSEN) STEM AND BRANCHWOOD
Ika Wahyuni, Danang S. Adi, Yusup Amin, Sukma S. Kusumah, Teguh Darmawan, Wahyu Dwianto, Takahisa Hayashi 142
PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANT GROWTH PROMOTING BACTERIA :
PHOSPHATASE, CELLULASE, AND AUXIN PRODUCTION
Helbert, Senlie Oktaviana, Anggita Sari Praharasti 146
EFFECTS OF BIO-FERTILIZER AND VESICULAR-ARBUSCULAR
MYCORRHIZA (VAM) APPLICATION ON GROWTH AND
PRODUCTIVITY OF SWEET-CORN CROP (Zea mays Saccharata)
Anggita Sari Praharasti, Ari Kusumaningtyas, Helbert, Suprapedi 153
BIOVILLAGE CONCEPT FOR COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT:
CASE STUDY IN TEMIANG VILLAGE - RIAU BIOSPHERE RESERVE
AREA Endang Sukara, Wahyu Dwianto, Fitria, Sukma S. Kusumah, Teguh Darmawan, Haris Gunawan 161
Symposium Schedule
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International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 1
CHARACTERISTICS OF STRANDS AND PULP FROM OIL PALM FRONDS AND
VETIVER ROOTS
Firda Aulya Syamani1*, Lilik Astari1, Subyakto1, Sukardi2, Ani Suryani2
1Research and Development Unit for Biomaterials, LIPI Jl. Raya Bogor Km 46, West Java, 16911, INDONESIA
2Department of Agroindustrial Technology, Bogor Agricultural University Jl. Raya Darmaga Kampus IPB Darmaga Bogor, West Java, 16680, INDONESIA
* Corressponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
Oil palm fronds (OPF) and distillated vetiver roots (dVR) are agricultural by products that would be the economically lignocellulosic resources. To extract cellulose from lignocellulosic materials, lignin and hemicellulose have to be separated by pulping and bleaching process. Cellulose fibres are potential to be utilized as reinforcing agent in composite materials. In this study, we investigate chemical properties of OPF and dVR strands. Then, effect of NaOH concentration, time and temperature of pulping on OPF and dVR ethanol-benzene extractive and lignin content were evaluated. The chemical composition of OPF and dVR strands were investigated according to TAPPI standard. Mechanical properties of the strands were evaluated using universal testing machine. The chemical analysis after pulping were also conducted. The ethanol-benzene extractive, lignin and cellulose contents of OPF determined in this work were similar to previous research results. The hollocellulose content shows that cellulose content in OPF strands of this study were slightly lower than those of cellulose content in OPF strands on previous studies. The ethanol-benzene extractive content in dVR strands were lower than those of undistillated vetiver root (VR). Distillation process which conducted at temperature of 160C and pressure of 5 bar for 16 hours, extracted essential oil from vetiver root and resulted a low ethanol-benzene extractive content. Cellulose content in dVR was 30.33%, similar with cellulose content in OPF which was 30.60%. The mechanical properties were also evaluated on OPF, VR and dVR strands. OPF strands exhibit higher tensile strength (76.17 MPa) than VR strands due to smaller fiber diameter. The OPF strands modulus of elasticity (19.18 GPa) was also higher than VR strands. However, OPF strands show lower elongation at break (0.64 %) than VR strands. These data indicate that OPF strands are strong, stiff but brittle. The VR strands modulus of elasticity before subjected to distillation process was lower than dVR strand. However, the maximum strain value and tensile strength of VR strands is higher than of dVR. These data indicate that dVR strands are weak and brittle. High temperature during distillation resulting an inferior dVR mechanical properties. Lignin and ethanol-benzene extractive in OPF and dVR were reduced after pulping. NaOH 10% degrade more lignin and ethanol-benzene extractive from OPF and dVR than NaOH 5%, within 2 hours pulping.
Keywords: Oil palm fronds, vetiver roots, alkaline pulping, chemical composition, mechanical
properties.
Introduction
Oil palm plantations in Indonesia develop rapidly due to high demand of edible oil along with the increasing of world population. The 7,824,623 hectares of Indonesia oil palm plantations [1], put Indonesia as the largest oil palm producer in the world. The expansion of oil palm production has generated enormous amounts of biomass by products, such as empty fruit bunches from oil palm industries and oil
palm fronds or trunks from oil palm plantations. In a year, oil palm plantation produces 10.4 tonnes/ha oil palm fronds [2]. Arise therefrom those information, approximately 81.32 millions tonnes oil palm fronds per ha are generated in a year from Indonesia oil palm plantation. Beside contribute to world oil palm production, Indonesia also a producer of essential oil from vetiver roots. The distillation process of vetiver roots set aside a large quantities of distillated vetiver root. Based on 2,318 hectares of vetiver
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plantations in Garut Regency (center of vetiver planting in Indonesia), productivity of 10 tonnes vetiver root/ha/yr and vetiver oil yield of 0.7% [3], there would be approximately 23,017 tonnes/yr of distillated vetiver root. These by products could create enviromental problems, unless being utilized to be value added products.
Oil palm fronds and distillated vetiver roots are agricultural by products that would be the economically lignocellulosic resources. To extract cellulose from lignocellulosic materials, lignin and hemicellulose have to be separated by pulping and bleaching process. Cellulose fibres are potential to be utilized as reinforcing agent in composite materials. In this study, we investigate chemical and mechanical properties of oil palm frond and vetiver root strands. Then, effect of NaOH concentration, time and temperature of pulping process on oil palm frond (OPF) and distillated vetiver root (dVR) extractive and lignin content were evaluated.
Materials and Methods
Oil palm fronds (OPF) were obtained from oil palm plantation in Sukabumi, West Java provence of Indonesia. The fronds were sun-dried then processed in ring flaker and screened to obtain fronds strands. Distillated vetiver roots (dVR) were obtained from essential oil industry in Garut regency, West Java provence of Indonesia. The vetiver roots were cut into fiber strands.
Chemical properties of OPF and dVR strands were evaluated for ethanol-benzene extractive, klason lignin, holocellulose and alpha-cellulose content. Whereas chemical properties of OPF and dVR pulp were evaluated for ethanol-benzene extractive and klason lignin content. For chemical composition determinition, OPF and dVR strands were grinded and 40 60 mesh fraction were selected. The sample were first submitted to soxhlet extraction with ethanol/benzene [1:2 (v/v)] solvent for 6 hours. The procedure were performed according to TAPPI methods T 204 om-88. Afterward, the contents of lignin and hollocellulose were determined following the TAPPI methods T 222 cm-88 and Wise’s
chlorite method respectively. Cellulose content was determined by the extraction of the
holocellulose with 17.5% sodium hydroxide. Hemicellulose content was determined by substracting cellulose content from the hollocellulose content [4].
Mechanical properties of oil palm fronds and vetiver roots strands (VR and dVR) were evaluated using Shimadzu universal testing machine at a cross-head speed of 1 mm/min. For preparing mechanical testing samples, each strand was separated from strands bundle, cut into 5 cm length and glued between cardboard. Strands diameter were evaluated using DinoCapture 2.0 optical microscopy. Five of diameter measurements were conducted for each strands.
The OPF strands and dVR were processed in ring flaker and were screened to obtain strands of 1 ~ 2 cm length. Afterward, the strands were washed and sun-dried, before being processed in digester (pulping). The ratios of liquor-to-materials were 8:1. The 5% and 10% NaOH solution (w/v) were used as liquor solutions. Pulping were conducted in 1 and 2 hours, while the temperature were 150oC, 160oC and 170oC.
Results and Discussion
Chemical characteristics of oil palm fronds and
distillated vetiver root strands
The chemical composition of OPF strands is presented in Table 1. Values obtained by previous researchers were also tabulated for comparison. The ethanol-benzene extractive, lignin and cellulose contents determined in this work were similar to previous research results. The lower hollocellulose content shows that cellulose content in OPF strands of this study were lower than those of cellulose content in OPF strands on previous studies [5,6,7].
The chemical composition of OPF is 1.5 – 3.0 times higher in hemicelluloses than in wood [9]. The hemicelluloses are generally combinations of sugars: mannose, xylose, arabinose, galactose, and glucose [10]. OPF does not contain high metal contents as widely thought, but contain high carbohydrates in the form of simple sugars [11]. OPF is significantly rich in noncellulosic polysaccharides, especially arabinoxylan; a large number of acetyl groups are substituted, probably to arabinoxylan [12].
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International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 3
Table 1. Oil Palm Frond Strands Chemical Properties Measurement References
[5] [6] [7] [8] Ethanol-Benzene extract (wt%) Lignin (wt%) Holocellulose (wt%) Cellulose (wt%) Hemicellulose (wt%) Ash (wt%)
1.80± 0.06 20.76 ± 1.57 53.73 ± 0.89 30.60 ± 1.05 23.86 ± 0.60
4.5 20.5 83.5 49.8
2.4
3.5 20.15 83.13 47.76
1.4 15.2 82.2 47.6
0.7
18.46 49.13 25.08 24.06
Hemicellulose is not a form of cellulose and
the name is a misnomer. They comprise a group of polysaccharides composed of a combination of 5- and 6-carbon ring sugars. Hemicellulose differs from cellulose in three aspects. Firstly, they contain several different sugar units whereas cellulose contains only 1,4–b-D-glucopyranose units. Secondly, they exhibit a considerable degree of chain branching containing pendant side groups giving rise to its non crystalline nature, whereas cellulose is a linear polymer. Thirdly, the degree of polymerization of native cellulose is 10–100 times higher than that of hemicellulose. The degree of polymerization (DP) of hemicellulose is around 50–300. Hemicelluloses form the supportive matrix for cellulose microfibrils. Hemicellulose is very hydrophilic, soluble in alkali and easily hydrolyzed in acids [13].
Lignin content of oil palm frond were detected in high level attributed to a significant amounts of hydroxybenzoic and hydroxycinnamic acids which were esterified to lignin in the walls of the oil palm frond [14]. The lignin of oil palm frond are substituted with hydroxybenzoic acids, mainly p-hydroxybenzoic acid with ester and ether linkages. However, these moieties should not be involved in lignin because of the definition of lignin derived from the biosynthetic pathway [15]. Native lignin has to be composed of -O-4 intermonomer linkages as the major intermonomer linkages, resulting in the radical coupling of hydroxycinnamyl alcohols[16].
In this study, OPF hollocellulose content is similar to reference [8], but different from references [5], [6], [7]. Although, there was no explaination about the age of oil palm trees which were the frond taken from, we assumed that the OPF hollocellulose content were influenced by the oil palm tree’s age and origin.
The chemical composition of dVR strands is presented in Table 2. Values obtained by previous researchers who evaluated chemical properties of undistillated vetiver root (VR) were also tabulated for comparison. The lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose contents determined in this work were similar to previous research results. The ethanol-benzene extractive content of dVR were lower than those of ethanol-benzene extractive content in VR strands on previous studies [17]. The dVR which were examined in this study had already processed in distillation tank at temperature of 160C and pressure of 5 bar for 16 hours. Distillation process extracted essential oil from vetiver root and resulted a low extractive content.
Commercial uses of vetiver grass mainly pertain to the extraction of vetiver oil through distillation of the roots. Vetiver oil has extensive applications in the soap and cosmetic industries, food flavoring and is also used as anti-microbial and anti-fungal agent in the pharmaceutical industry [18]. This oil is principally used in high class perfumery where its persistent odour makes it of great value as a fixative in admixture with other perfumes. Vetiver grass is also cultivated for the production of a commercially important essential oil used in perfumery and aromatherapy [19, 20, 21].
Vetiver root essential oil contain active compound as repellent agent such as khusimol, epizizanal, -vetivon, an -vetivon [22]. Active compound from extraction of distillated vetiver root using ethanol, have biolarvacide effectivity upon Anopheles sundaicus, Aedes aegypti and Culex sp. [23].
In this study, cellulose content in dVR was 30.33%, similar with cellulose content in OPF which was 30.60%. This cellulose is potential to be utilised as raw material to produce pulp and paper. Further fibrillation of cellulose from OPF and dVR will produce microfibrillated cellulose or nanofiber cellulose which can be used as reinforcing agent in composite materials.
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Mechanical characteristics of oil palm fronds
and vetiver root strands
The percentage of amorphous and crystalline components of natural fiber is a determining factor in the mechanical behaviour of natural fiber [24]. Of the three main component in the cell wall of fibers, i.e. cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, the cellulose which is a polymer consisting of D-anhydroglucose (C6H11O5), is responsible to the mechanical properties of fibers. Each repeating unit of cellulose molecule contains three hydroxyl groups. These hydroxyl groups and their ability to form hydrogen bond play a major role in directing the crystalline packing and also govern the physical properties of cellulose. Solid cellulose forms a microcrystalline structure with regions of high order i.e. crystalline regions and regions of low order i.e. amorphous regions [13]. The mechanical properties of oil palm fronds and vetiver root strands were presented in Table 3.
The average diameter of OPF strands was 0.66 mm and diameter of VR and dVR strands were 0.83 and 0.90 mm, respectively. Fibers with smaller diameter have higher tensile strength than those of wider fibers, when subjected to the the same load. OPF strands exhibit higher tensile strength (76.17 MPa) than VR strands due to smaller fiber diameter. The OPF strands modulus of elasticity (19.18 GPa) is also higher than VR strands. However, OPF strands show lower elongation at break (0.64 %) than VR strands. These data indicate that OPF strands are strong, stiff but brittle.
The VR strands modulus of elasticity before subjected to distillation process was lower than dVR strand. It means that stiffness of VR strands was lower than dVR strands. However, the maximum strain value and tensile strength of VR strands is higher than of dVR. These data indicate that dVR strands are weak and brittle. The characteristic of OPF and vetiver root strands stress-strain curve are presented in Figure 1.
Table 2. Vetiver Root Strands Chemical Properties Measurement References[17]
Ethanol-Benzene extract (wt%) Klason Lignin (wt%) Holocellulose (wt%) Cellulose (wt%) Hemicellulose (wt%)
9.32 ± 0.07 39.53 ± 0.45 44.73 ± 0.13 30.33 ± 0.14 14.65 ± 0.33
20.06 33.07
24.51 20.09
Table 3. Oil Palm Frond and Vetiver Root Strands Mechanical Properties OPF Strands Vetiver Root Strands
Before distillation After distillation Max_Force (N) Max_Strain (%) Tensile strength (N/mm2) Modulus elasticity (N/mm2)
26.54 ± 9.44 0.64 ± 0.16
76.17 ± 18.72 19177.20 ± 5006.34
23.29 ± 7.10 5.26 ± 2.85
45.92 ± 13.79 4474.64 ±1942.32
15.13 ± 6.93 3.12 ± 2.49
30.12 ± 13.80 4876.44 ± 3090.38
-17
80
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Str
ess(N
/mm
2)
0 71 2 3 4 5 6
Stroke Strain(%)
Figure 1. Stress-strain curve of oil palm frond and vetiver root strands
Oil palm frond strand
Vetiver strand
Distillated vetiver strand
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International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 5
High temperature and high pressure during long term (16 hours) of distillation process effected the mechanical properties of dVR strands, which is become brittle. Throughout the period of distillation, the degradation of chemical component occured by hydrolysis reaction. Extractive and hemicellulose components were the first to be degraded.
The degradation rate during thermal treatment was four times higher for hemicellulose than for cellulose and that the degradation rate for lignin was only half of that for cellulose at 150C. The degradation rate was higher for steaming and in the presence of air during heating than for dry condition and air-free conditions [25]. Extractive and Lignin Content of Oil Palm
Frond and distillated Vetiver Root Pulp
Oil palm frond and distillated vetiver root strands were subjected to alkaline pulping process in digester. The extractive and lignin
content of OPF and dVR pulp were then evaluated. OPF have high levels of arabinoxylan and pectic substances give low yield of pulp and high alkaline consumption in the presence of high concentration of esterified phenolics and acethyl groups during alkaline pulping [15].
The dissolution of lignin and extractives from the OPF strand in a caustic milieu could be achieved with ease, requiring a relatively short period of reaction time within the range of temperature and alkali concentration used (Figure 2 and 3). The reaction time, treatment temperature and alkaline concentration were not a significant factor to the degradation of extractive content in OPF and dVR pulp. While the treatment temperature and alkaline concentration gave a significant influence to the lignin content degradation of produced pulps. In this investigation, the used chemical agent (NaOH) is the only variable that gave direct impact on the pulp chemical properties.
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
1 h 2 h 1 h 2 h 1 h 2 h
150°C 160°C 170°C
Ex
tra
cti
ve (%
)
Pulping condition
NaOH 5% NaOH 10%
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
1 h 2 h 1 h 2 h 1 h 2 h
150°C 160°C 170°C
Ex
tra
cti
ve (%
)
Pulping condition
NaOH 5% NaOH 10%
Figure 2. Ethanol-Benzene extractive of oil palm frond (left) and vetiver root (right) pulp
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
1 h 2 h 1 h 2 h 1 h 2 h
150°C 160°C 170°C
Lig
nin
(%
)
Pulping condition
NaOH 5% NaOH 10%
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1 h 2 h 1 h 2 h 1 h 2 h
150°C 160°C 170°C
Lig
nin
(%
)
Pulping condition
NaOH 5% NaOH 10%
Figure 3. Lignin content of oil palm frond (left) and vetiver root pulp (right)
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Pulping temperature at 160oC, with 10% NaOH solution (w/v) as cooking liquor within 2 hours was the most effective condition to degrade extractive and lignin in OPF pulp. The extractive degradation for OPF pulp and dVR pulp were 77.78% and 81.33%, respectively. While, the lignin degradation for OPF pulp and dVR pulp were 87.24% and 80.60%, respectively.
The treatment temperature accelerates the alkali reaction in dissolving the lignin and carbohydrates from the raw material; it exerts no direct influence on the properties of the produced pulp. The pulp chemical composition is in fact affected by the alkali action that causes delignificaton, hydrolysis of carbohydrates and swelling of the fiber matrix. Even at low temperature sodium hydroxide could significantly modify the nature of the material [26]. Similarly, the treatment time maintains the chemical reaction and has no direct influence in determining the characteristics of the produced pulp.
Conclusion
Tensile strength of OPF strands were higher
than VR strands. High temperature during distillation resulting an inferior dVR strands mechanical properties. Lignin and extractive in OPF and dVR were reduced after pulping process. NaOH 10% degrade more lignin and extractive from oil palm frond and vetiver root fiber than NaOH 5%, within 2 hours pulping.
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[6] R. Hashim,W.N. A. Wan Nadhari, O. Sulaiman, F. Kawamura, S. Hiziroglu, M. Sato, T. Sugimoto, T.G. Seng, R. Tanaka, 2011, Characterization of raw materials and manufactured binderless particleboard from oil palm biomass. Materials and Design 32:246–254.
[7] W.D. Wan Rosli, Z. Zainuddin, K.N. Law, R. Asro, 2007, Pulp from oil palm fronds by chemical processes. Industrial Crops and Products 25: 89–94.
[8] H.T. Tan, K.T. Lee, A.R. Mohamed, 2011, Pretreatment of lignocellulosic palm biomass using a solvent-ionic liquid [BMIM]Cl for glucose recovery: An optimisation study using response surface Methodology. Carbohydrate Polymers 83:1862–1868.
[9] N. Laemsak, M. Okuma, 2000, Development of boards made from oil palm frond II: properties of binderless boards from steam-exploded fibers of oil palm frond. J Wood Sci 46:322-326.
[10] H.L. Spiegelberg, 1966, The effect of hemicelluloses on the mechanical properties of individual pulp fibers. Thesis of Doctor of Philosophy from Lawrence University, Appleton, Wisconsin
[11] M.A.K. Mohd Zahari, M.R. Zakaria, H. Ariffin, M.N. Mokhtar, J. Salihon, Y. Shirai, M.A. Hassan, 2012, Renewable sugars from oil palm frond juice as an alternative novel fermentation feedstock for value-added products. Bioresource Technology 110 (2012) 566–571.
[12] S. Suzuki, H. Shintani, S.Y. Park, N. Laemsak, M. Okuma, K. Liyama, 1998, Preparation of binderless boards from steam exploded pulps of oil palm (Elaeis
guneensis Jacq.) fronds and structural characteristics of lignin and wall polysaccharides in steam exploded pulps to be discussed for self-bondings. Holzforschung 52:417-426.
[13] M.J. John, S. Thomas, 2008, Review: Biofibres and biocomposites. Carbohydrate Polymers 71 (2008) 343–364.
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[14] S. Suzuki, T.B.T Lam, K. Iiyama, 1997, 5-Hydroxyguaiacyl nuclei as an aromatic constituent of native lignin. Phytochemistry 46:695-700.
[15] K. Iiyama, T.B.T. Lam, P.J. Meikle, K. Ng, D. Rhodes, B.A. Stone, 1993, Cell wall biosynthesis and its regulation. In: Jung HJ, Buxton DR, Hatfield RD, Ralph J (eds.) Forage cell wall structure and digestibility. American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, Soil Science Society of America, Madison, WI, pp 621-683.
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8 ISSN 2088-9127
BIOPULPING OF BAMBOO USING WHITE-ROT FUNGI
Schizophyllum Commune
Fitria, Riksfardini Annisa Ermawar, Widya Fatriasari*, Triyani Fajriutami,
Dede Heri Yuli Yanto, Faizatul Falah, Euis Hermiati
Research and Development Unit for Biomaterials, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), INDONESIA
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
In this study, we investigated the use of white-rot fungi Schizophyllum commune as delignification agent in biopulping of bamboo. The influence of S. commune in the pulping process of two bamboos, kuning bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris) and betung bamboo (Dendrocalamus asper ), has been observed. S. commune inoculated-bamboo chips with ±1.6 cm in length were incubated for 2 and 4 weeks and then cooked using open hot-soda pulping. Process condition was arranged by using active alkali 25% of 1000 g targeted oven-dried weight of chips, followed by pulping the chips for 2 h at 100˚C targeted temperature with liquor-to-wood ratio of 10:1. This process was then continued by defibration process using beater hollander for 45 min. Analysis was performed on total pulp yield (TAPPI 210 cm-93), kappa number (TAPPI 236 cm-85) and delignification selectivity (ratio of carbohydrate and residual lignin in pulp). The result showed that different incubation periods gave different pulp yields for these two bamboos. It can be seen that the use of S. commune in the pulping process of bamboo seems to have insignificant effect. It increased a small amount of pulp yield of kuning bamboo but it did not increase that of betung bamboo. The positive effects of the fungi on other parameters of pulp properties, i.e. kappa number and delignification selectivity, could not be observed as well.
Keywords: biopulping, betung bamboo, kuning bamboo, Schizophyllum commune, open hot-soda
pulping
Introduction
Application of environmentally friendly technology on the utilization of natural resources has become a trend and necessity as the world facing the threat of global warming. Pulp and paper industry is commonly known as one of some major industries that have significant contribution to environmental damage due to their toxic wastes. In order to overcome this condition, new production processes have been improved to replace conventional processes so that they can eliminate, or at least minimize harmful impact to the environment. As a result, a method called biopulping has been introduced.
Biopulping involves the application of lignin-degrading fungi prior to pulping [1]. In this process, pulping that is usually conducted by using a great amount of chemicals and energy, is carried out with the help of biological pretreatment, using either enzymes or microorganisms itself; hence chemicals and
energy consumption can be reduced while at the same time it can also improve fiber bonding. This bio-treatment can facilitate the pulping process by degrading the lignin using ligninolytic enzymes produced by certain microorganisms.
Lignin content of pulp raw material has to be minimized since it can lower pulp quality particularly by inhibiting the activity of cellulose and hemicellulose to form inter-fiber bonding during beating process, which resulted in poorer physical properties and darker pulp. More over, high lignin content will increase the consumption of chemicals in cooking liquor and require longer beating or refining period. Therefore, the degradation of lignin in raw material of pulp is very important, and this can be carried out through the application of white-rot fungi.
Pulping process is mainly conducted through chemical and mechanical processes. Chemical cooking with alkali or open hot soda pulping does not only reduce the content of
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lignin of the biomass but also reduces the holocelluloses, even potentially causes degradation of the important holocelluloses if high concentrated chemicals are used. Fungal treatment prior to alkali cooking is expected to facilitate delignification process using lignin selective fungi, reduce degradation of holocellulose as well as the concentration of chemicals of cooking liquor and save more energy due to reduction of beating period.
Fungal treatment in pulping process has been investigated by the application of various species of white rot fungi. Among the numerous fungi so far isolated, a white rot fungus, Ceriporiopsis subvermispora, is characterized as one of the best biopulping fungi that can degrade lignin without intensive damage of cellulose [2]. Some other white rot i.e. Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Trametes
hirsute, Trametes versicolor, and Pleurotus
ostreatus were also reported to improve pulp properties [4, 5, 6, 7]. Meanwhile, another white rot fungi Schizophyllum commune has also been investigated on its efficacy in biopulping and was mentioned to selectively degrade lignin rather than the holocellulose component in Syzygium cumini wood [8]. On the other hand, S. commune has also been applied in the process of deinking and biobleaching in pulp and paper industries [9, 10].
Some patents related to the usage of S.
commune in biopulping showed that this fungi can reduce the pitch (wood extractives or a resinous material) content of pulps and pulp woods used in making cellulosic products [11] and another patent [12] also showed that S.
commune can be used to degrade lignin in pulp, so that electrical energy can be saved during refining of pulp and pulpwoods, while S.
commune also happened to grow well on non-sterile materials.
Based on previous study [13], kuning and betung bamboos have morphological, physical and chemical characteristics that are more suitable as pulp and paper raw material than those of the other four bamboos investigated (tali, andong, ampel and hitam). Though the other species of white rot fungi had been applied in bio-treatment on bamboos, the selectivity of S.commune as lignin degrading fungi on bamboo has not been observed yet. Therefore, in this research, biological treatment using S. commune has been conducted prior to chemical treatment (open hot soda pulping) and
mechanical treatment (beating using beater Hollander) on the two selected bamboos, kuning and betung.
Materials and Methods
Bamboo
Kuning and betung bamboos obtained from Gunung Sindur, Bogor were pressed and cut into chips with ± 1.6 cm in length. These cut chips were stored in freezer to prevent the growth of contaminant microorganisms. A day prior to fungal treatment, the bamboos were taken out of the freezer and thawed at room temperature. After this, the bamboos were heated with open steam for 30 min to reduce fungal contamination and to soften the bamboos.
Inoculum stock preparation
Mycelia of S. commune grown on agar slant (10.65 g MEA was diluted in 300 ml aquadest) for 7 days was transferred into 50 ml liquid medium (JIS-modified medium) in a 100 ml Erlenmeyer and incubated for 7 days. Following this, the grown fungi and the medium were blended with 50 ml sterile water. This mixture was called inoculum stock. To inoculate 500 g oven-dried bamboo, 50 ml inoculum stock was mixed with 125 ml sterile water and 5 g corn steep liquor as nitrogen source. This mixture was kept overnight for conditioning the fungi in its new medium. In the following day, the inoculums were poured onto the bamboos. These bamboo samples were incubated at room temperature for 2 and 4 weeks.
Pulping of bamboos and pulp analysis
The bamboo chips that have been incubated for certain weeks were cooked using open hot soda pulping. The cooking condition was as follows: active alkali 25% of 1000 g targeted oven-dried weight of chips, followed by cooking the chips for 2 h at 100˚C targeted
temperature with liquor-to-wood ratio of 10:1. Moisture content of chips after fungal treatment was measured to determine sample weight for cooking. After cooking process, the chips were cleanly washed to remove the cooking liquor and continued by beating/refining process using beater Hollander for 45 min and finally were rinsed and collected on a 60-mesh screen. After beating, the total yield, kappa number and delignification selectivity (ratio of carbohydrate
10 ISSN 2088-9127
and residual lignin in pulp) of the pulp were measured using standard procedures of TAPPI 210 cm-93 (total yield) and TAPPI 236 cm-85 (kappa number) [14].
Results and Discussion
Pulp yield
Total yield was used to predict the amount of pulp produced from certain number of cooked feedstock. The yield can be used to determine pulping process efficiency where the higher the yield, the more effective pulping process is. The data in Table 1 shows that cooking yield falls in the range of 55.80-69.61%. The low yield could be due to the impact of the use of relatively high concentrated cooking liquor (sodium hydroxide) that reached 25%. This high concentration of cooking liquor can cause more cellulose chain fraction to degrade, especially the reactive amorphous part or cellulose with low polymerization degree and lead to more hemicelluloses to dissolve. Besides that, the possibility of high proportion of parenchyma cells within bamboo whose cells were easily degraded might also be the reason [7]. Meanwhile, in the pulping process, there was no cleavage on β aryl ether bond position [15,
16], which caused the lignin fragmentation activity was lower than that of other processes. On the other hand, this result was also affected by beating process that was not optimum, producing high amount of damaged fibers. Basically, the use of sodium hydroxide as cooking liquor was aimed to soften the lignin, so that fiber separation can be achieved easily. However, in the lignin softening process, some of the components (lignin, hemicelluloses and cellulose) were dissolved, thus, affected the produced yield. Furthermore, the poor performance of beater Hollander resulted in the repetition of beating process to get finer pulp, which potentially lowers the yield after beating process. The lower yield is caused by losing the pulp that is lost during transfer process from inlet and outlet of the beater in beating repetition.
In spite of the low pulp yield of biopulping compared to semi-chemical pulping, kuning
bamboo incubated for 4 weeks gave higher yield than that of the control treatment and the sample incubated for 2 weeks. This might be due to the ability of the fungi to degrade and cleavage the lignin polymer, so that the longer the incubation period, the more lignin was degraded. This results in softer cell wall that leads to better refining, which eventually increases the yield. However, this result contradicts with that of fungal-treated betung bamboo. In Table 1 it can be seen that the fungal treated betung bamboo has lower yield than that of the control treatment. Since betung bamboo has high silica and ash contents and also thicker cell walls (Table 2), this can make the fungi difficult to penetrate the cell walls in order to make intense attack on the holocellulose. Thus, it resulted in lower yield.
Fungi have two types of extracellular enzymatic systems; the hydrolytic system, which produces hydrolases that are responsible for polysaccharide degradation, and a unique oxidative and extracellular ligninolytic system, which degrades lignin and opens phenyl rings [17]. This might be one of the reasons that cause the hollocellulose was also dissolved when fungal treatment was carried out.
White-rot fungi belong to the group of Basidiomycetes that has a potential to break down the lignin in the cell walls. There are three types of white-rot fungi, which respectively act to (1) decompose all wood components essentially uniformly; (2) remove the lignin at a faster rate than the carbohydrates during early decay stages; and (3) remove initially the carbohydrates somewhat more rapidly than lignin while amorphous carbohydrates are decomposed slightly faster than crystalline cellulose during the white-rot decay [18]. However, it is mentioned that the effect of white-rot in the chemical composition of woods show variation which appeared to depend more on the wood being decayed than the fungus involved, unlike the effect of brown rot fungi which seems to have similar effects on all woods [19]. Therefore, since the chemical composition of kuning and betung bamboos are quite different, the effect of S. commune treatment on them might differ greatly.
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Table 1. Average pulp yield of bamboo from biopulping process using S. commune
Treatment Average total yield (%) Kuning bamboo Betung bamboo
Control 60.46 69.61
Incubation period (weeks) 2 60.69 55.80 4 63.30 58.33
Kappa number and delignification selectivity
Kappa number of pulp is related to the degree of delignification of the pulp. This number could be used for the comparison of lignin content among treatments. Pulp with good delignification degree will give lower kappa number. Fungal treatment is expected to give significant effect on bamboo pulp’s kappa
number, with longer incubation period results in lower kappa number as the longer period is assumed to allow more time on lignin degradation activity to take place.
In Table 3, it can be seen that there are different results of the two bamboos given S.
commune pretreatment. On kuning bamboo, this seems to be insignificant on lowering kappa number while the results conflicts with that of betung bamboo which shows the increase of kappa number. Incubation period did not seem to have significant effect on kappa number of kuning bamboo pulp but it tended to increase the kappa number of betung bamboo’s pulp.
As mentioned above, in longer incubation period, the fungus tends to degrade more lignin in kuning bamboo, that results in lower kappa number. However, in betung bamboo, as its chemical properties is different from that of kuning bamboo, the fungus might degrade the hollocellulose better than the lignin. The silica and ash contained in betung bamboo inhibit the fungal attack to the thicker cell walls, which make the fungus find it easier to degrade the holocellulose rather than the lignin component. Study of biological pretreatment of Eucalyptus chips with Schizophyllum commune shows promising results with 14.72% of lignin loss within 28 days, which can provide an insight to find out economically feasible conditions to commercialize biopulping in a large scale [20].
Delignification selectivity is the comparison of carbohydrate and lignin content in the pulp. This parameter is a measurement of pulping process effectiveness which involves fungi performance. High value of selectivity means that fungi selectively attack lignin to give a high content of carbohydrate and low content of lignin in
pulp. Table 4 shows the selectivity of lignin degradation on betung bamboo was higher than that of kuning bamboo. This result could be due to the thicker cell walls of betung bamboo, which make it difficult for the fungus to penetrate to the cell walls, and resulted in not many cell wall components are able to be degraded. Since betung bamboo has lower lignin content than does kuning bamboo, thus its selectivity is higher than that of kuning bamboo. Even though kuning bamboo has thinner cell walls, its lignin content is higher, so that it is resulted in lower selectivity. Fungal treatment on kuning bamboo pulping does not seem to have impact on delignification selectivity. However, it does have a slight impact on betung bamboo pulping, which gave lower selectivity as the longer incubation period takes place.
Needless to say that there were several weaknesses of this research due to the limitation of equipment used for cooking and beating that put many delays in the pulp making. This condition could have unwanted effect but still the result is expected to give an insight of biopulping advantages compared to chemi-mechanical process alone. Further research is needed to confirm this result.
Conclusions
The results of this research show that the yield of biopulping of kuning and betung bamboos using S. commune ranges between 55.80 and 69.61%. Pulp yield of betung bamboo tends to be lower than that of kuning bamboo. Incubation period also affects pulp yield of both bamboos. Kappa numbers ranges between 29.96 and 36.29 while delignification selectivity falls between 20.22 and 24.70. The use of S.
commune on biopulping process of kuning and betung bamboos seems to have insignificant effect on pulp yield of kuning bamboo.
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Table 2. Fiber morphology and physical-chemical properties of Kuning and Betung bamboos [13] Properties Kuning bamboo Betung bamboo
Fiber morphology Fiber length (mm) 2.641 4.693 Fiber diameter (mm) 0.021 0.025 Lumen Diameter (mm) 0.008 0.007 Cell wall thickness (mm) 0.007 0.009
Physical properties Density 0.72 0.51 Color white-yellow white-yellow
Chemical properties Solubility in ethanol-benzene (%) 1.52 0.91 Lignin (%) 35.19 30.20 Holocellulose (%) 83.75 83.80 Ash (%) 2.37 4.63 Silica (%) 1.05 3.91
Table 3. Average kappa number of bamboo pulp pretreated with S. commune
Treatment Average kappa number Kuning bamboo Betung bamboo
Control 36.29 29.96
Incubation period (weeks) 2 35.34 30.62 4 35.48 35.23
Table 4. Average value of delignification selectivity of bamboo pulps treated with S. commune
Treatment Average delignification selectivity Kuning Bamboo Betung Bamboo
Control 20.22 24.70
Incubation period (weeks) 2 20.79 24.16 4 20.78 20.84
References
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Industrial Biotechnology in Tropical
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[4] W. Fatriasari, R.A. Ermawar, F. Falah, D.H.Y. Yanto, D.T.N. Adi, S.H. Anita, E. Hermiati, 2009, Kraft and soda pulping of white rot pretreated Betung bamboo, Jurnal
Ilmu dan Teknologi Kayu Tropis, 9 (1)42-55.
[5] W. Fatriasari, R.A. Ermawar, F. Falah, D.H.Y. Yanto, E. Hermiati, 2009, Pulping soda panas terbuka bambu betung dengan praperlakuan fungi pelapuk putih (Pleurotus ostreatus dan Trametes
versicolor), Jurnal Ilmu dan Teknologi
Hasil Hutan, 2(2) 67-72. [6] W. Fatriasari, S.H. Anita, F. Falah, D.T.N.
Adi, E. Hermiati, 2010, Biopulping bambu Betung menggunakan kultur campur jamur pelapuk putih (Trametes versicolor,
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[7] F. Falah, W. Fatriasari, R.A. Ermawar, D.T.N. Adi, E. Hermiati, E, 2012, Effect of corn steep liquor amount on biochemical pulping of betung bamboo (soda and kraft) using Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Jurnal Ilmu dan Teknologi Hasil Hutan, (in press).
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[8] A. Padhiar, S. Albert, 2011, Anatomical changes in Syzygium cumuini Linn. wood decayed by two white rot fungi Schizophyllum commune Fries. and Flavodon flavus (Klotzsch) Ryvarden, J.
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[9] K. Selvam, M.S. Priya, 2012, Biological treatment of pulp and paper industry effluent by white rot fungi Schizophyllum
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Biological Archives, 3(1) 121-126. [10] S. Prasongsuk, P. Lotrakul, T. Imai, H.
Punnapayak, 2009, Decolourization of pulp mill wastewater using thermotolerant white rot fungi, ScienceAsia, 35 (2009) 37–41.
[11] R.A. Blanchette, R.L. Farrell, S. Iverson, 1995, Pitch degradation with white rot fungi, U.S. Patent 5,476,790, filed November 3, 1994, and issued December 19, 1995.
[12] R.A. Blanchette, S. Iverson, C.J. Behrendt, 1998, Pitch and lignin degradation with white rot fungi, U.S. Patent 5,705,383, filed September 29, 1995, and issued January 6, 1998.
[13] W. Fatriasari, E. Hermiati, 2008, Analisis morfologi serat dan sifat fisis-kimia pada enam jenis bambu sebagai bahan baku pulp
dan kertas, Jurnal Ilmu dan Teknologi Hasil
Hutan, 1(2) 67-72. [14] TAPPI. 1993. “Kappa Number of Pulp”.
The Pulp Properties Committe of the Process and Product Quality Division.
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[16] E. Sjostrom, 1981, Wood chemistry: fundamentals and applications. Second ed. Academic Press, San Diego, USA.
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Biotechnology Advances, (27) 185–194. [18] M. Ohkoshi, A. Kato, K. Suzuki, N.
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14 ISSN 2088-9127
THE RESISTANCE OF POLYSTYRENE TREATED-
Sandoricum koetjape AND Durio zibethinus WOODS
AGAINST DECAYING FUNGI AND TERMITES
Widya Fatriasari*, Anis S. Lestari, A. Heru Prianto, Firda A. Syamani
Research and Development Unit for Biomaterials LIPI, Jl Raya Bogor KM 46 Cibinong 16911 Indonesia
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
The study was aimed to investigate the resistance of styrene monomer impregnation of
Sandoricum koetjape and Durio zibethinus woods initiated by K2S2O8 (sodium peroxodisulfat) against termite and fungi. The wood specimens were vacuumed for 30 minutes, pressurized at 10 atmospheres for 1 hour, and put in to the closed pressure device for 15 minutes. The wood specimens were wrapped in an aluminum foil and heated at 600C for 24 hours to allow in situ polymerization. Styrene treated-woods were then subjected to brown rot fungus (Fomitopsis polustris) and white rot fungus (Trametes versicolor) according to Japanese Industrial Standard of wood preservation evaluation (JIS K 1571 2004). Wood specimens were also bioassayed against dry wood (Cryptotermes sp) and subterranean termites (Coptotermes sp) in accordance with Indonesian standard to determine its termite resistance. The investigation revealed that styrene monomer treated-woods demonstrated an increase in its decay fungi and termite durability. Especially the treated-durian wood which had below to 3% of weight loss and approved could with stand from white rot infestation. Keywords: styrene impregnation, Durio zibethinus, Sandoricum koetjape, termite resistance, fungi
resistance
Introduction
In the recent years, natural forest deforestation causes inadequate wood supply towards the wood national demand required by forestry industries which reach around 63.48 million m3 per year [1]. Since 2000s the log production was only gathered from plantation forests instead of natural forests [2]. The log decrease could be by the substitution of fast growing species woods planted in plantation areas and community forests [3]. The rate of community forest harvested- wood was estimated about 7 million m3 per year, included in1.568.415 ha of forest coverage area [4]. In addition the large harvest of juvenile woods cause the below standard of mature wood quality [5,4], for instance lower durability and strength consequently the fast growing species woods were categorized in durability list as the wood grade II-V [6]. Kecapi and durian woods cut down from community forests have been utilized for various purposes for example housing and interior materials, furniture, finger joint, composites, packaging or pulp and paper
[7,8]. Durian wood is categorized in the durable list of wood classification as poorly resistant to very poorly resistant (grade IV-V), while kecapi wood included in poorly resistant wood (grade IV) [9]. For long term application, chemical modification of wood for preservation purposes, for instance impregnation is categorized as a non toxic technique to enhance their physical-mechanical properties, and biological resistance against deteriorated organisms [10].
A chemical that react with hydroxyl (OH) group in the wood cell wall to form a stable chemical bond without producing byproducts, is a good swelling chemical and will facilitate the wood penetration [11]. Styrene monomers can be used as a filling agent in or between wood’s
tissues such as the cell lumen, capillaries, cell cavities, hollow-wood cells. The subsequent process will let styrene polymerization to occur in situ in order to form cross linking compounds in producing wood plastic composite [12,13,10,14]. The chemical bond of wood will not to divert due to styrene impregnation [10]. Wood polymerization can be enhanced by both catalyst agents for example vazo or peroxide,
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heat and radiation treatments [14,13]. The changes in wood’s substrate that caused by
deteriorated biological organisms are mainly occurred at the cell wall component-hydroxyl group without enzymatic reactions [15].
The application of styrene monomer impregnation on wood and non wood materials with various combinations of techniques, catalyst and crosslinker agents have been reported in several studies. The styrene treated-bamboo had been investigated by [16,17], pine wood impregnation conducted by [11,18,20,21,22, and 23] and rubber wood impregnated by [12,21,22]. Impregnation of poplar wood [13] and populous wood [23] had been studied as well. In addition, the impregnation research of angsana and kapok [16], rambutan [18,19], sengon [24,21,22], african wood [24], mindi and sugi [25], palm wood [26], Alnus glutinosa, Populus
maximowiczii, Salix alba [20] and Eugenia sp had also been reported [27]. The impregnation treatment of five wood species from Syria had also been done [28]. In general, these studies investigated the changes in mechanical-physical and thermal properties, as well as the biological resistance against brown rot, white rot, subterranean and dry wood termites and also marine borer-beetles. The improvement in physical-mechanical and thermal properties and biological resistance as well of styrene-impregnated wood has been revealed in these studies. The different result of these studies depends on the wood species, treatment condition, catalyst agents, or the types and concentration of styrene polymerization crosslinking [29].
Our previous study focused on the styrene impregnation that initiated by potassium peroxodisulphate towards durian and kecapi woods had been performed to investigate their physical-mechanical and dielectric properties. The polymer loading of durian styrene was higher than kecapi’s [30], we assumed that the
durian styrene woods will more resistance to termite and fungi attack than kecapi woods. Termites and fungi can cause extensive damages both on wood and wood composite products made from non-durable wood species based on the data of its weight loss. This study was aimed to determine the effects of styrene impregnation towards the biological resistance against decay fungi (brown and white rot) as well as termites (dry-wood and subterranean termites), and to evaluate the difference of its resistance patterns.
Materials and Methods
Material Preparations
Wood specimens namely Sandoricum
koetjape (kecapi) and Durio zibethinus (durian) were collected from Bogor and treated with styrene monomer impregnation. The sample size of wood specimens for the resistance evaluation of fungi attack was 2 x 2 x 1 cm (length x width x thickness). The wood sample for the laboratory scale and grave yield test against subterranean termites measured 2.5 x 2 x 0.8 cm and 20 x 2 x 0.8 cm respectively, while the sample size of dry wood termite testing was 5 x 2 x 0.8 cm. They were then dried to obtain the moisture content below to 10%. The replication of biological properties testing was 5 times. Impregnation and polymerization reaction
Before the application, the styrene monomer solution (2 L) was blended with an initiator agent Potassium peroxodisulfat (K2S2O8) by 0.5% of the volume of styrene monomer. Air dried wood specimens were initially vacuumed for 30 minutes and then impregnated with styrene monomer solution. Pressure at 10 atm were applied for 1 hour followed by the final vacuum lasted for 15 minutes. Wood samples were wrapped in aluminum foil and put in to the oven with temperature 60 ± 2 0C for 24 hours to remove residual styrene monomer and then to be conditioned for 1 week at room temperature.
Fungi Inoculum Preparations
Wood decay fungi namely white rot (Trametes versicolor) and brown rot fungi (Fomitopsis polustris) were used in the evaluation of wood resistance against decay fungi. Each fungi was cultured on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) slant for ± 7 days, subsequenlty they were inoculated into the test bottles that contain silica sand and JIS media inside. Fungi were allowed to grow for ± 10-12 days until its mycelium cover the whole sand surface in the test bottles.
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Media Preparations
The media (JIS media) commonly used to grow a basidiomycetes group of fungi is referred to Japan Industrial Standard (JIS).The media composition comprises 3 g of KH2PO4, 2 g of MgSO4.7H2O, 25 g of glukosa, 5 g of peptone, and 10 g of malt extract by in to which 1000 ml aquades were added. Approximately 45 ml of JIS media liquid was poured into a test bottle containing 150 g of quartz sand followed by media sterilization using an autoclave at 121 0C of temperature and 1 atm of pressure for 20 minutes.
Method of wood resistance evaluation
The testing method to evaluate the resistance of wood against decay fungi based on the modified method of JIS K 1571 testing standards [31] presented by Fig.1. Sterilized untreated and styrene treated-wood samples were dried at 600C for 3 days, and then weighed (WBF). They subsequently were sterilized prior they were inoculated in to the test bottles in which fungi mycelium have covered its sand surface and then incubated for ± 2 months at room temperature. At the end of incubation periods, samples were brushed to clean the wood attaching-mycelium, then the clean wood samples were dried at temperature of 600C for 3 days and lastly, to be measured to determine the final weight loss after they were exposed against fungi (WAF).The testing result obtained from the weight loss data of samples. The calculation of weight loss was based on the formulation described as follows:
WL = Weight Loss (%) WBF = Weight samples before fungi testing (g) WAF = Weight samples after fungi testing
(g)
Sample test to subterranean (Coptotermes
sp) termites and dry-wood (Cryptotermes
sp) termites
Samples were exposed to subterranean termites (Coptotermes sp) (Figure 2a) and dry-wood (Cryptotermes sp) (Figure 2b) termites based on SNI (Indonesian national standard) method) [32]. In this method (Fig.3a), untreated and styrene treated- woods were dried at 600C for 3 days, and then weighed (W0), and then was placed in a glass bottle and set in an upright and leaning position in order to be managed to touch the widest part of the glass wall (Figure 3). Two hundred grams of sand put in to the testing bottles. Subsequently, to obtain by 25% moisture content, 50 ml of water was addedand technically given to the side of the samples. Around 200 of the worker caste of termites was entered into the bottle following by sealing the lids with aluminum foil and few little holes were made for air circulation purpose. These testing bottles were placed in a large container which then stored in a dark place for 4 weeks. At the end of incubation periods, samples were cleaned from the remaining sand, then oven dried at same condition (600C for 3 days) and weighted to obtain the final weight after termite exposure (W1). In addition, samples were also tested their resistance to subterranean termites on grave yard scale test for 6 months.
Regarding the dry-wood termites test (Fig 3b), cylindrical plastic tubes were measured 2 cm in diameter and 3 cm in height were placed on the top of treated woods. Twenty termites workers of Cryptotermes sp were entered into cylindrical tubes, then placed in a large container which then stored in a dark place for 3 months. At the end of test, weight loss of paper discs were measured.
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International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 17
Figure 1. The white rot and brown rot fungi testing of untreated and styrene treated-wood
Figure 2a. Coptotermes sp
Figure 2b. Cryptotermes sp
Figure 3. Wood resistance test to subterranean termites attack based on SNI method [32]
Figure 3b.Wood resistance test to dry-wood termites based on SNI method [32]
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Calculation of the weight loss (the weight difference between before and post treatment of feeding test) was described as follows:
WL = Weight Loss (%) W0 = oven dried samples before feeding test
(g) W1 = oven dried samples after feeding test (g)
Determination of the durable grade sample on the laboratory-scale test to subterranean termites according to the classification of SNI standard, is presented in Table 1.
Results and Discussions
The resistance of styrene treated-wood
against white rot and brown rot fungi
Styrene treated wood had better resistant after were exposed against white rot and brown rot fungi than the untreated wood (Table 2), however impregnated kecapi wood showed the opposite result after were testto brown rot fungi. The decrease pattern of weight loss of impregnated-durian wood after the exposure of white rot fungi and brown rot fungi compared to the untreated samples can be seen by 76.26% and 76.68% respectively. The same results were also reported by previous studies which have exposed the styrene treated-wood against white rot and brown rot fungi in the varying levels [21, 23, 13,24,28]. Polymerized wood has slightly better resistance against white rot than brown rot fungi. The assumption of better performance of styrene treated-durian wood compared to kecapi’s was due to the
highly polymer loading that caused the improvement of its physical properties. Monomer styrene bulking in the void or pores tended to impede the water diffusion of wood and improve the higroscopysity of impregnated wood [30] afterwards it can be serve as physical barriers of the fungi hyphae to penetrate the axial system of
wood [33]. Nevertheless, fungi are considered by the impregnated wood as its food because the styrene treated-wood was inadequately toxic to the fungi; the persistence of weight loss perhaps happen was due to this phenomenon [12].
The shifting styrene monomer to the hydroxyl groups changes the chemical structures of wood, whereas in this site enzymatic action was occurred. The decreasing capacity of water absorption on the impregnated wood also justifies the wood resistance against bacteria for instance Bacillus spp. [34]. Weight loss is resulted from the loss of the chemical components in wood cell wall mainly the holocellulose, in addition depolymerization of lignin and its metabolism. The vary rates of cell wall components utilization by white rot fungi was affected by enzymatic process [35]. White rot fungi secrete ligninase enzymes to degrade lignin polymer [36]. The destruction model of the wood-cell walls caused by decay fungi was shown by Figure 4.
The resistance of styrene treated-wood
against subterranean and dry-wood
termites
The styrene treated-wood showed an increase resistance to subterranean termites’ exposure on the laboratory and grave yard scale test. It refers to a decrease trend in the weight loss of impregnated samples (Table 3). Impregnated woods are more resistant to the infestation of subterranean termites both on the laboratory and grave yard scale test compared to the untreated ones. The mortality of subterranean termites that were infested to the styrene impregnated - kecapi and durian woods were 4.5 % and 29.17%, respectively, whereas mortality of the untreated ones were 61.67% and 54.5%. According to the SNI standard (Table 1) including the grade list of the wood qualification, there is a level improvement of resistance on styrene treated kecapi wood, yet durian wood seems to be incapable to show the similar condition after impregnation process. The styrene treated-
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woods tend to be unfavoured by termites and the styrene impregnation process is able to prevent termite infestation effectively. The possible justification is the bulk of styrene monomer in void or pores, lead to the loss of termite ability to digest wood component as their food. This condition afflicts termites to face their dead. In spite of that the higher polymer loading (PL) of styrene treated-durian wood compared to kecapi’s [30] assumed that styrene treated-woods have greater resistance than kecapi’s.
The effect of cross-linking, bulking or a combination of chemical compounds modification is often assumed as the effectiveness attributes in improving the biological resistance of woods. The role of cell wall component hydroxyl compound
group is not only to absorb water but also to provide condition to allow biological enzymatic reaction [22]. The substrate-chemical structure shifting cause inhibition of termites’ feeding activity.since polystyrene leads to wood hardening and makes the termites unable to penetrate into the lumen cell wall to digest the wood [19]. The results are matched with Hadi et al’s
[19,21] which reported that the polystyrene modification of wood increases biological resistance to termites and marine borer battles. The research also predicts that the influential factor is the level of polymer loading (PL) in polymerization process. The high PL is expected to provide a high resistance against the infestation of termites.
Table 1. The classification of sample durability based on its weight reduction
Durability grade of Wood
Weight loss interval (%) Resistance classification
I < 3.521 highly resistant II 3.521-7.502 resistant III 7.502-10.961 moderately resistant IV 10.961-19.938 poorly resistant V 19.938-31.891 very poorly resistant
Table 2. Resistance of several impregnated wood to fungi
Wood Species
Weight loss after White rot fungi exposure
Weight loss after Brown rot fungi exposure Reference Untreated
Wood Impregnated
Wood Untreated
Wood Impregnated
Wood Durian 12.13 2.88 15.14 3.53 Kecapi 16.75 10.13 13.49 14.51 Ki bolong - - 13.16 4.83 [28] Karet 27.6 4.2 49.6 15.3 [23] Sengon 7.9 3.3 64.0 15.0 Pinus 5.7 2.7 38.4 6.6 Alnus 3.0 2.73 [21] Populus 3.24 3.14 Salix alba 3.26 2.98 Pinus silvetris 2.38 2.31
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Figure 4. Diagram model of cell wall destruction by white-rot, brown-rot and soft rot fungi [35]
Table 3. The resistance of monomer styrene impregnated-wood against subterranean and dry-wood
termites (%) Wood species Laboratory scale test Grave yard test Refere
nces Subterranean termites
Dry wood termites Subterranean termites
styrene treated wood
untreated wood
Styrene treated wood
untreated wood
Styrene treated wood
untreated wood
Durian 1.49 3.13 2.69 18.51 49.46 100 Kecapi 3.31 7.16 2.44 14.47 62.80 100 Ki bolong 1.49 3.13 [28] Salix alba 5.672 43.22 [21] Alnus glutinosa 4.072 49.02 [21] P. maximowiczii 2.072 55.42 [21] Pinus silvetris 4.472 50.62 [21]
Conclusions
Styrene impregnation on wood could improve its resistance against the infestation of decay fungi and termites. Polymerized wood has slightly better resistance to white rot than brown rot fungi. The better performance of styrene treated-durian wood than kecapi’s was due to its
higher polymer loading which stimulate by the improvement of physical properties. Styrene treated-durian woods have higher resistance to subterranean termites on the grave yard scale test,.
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International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 23
COMMUNITY ACCESS ON MANGROVE FOREST AREA:
A CONFLICT RESOLUTION IN KUBU RAYA
Tuti Herawati
Centre for Forest Productivity Research and Development, Forestry Research and Development Agency- Ministry of Forestry
Jalan Gunung Batu No.5 Bogor West Java PO Box 331 Fax/Phone: +62 251 75200
Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
This paper is intended to present results of studies on conflict resolution in Kubu Raya District-West Kalimantan Province. The conflict occurred between people living around mangrove forest and district forestry officer as the holders of mangrove protected forest area. Some of people in Kubu Raya did encroachment mangrove forest area by doing pond management activities. The focus of this study was aimed at review on regulation related to the collaborative forest management schemes as conflict resolution. Considering that the status of encroached mangrove forests area is protected forest, the schemes that can be applied are either community forests or village forests. Community Forest is a scheme which enables people living around the formal legal recognition as a forest manager. The implementation of Community Forest was guided by Ministry of Forestry regulation No. P.37/2007. Meanwhile Village Forest was guided by Regulation No. 49/2008. Both of the schemes give the community an opportunity to be proprietor with the bundle of right of access, management, withdrawal and alienation. The only differentiate between the two schemes is the object and organization which can be participated. The Village Forest scheme can be applied by village organization, meanwhile Community Forest scheme by farmer organization across one village. The best option for this conflict resolution is the implementation of village forest, due to scope of area and stakeholder in one village. Keywords: conflict resolution, mangrove, community forest, village forest
Introduction
Kubu Raya regency is one of regencies in West Kalimantan province with the potential of mangrove ecosystem covering 99,261,447 ha or 66.5% of the total mangrove area in West Kalimantan province with an area of 149,344,189 hectares [1]. The mangrove area in Kubu Raya mostly has been specified to become mangrove protected forest based on the Decree of Ministry of Forestry No. 259/Kpts-II/2000. It means that the mangement of protected mangrove forest area is under district forestry offices management.
Designation of mangrove areas as protected forests is intended to preserve the mangrove forest ecosystem, considering that mangroves play an important role as sentinels of ecosystem stability. In coastal area, the mangrove is very important for this ecosystem such as for fish breeding, ideal place for habitat of craband bird, as well as an important role for filtering the heavy metal pollution [1].
Practically, the determination of mangrove areas as protected forest can not fully save the mangrove eosystem from degradation. Some of mangrove area has been converted to fishponds. It was reported that conversion of mangroves into ponds have occurred since 1991 and rapidly expanding in 1998 [2]. Initially, the activity of fishpond was caried out by a unit private bussiness. Community sorrounding the mangrove areas then did the same activity, after the fishpond activity by large-scale bussines stopped.
This case of mangrove conversion and utilization as fishponds by the community then become a serious problem. The community accused of being encroachers for doing illegal activities in protected mangrove forest. This conflict became a serious legal case that causes trauma to the community. Various efforts to resolute this conflict has been done, as well as effort to prevent increasingly widespread of mangrove forest damage. However, the results are still not very satisfactory.
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The main cause is lack of coordination between institutions involved, lack of socialization in the changing status of a mangrove forest and a lack of community involvement in mangrove forest management efforts. This leads to differences in perception that triggers a more serious conflict of the various parties involved in the management of mangrove forests.
Therefore, there is need for a study to provide an alternative effort for a solution to this problem. In one side, function of mangrove forests as protected areas needs to be supported in order to preserve the ecosystem. However, the communities need to be given opportunity to take an advantage from mangrove resources for their livelihood.
This study aimed to review the alternative solutions for local communities to access forest area resources. Schemes of community forest utilization have been established as a program by Ministry of Forestry. Various studies related the community access rights have been carried out world-wide [3], nor only in Indonesia [4][5] but also in Vietnam [6], Latin America [7], Nepal [8], Philiphine [9]. This review will focus on the rules of the Indonesian government regulation to provide access rights of forest communities in accordance implemented in protected forest areas. The case in Kubu Raya district is vey unique. So this study will enrich the knowledge in the field of community forestry, especially in the area of protected forests and mangrove areas.
Methodology
Site Study
The study was done in the forest mangrove area in district of Kubu Raya that lies between 1080
35’–109058’ East Longitude and 00
44’North Latitude–10
01’South Latitude. Kubu Raya district area is dominated by coastal areas; with the boundaries in the North area is Pontianak regency, District Landak and Sanggau in the East, Distric of ketapang in the South, and Natuna Sea in the West The map of site studi is in Figure 1.
There was a village that became home to study i.e. Dabong Village. This village has an extensive mangrove area covers 4895.5 ha of protected mangrove forest [2]. Determination of site study was done purposively, based on the existing conflict case of mangrove area
management and community encroachment to the mangrove protected forest area. Method
The study was done through case study approach on the conflict management of community encroachment on mangrove protected forest area in Dabong Village. The main goal of this paper is to review some alternative on community access schemes on the state forest area. The Ministry of Forestry has launched some programs on social forestry such as Small Scale Plantation Forest (Hutan
Tanaman Rakyat = HTR), Community Forest (Hutan Kemasyarakatan), and the Village Forest scheme. The appropriate schemes for this case are Community Forest and Village Forest schemes; due to the status of mangrove forest area is protected forest. Meanwhile, the HTR just can be implemented in the production forest area.
The data analysis was done by using content analysis of the regulations on Community Forest and Village Forest. Content analysis method is essentially a systematic technique for analyzing message content and message processing, or a means to observe and analyze the contents of open communication behavior of selected communicators [10]. In the content analysis are two types of analysis, the quantitative content analysis and qualitative content analysis. Quantitative content analysis is frequentive and understood the description and interpretation rather than relationships [11]. In this study analysis used qualitative content analysis rather than quantitative content analysis. Content analysis as a research that is in-depth discussion of the content of the information written or printed made to the legislation Community Forest and Village Forest. Framework analysis was used to compare the two rules is the theory of property rights. The results of the analysis are presented in a descriptive narrative.
Results and Discussion
Conflict of Mangroves management in Dabong
Village
Since 2000 a number of mangrove areas in the village of Dabong were designated as a protected area by the Minister of Forestry Decree No. 259/Kpts-II/2000. The total area of protected mangrove in Dabong Village is 4,895.5ha, thas was covering 15% of the
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International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 25
mangrove areas in West Kalimantan Province [2]. Meanwhile, based on mapping process by Bakosurtanal [1] the data of mangroves area in West Kalimantan province is as presented in Figure 2.
The decreasing mangroves areas in Kalimantan Province were caused by conversion of mangrove forests into plantations, settlements, and fishpond. Utilization of mangrove areas into fishponds was triggered by Program from Fisheries and Marine Resources Departement regarding to Increasing Production of Fisheries Technology. But unfortunately, the area of fishpond is including in protected mangrove areas. About 300 acres has been converted into fishpond. Protected mangrove forest which converted it includes mangrove island group Seruat Three-Island area of 250 hectares in the village Dabung, Kubu district, as well as the mangrove area of 50 hectares Simpang Cabau Sepade village [10].
The farmers assisted by Fisheris Departement in developing fishpond. Farmers have fishing licenses issued by the Department of Fisheries Pontianak regency prior to Kubu
Raya establisment district. Licenses were issued based on the Local Governement regulation No. 12/1998, on Fisheries Permit Issuance. This indicates lack of coordination among government agencies that resulting fishpond development in the area of protected areas.
The problem was not only limited to conversion of the protected mangrove forest into fishpond. Moreover, the community settlements that have been established also set out in the protected area. Based on this case, the community in the Dabong village accused as enroachers to the protected forest areas. A total of 41 people Dabong villagers District Kubu Kubu Raya district has been declared a suspect by the police West Kalimantan [12][13]. They were accused of violating forestry crimes Law No. 41 of 1999 as opening protected mangrove forest. Though the opening of fishpond area have been done since 1991, long before the enactment of the region's mangrove forests as protected areas by the Ministry of Forestry in 2000. Currently, this case can be said not finished, even likely without resolution. This is due to lack of evidence.
Figure 1. Site map of Kubu Raya Distric.
Figure 2. Mangroves Area in West Kalimantan (Bakosurtanal, 2009)
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It is therefore, necessary a ccordination in order to achieve resolution of conflict. The conflict resolution is required both horizontally among offices at the district level and between local governments and the communities surrounding the forest. Utilization of protected forest area by the community can be accomplished through a variety of schemes that have been set by the Ministry of Forestry. Two mechanisms that are suitable to be applied in protected forest are Village forest sheme and Community Forestry scheme. Next section will explain the mechanism between the schemes, so it can be determined which one is more suitableto be applied in the case of Kubu Raya.
Village Forest
Forest Village is one of the forestry development policies that based on Community-Based Forest Management (CBFM). Policy paradigm State-Based Forest Management also stated by some researchers as an act of neglect the rights of community [14] . World Research Institute [14][15] reported that about 60 million people or about 30% of the total population of Indonesia is people dependent on forest resources.
Forest Village is a form granting permission for people to manage state forests. Forestry Law No. 41 of 1999 [16] Article 5 regulates the distribution of forest types based on the status of namely State forest and private forest. The definition of private forest referred is located in the forest land. Meanwhile, the state forest is a forest that is on land that is not encumbered land rights.
One form of state forest is a forest village, as further described in the explanation of Article 5 of Law 41. Village forest is defined as forest used by the village for the welfare of the community. Government regulations are more operational set of village forest outlined in the Minister of Forestry No. P49 Year 2008 [17][18][19][20]. Definition of village forests by the regulations is state forests that have not burdened the rights or permissions are managed by the village for the welfare of rural communities. It is expressly provided in Article 1 point 7: "Village Forest is a state forest managed by the village and used for the welfare of the village and not have a license / rights" Implementation of the village forest is intended to provide access to local communities through village institutions in forest resources in a sustainable manner.
The criteria forest areas can be defined as the work area is protected forest village forest and production forest management has not burdened the rights or license use and are in the administrative area village. Terms of criteria based on the recommendation of the head of district and assigned responsibility for forestry. The process consists of six stages as follows: 1. Submission of Village forest working area
of from Mayor to the Minister of Forestry based on head of village application.
2. Based on the appication, the Minister of Forestry established verification team coordinated by the Director General of Watershed Management and Social Forestry.
3. Field verification was carried out by regional offices of watershed management unit.
4. The results of verification activities reported by regioal offices to the Verification Team.
5. Based on the process of verification, the team will propose the determination of village forest working area to the Minister of Forestry.
6. Minister of Forestry issued a decree on the Determination of the village forest Working Area. In areas defined as forest villages, the
government is obliged to organize outreach and facilitation for forest communities. Thus, the next process is the submission of the permit application community to local governments. Legal acces of community is given in the form of Village Forest Managed Rights granted for a period of 35 years and may be extended
Rightsholders of Village Forest Management has certain rights and obligations associated with the status of the managed forest protected forests. The instituion of village forest management have to implement the right boundary of village forest management; arrange a work plan of village forest management; conduct forest protection; carry out rehabilitation activities.
In the protected forest, village forest rights holders are entitled to take advantage of the region, environmental services, non-timber forest product collection. While in production forest areas are entitled to use, environmental services, the use of timber and non-timber, harvesting timber and non-timber. The status of protected forest Dabong village, the village forest license holders have the right to take an
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International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 27
advantage of the forest region, environmental service utilization and non timber forest product collection.
Utilization of forest protected areas should be done through business activities: cultivation of medicinal plants; cultivation of ornamental plants; cultivation of mushrooms; bee; captive wildlife, or farming forage forage. Environmental services in protected forest done through business activities: the use of service water flow; utilization of water; nature; protection of biodiversity; saving and environmental protection, or absorption and/or carbon storage. Collection of non-timber forest products in protected forests should be done through business activities: rattan; honey; sap; fruit; mushrooms, or swallow nest.
Fishpond activity in the protected mangrove forest is not expressly contained in the Forest Village regulation. However, there is an existing practice in the field. Therefore, it is needed to have an adjustment at central government level to provide legality of the community fishpond activities.
Community Forestry
Community Forestry Program is a policy which was first initiated formally in organizing community involvement in forest management systems to the legal form of the Decree of the Minister of Forestry 622/1996. Furthermore HKM program experience with renewed dynamism laws through the issuance of rules No. 677/1998, 865/1999, and renewable with the Ministerial Decree No 31 of 2001, also Minister of Forestry Regulation No. 37/2007 and the latter with Permenhut P.52/2011[21].
Such as village forest, community forest is also a program of Ministry of Forestry which aimed at community empowerment. This program has been developed earlier than the village forest, starting initiated since the 1990s. Form of licenses granted is Community Forest Utilization Permit. Stages in the licensing process of community forestry are similar to the village forest phase. It begins with the determination of the community forestry working area and then submission process of management rights.
Community forestry working areas are distributed from Forest nature reserve and conservation unless the core zone of national parks, protected forests area and production forests area. Every status of forest gives a different impact on the form of utilization activities can be done by the righholder
Forest utilization in community forestry schemes can be devided into two kinds. i.e 1) in the pretected forest; area utilization, environmental services and collection of non-timber forest products (NTFP) 2) production forest; forest area management, planting timber forest product, environmental services, utilization of NTFPs, and NTFP collection. Other regulations include mechanisms and the rights and obligations of permit holders in the community forestry is similar to that prevailing in the village forest Which one is the best choise for conflict
resolution in Dabung Village?
Basically, there are many similarities mechanisms between villages forest with community forestry scheme. The fundamental differences between the two schemes lie in the subject of the right holder. The village forest license holders are subject to village institutions that facilitate individual farmers or villagers in the same village administration. Meanwhile, the community forestry scheme is given to individual farmers or farmers group that can be across village. Table 1 indicates a matrix that presents the principles of equality between the two mechanisms. As the mangrove area is located in a village area, the more suitable scheme for conflict resolution is village forest scheme. The steps need to be done are: 1. Coordination between District forestry
Office of Kubu Raya District and Office of Watershed Management in West Kalimantan Provinces.
2. Legalization process of protected mangrove forest as forest villages working area.
3. Preparation of village institution. 4. Process of application for forest village
management right.
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Tabel 1. Comparisan between community forestry and village forest scheme. Aspect Community Forestry Village Forest
Differenciation
Work Area Protected Forest Protected Forest Production Forest Production Forest
Specify Located across the village Located in the village administration License Community forest utilization
license Village Forest Management Right
Subject of access right Community (people surrounding the forest)
Village organization
Simmilarity
Duration of License 35 years (can be extended) Type of right
Protected Forest - forest area utilization - environmental services - non timber forest product collection
Production Forest - Forest area utilization - Environmental services - Timber forest product utilization - Non timber forest product utilization - Non timber forest product collection
Conclusion
1. Encroachment cases at Mangrove protected forest area that occurred in the Dabung village district of Kubu Raya West Kalimantan province is a fact that the community live sorrounding the forest needs the opportunity to have an acces to forest resources for their livelihood.
2. Establishment of mangrove area even the community settlements as protected area need to solved to enable the resolution of conflict so that environmental development can be achieved in a sustainable manner, but do not ignore the rights of forest communities.
3. There are two schemes from Ministry of Forestry on forest communities empowerment that can be chosen as a solution, namely village forest and forest community scheme.
4. The suitable scheme for the case in Dabung Village is village forest program due to its covering area of the forest in one village administration.
Acknowledgment
Infinite gratitude conveyed to Centre for Conservation and Rehabilitation-FORDA
Ministry of Forestry. Thank you also delivers to Ir. Sri Suharti, M.Sc. for the well teamwork.
References
[1] BAKOSURTANAL. 2009. Peta Mangrove
Indonesia. Pusat Survey Sumber Daya Alam Laut. Badan Koordinasi Survey dan Pemetaan Nasional. Bogor
[2] T.S. Nugroho. 2009. Management Study of Mangrove Ecosystem at Protected Forest area in Dabong Village, Kubu District, Kubu Raya Regency, Province of West Kalimantan. Thesis Bogor Agricultural University. Bogor.
[3] Arnold, J.E.M. 2011. "Forests and People: 25 years of Community Forestry." Food
and agriculture organization of the united
nations. Rome. Retrieved 24 September 2011.
[4] Colchester. Bridging the gap: challenges to community forestry networking in Indonesia: learning from International Community Forestry Networks: Indonesia Country Study.
[5] Aliadi, A. (eds). 1999. Kembalikan Hutan
Kepada. Rakyat. Penerbit Pustaka Latin, Bogor.
[6] Sikor, T. and Thanh, T.N. 2007. Exclusive versus inclusive devolution in forest management: Insights from forest land
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International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 29
allocation in Vietnam’s Central Highlands.
Land Use Policy 24: 644-53. [7] Larson, A.M., Cronkleton, P., Barry, D. and
Pacheco, P. 2008. Tenure Rights and Beyond: Community access to forest resources in Latin America. Occasional Paper no. 50. CIFOR, Bogor, Indonesia.
[8] P.R. Lapachale, P.D. Smith. 2004. Access to Power or Genuine Empowerment? An Analysis of Three Community Forest Groups in Nepal. Human Ecology Review,
Vol. 11, No. 1. [9] Duthy, Stephen; Bolo-Duthy, Bernadette.
2003. "Empowering People’s Organizations
in Community Based Forest Management in the Philippines: The Community Organizing Role of NGOs.". Annals of
Tropical Research 25 (2): 13–27. [10] Bungin, B. 2003. Analisis data penelitian
kualitatif; Pemahaman Filosofis dan Metodologis ke Arah Penguasaan Model Aplikasi. PT. Raja Grafindo Persada. Jakarta.
[11] Nugroho, R. 2008. Public Policy: Teori Kebijakan, Analisis Kebijakan, Proses Kebijakam, Perumusan, Implementasi, Evaluasi, Revisi, Risk Management dalam Kebijakan Publik, Kebijakan sebagai The Fifth Estate, Metode Penelitian Kebijakan. Elex Media Komputindo. Jakarta
[12] Anonim, (http://kompas.com/konversi_mangrove) (accessed 25 Agustus 2012)
[13] Hermawansyah. 2011. Pemenuhan Keadilan versus Kepastian Hukum; Antara Cita-cita & Realita. Annual symposium On Law Studies STAIN Pontianak, tanggal 12 – 14 Januari 2010. http://www.gemawan.org/index.php/artikel/199-pemenuhan -keadilan - versus -
kepastian- hukum-. Html (accessed 25 August 2012)
[14] Lynch O.J., Talbott K. 1995. Balancing
Acts: Community-Based Forest
Management and National Law in Asia and
the Pasific. Washington DC: World Resources Institute.
[15] Anshari GZ, et al. 2005. Marginalisasi masyarakat miskin di sekitar hutan: studi kasus HPHH 100 ha di Kabupaten Sintang, Provinsi Kalimantan Barat. Decentralization Brief No.9 April 2005. Bogor: Centre for International Forestry Research.
[16] Departemen Kehutanan Republik Indonesia. 1999. Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia No. 41 tahun 1999 tentang Kehutanan. Jakarta.
[17] Departemen Kehutanan Republik Indonesia. 2008. Peraturan Menteri Kehutanan No. P48 Tahun 2008 tentang Hutan Desa. Jakarta.
[18] Anonim. 2010. Hutan Desa Pertama di Indonesia. http://wbh.ueuo.com. diakses 29 September 2011
[19] Anonim, 2011. Jambi dapat tambahan 9 hutan desa lagi. http://www. http://warsi.org/news/ 2011/News_ 201108 _Hutan Desa.php (accesed 29 September 2011).
[20] Santoso, H. 2008. Selamat Datang Hutan Desa? Warta Tenure No.5 April 2008. Working Group on Forest and Land Tenure. Diakses 1 Agustus 2010 dari http://www.wg-tenure.org.
[21] Direktorat Jenderal Rehabilitasi Lahan dan Perhutanan Sosial]. Tanpa tahun. Hutan Kemasyarakatan. Booklet HKm. Ditjen RLPS-Departemen Kehutanan. Jakarta.
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STUDY OF CARBON POTENCY IN KOMODO NATIONAL PARK
Aah Ahmad Almulqu
Kupang State of Agricultural Polytechnic (Politani Kupang), INDONESIA
Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
Drylands have generated significant contributions to global environmental sciences, dry forest plays an important role in global carbon cycle as CO2 source or sink. In using of resources if not a sustainable manner can lead to increased greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. These emissions cause global warming and climate change. Indonesia plays a role to reduce GHG emissions (CO2) due to its vast forests that can absorb and store carbon in forest biomass is large enough. This study aimed to investigate the amount of carbon stocks in dry forest of different type of forest (savanna and monsoon) at Pulau Rinca in Komodo National Park, East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia. In this research the total carbon stock of a stand consist of the carbon stored in aboveground litter biomass, understorey biomass, tree biomass, necromassa and soil (0 – 20 cm). The result shows that the amount of total carbon stocks in Pulau Rinca were 470.656 Ton/ha, and 186.516 Ton/ha for savanna and monsoon forest, respectively. This study also found that the major contributor to total carbon stocks in Pulau Rinca was soil carbon in savanna and then followed by soil carbon in monsoon.
Keywords: dryland, dryforest, carbon cycle, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, Pulau Rinca, savanna and monsoon.
Introduction
Drylands have generated significant contributions to global environmental sciences. The degradation of this knowledge in many cases has often led to adoption of unsustainable technologies. The exploration, conservation, and integration of dryland traditional knowledge with adapted technologies have been identified as priority actions by the Committee of Science and Technology of the UNCCD [1]. Drylands ecosystems contribute carbon emissions to the atmosphere (0.23–0.29 billion tons of carbon a year) as a result of desertification and related vegetation destruction, through increased soil erosion and a reduced carbon sink [2]. This latter effect is expected to intensify with climate change, but if they are properly managed, dryland systems have the potential to function as a carbon sink.
Estimating tree and forest biomass is essential for assessing ecosystem yield and carbon stock in compliance with the Kyoto Protocol on greenhouse gas reduction [3]. Biomass is being frequently used to quantify traditional forest products [3] and as estimated value of wood as a raw material. Therefore
determining biomass is a useful way of providing estimates of the quantity of these components. Biomass studies for different forest types in the world have been intensified under the International Biological Programme (IBP) in the 1970s [4].
Until to day, the scientific and consistent information about biomass potency in dryland forest in East Nusa Tenggara is unestablish particularly in Komodo National Park. One of solution about that knowledge gaps is need to be filled by collecting information on biotic and soil carbon pools.
Materials and Methods / Experimental
1. Location The study was located at Pulau Rinca
Komodo National Park, East Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia which can be classified into two forest types as savanna forest and monsoon forest. Four sampling sites were selected, two from each of two forest types. The geographical positions of the sampling sites were recorded in Figure 1. 2. Field sampling and data analysis
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Field sampling was conducted in two sites that is savanna forest and monsoon forest. The total biomass of a stand measured in this research consisted of the biomass in understorey biomass (harvesting/destructive method), litters (harvesting/destructive method), living trees (algometric equation/non destructive method), dead standing trees/ necromass (algometric equation/non destructive method), felled trees/necromass (algometric equation/non destructive method) and stumps/ necromass (non destructive method) remained on forest floor [5].
Measurement for tree was conducted in 20 m x 100 m (2000 m2) plot, where the tree will devide into 2 class of diameter. That’s, diameter
5 – 30 cm (class I), and diameter > 30 cm (class II), where 3 plots were used for savanna forest and mosoon forest. Whereas sampling for understorey and litter were conducted in four 1 x 1 m2 sub-plots and litter were conducted in eight 0.5 m x 0.5 m sub-plots, it’s located
purposively within 5 m x 40 m (200 m2) plot. All tree diameters at breast height (> 5 cm) were measured, and data were converted into aboveground biomass with an allometric equations as presented in Table 1.
Figure 1. Location of Pulau Rinca.
20 m x 100 m Plot
= Tree with diameter > 30 cm
= Tree with diameter 5 cm – 30 cm = Understorey and litter
Figure 2. Design plot of tree, understorey and litter in plot 20 m x 100 m and 5 m x 40 m (Sources:
Hairiah and Rahayu, 2007).
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In each plot, the biomass of tree was estimated using the allometry method. In this method, the diameter at breast high (DBH) of all trees will measured and these values were later converted into biomass using an allometric equation. The equation used in this study was specifically developed for dry vegetation, i.e. Y = 0.139D2.32 [5], where Y refers to aboveground biomass (kg) and D refers to tree diameter (cm).
In contrast, the biomass of litter and understorey was estimated trough destructive sampling. Understorey taken as sample was all live tree specimens with the diameter of less than 5 cm, shrubs, and herbs. In destructive sampling, the vegetation in a given area was cut and weighed (fresh weight), and the subsamples of them was dried at 80oC, and weighed again after oven-drying. Finally, all biomass values
were converted into carbon using 0.5 conversion factor [4].
Soil carbon content per unit area can be calculated by taking of disturbed soil and undisturbed soil samples [6]. Disturbed soil samples were taken as deep as ± 20 cm, from each subplots and then they were mixed and homogenized before being sent to the laboratory for chemical analysis. Undisturbed soil samples for bulk density measurement were taken using core sampler.
Total carbon stock consists of the sum of carbon stocks from all components, i.e.
aboveground trees, understorey, necromass, litter, and soil organic matter. All values were represented in Mega-gram (or Tons) carbon per hectar (Mg/ha or Tons/ha).
5 m
40 m
Figure 3. Position of sub-plot for under storey, litter and soil in plot 5 m x 40 m (sSources : Hairiah et
al, 1999)
Figure 4.Frame design of sample, that use for
sub-plot 1 m x 1 m (under storey), or two sub-plot 0.5 m x 0.5 m (litters and soils) (Sources : Hairiah et al, 1999)
Figure 5.Estimation of length and diameter to
calculated felled trees/necromass in transect strip (Sources : Hairiah et al, 1999).
Bulk Density [BD] (g/cm3) = )(cm Volume
(g) Dry weight3
(1)
Soil Carbon Content (Mg/ha for the 0-20 cm soil depth)
= BD x 200 kg/m2 x Carbon concentration (%) x 10 (2)
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Results and Discussion
The result showed that the amounts of (total) carbon stocks were 470.656 Ton/ha and 186.516 Ton/ha for savanna and monsoon forest respectively (Table 1). It is also presents the distribution of carbon stocks among components, i.e. litter, understorey, tree, necromass and soil. They indicates that, at all type forests, the level of carbon stocks in the aboveground (litter, understorey, tree, necromass) was lower than the carbon stock in the soil. The proportions of soil carbon to the total carbon stocks across type forests range from 49.506 to 93.586 %.
Table 1. Total carbon stocks in Pulau Rinca.
Carbon Stocks
Type of Forest Savanna (Ton/ha)
Monsoon (Ton/ha)
Soil (0-20) 440.468 92.337 Litter 0.973 0.901 Necromass 15.054 10.787 Under storey 2.268 0.465 Tree 11.893 82.026
Total 470.656 186.516 The values of soil carbon stocks were
440.468 Ton/ha, and 92.337 Ton/ha for savanna and monsoon forest respectively (Table 1). The value of soil carbon stocks in savana was higher than muson forest. The reason for this could be related to the level of litter. The carbon stocks from litter at savanna was 0.973 Ton/ha, and this was higher than monsoon forest. Litter input to the soil may increase soil organic matter content [5]. Plant litter that is high in nutrients, especially nitrogen, which decomposes rapidly is considered to be of high quality and benefits the crop, whereas woody residues and other lignified materials are most resistant to decomposition and therefore considered low quality and cause nitrogen deficiency for the crop [7]. Materials that are high in nitrogen, and thus have low carbon to nitrogen (C:N) ratios decompose rapidly and release relatively large quantities of nitrogen. On the other hand, material with high C:N ratio provide carbon as a source of energy to microbes. The microbes subsequently multiply rapidly and draw upon nitrogen reserves from the soil. Because the added material is very low in nitrogen this causes a temporary unavailability of nitrogen for
the plants. When the carbon source is depleted, the microbial population declines and the nitrogen that had been temporarily incorporated in microbial tissues would once again be released to the soil and be available for plant uptake [8].
Necromass is dead standing trees or dead trees on the ground which is important component of carbon storage [6]. However, necromass at this site was found in savanna and monsoon forest amounting of 15.054 Ton/ha and 10.787 Ton/ha (Table 1). Its around 3.2 % for savanna and 5.8 % for monsoon to contributed carbon stock in location of research. Necromass potency is around 5% to 40% of the total carbon in tropical forests, a wide range with much uncertainty [4]. Standing dead necromass is less studied than fallen necromass, yet has been found to account for 12–17% of the total necromass in a forest [9]. The stock of necromass in a forest results from the balance of two processes, production and decay. Knowledge of these two processes is important for understanding carbon dynamics in tropical forests, yet for coarse necromass, the processes are infrequently studied [10] [11] [12].
The carbon stocks from understoreys were 2.268 Ton/ha and 0.465 Ton/ha, for savanna and monsoon forest, respectively. It’s was affected
by natural condition for savanna forest as spesific characteristic. Widening space between trees can cause increase of sunlight entering into forest floor so the understorey grows more rapidly at lower tree density. Where plants growing under high irradiance generally have a dense vascular system and a dense, often multilayered, mesophyll, leading to higher leaf dry weights compared to plants of the same species growing in shady conditions [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] and showed that leaf traits of several species change uniformly with irradiance : lamina and mesophyll thicknesses increased with light availability, whereas the leaf water content decreased [18]. Negative correlation of the leaf water content with the cross-sectional area occupied by vascular tissue and sclerenchyma, which increase with irradiance [19].
According Table 1, carbon stock from tree 11.893 Ton/ha and 82.026 Ton/ha for savanna and monsoon forest, respectively. Its around 3 % and 44 % for savanna and monsoon forest to contribution of carbon stock in the field. Tree biomass in savanna forest was lower than monsoon forest at DBH size class 5 – 30 cm,
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because savanna forest have no high number of tree, species and caused the lowest individual volume and biomass (Figure 7).
Figure 8 and 9 presents biomass equations developed for tree at the two different sites (savanna and monsoon forest) in Pulau Rinca. Tree biomass generally increased with increasing stem diameter (DBH). To estimate biomass with allometric equations that have been made from samples trees is 64,9D0,773 and 25,85D0,455 for savanna and monsoon forest, respectivley.
Most biomass equations are developed for specific sites, and cannot be assumed to apply to other locations. Despite this lack of generality, there is some justification for producing a generalized equation that is applicable to many sites. For example, biomass equations developed from different locations in the northeast U.S. and found that in most cases regressions for a given species give similar estimates [20]. In addition, biomass equations for red maple in Great Lake States do not differ significantly by stand age and site index, and that a single predictive model is statistically valid for a wide range of conditions [21]. However, that generalized equations work best for estimates of aboveground biomass or total biomass, but are less satisfactory for estimates of variables such as foliage biomass or crown volume that vary widely with stand conditions [22]. But in this study, analysis of variance indicated that
regression equations for estimating tree biomass of savanna and monsoon forest is differ significantly by sites (R = 0.864 and R = 0.633).
About 12 species were recorded during the study and biomass equations was developed for each species (Table 2). Biomass allometric was established by analysing the relationship between biomass value and diameter at 1.3 m (DBH).
The percentage data of each species to contributed carbon stock were presented in Figure 10 and Figure 11, where its around 1 % - 53 % to contribution of carbon in the field. The results of carbon potency in Figure that showed the contribution of each species for carbon stock in savanna and monsoon were 42 % - 58 % and 1 % - 53 %, respectively.
Figure 7. Carbon stock in different tree size
classes in Pulau Rinca sampling sites.
Figure 8. Relation of Biomass and DBH in Savana Forest.
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International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 35
Figure 9. Relation of Biomass and DBH in Muson Forest.
Table 2. Allometric equation of several tree species in Pulau Rinca.
No. Tree species Allometric (Y) 1. Kesambi (Schleichera oleosa) y = 33,89(DBH)0,45 2. Kukun (Schoutenia ovata) y = 22,97(DBH)0,431 3. Asam (Tamarindus indica) y = 34,74(DBH)0,355 4. Nitas (Sterculia foetida) y = 22,97(DBH)0,431 5. Damer (Pterospermum diversifolium) y = 22,97(DBH)0,431 6. Paci-Paci (Leucas lavandulifolia) y = 22,97(DBH)0,431 7. Lontar (Borassus flabellifer) y = 1,287(DBH)5,746 8. Jarak (Jatropha curcas) y = 0,240(DBH)5,693 9. Mengkirai (Monochoria hastata) y = 0,141(DBH)6,130
10. Bidara (Zizyphus spinachristi) y = 0,510(DBH)5,073 11. Gebang (Corypha utan) y = 2,187(DBH)0,857 12. Nilo (Evodia spec) y = 22,97(DBH)0,431
Figure 10. Contribution of Biomass by species in Savanna Forest.
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Figure 11. Contribution of Biomass by species in Monsoon Forest
Conclusions
The amount of total carbon stocks in Pulau Rinca were 470.656 Ton/ha, and 186.516 Ton/ha for savanna and monsoon forest respectively. This study also found that the major contributor to total carbon stocks in Pulau Rinca was soil carbon in savanna and then followed by soil carbon in monsoon.
Acknowledgments
The participation in this research was financed by Man and the Biosphere Programme UNESCO. We thank the Komodo National Park, Ministry of Forestry, for allowing access to Pulau Rinca. Special thanks to Ricard, Stepen and Pak Ibrahim for helping in the field.
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[6] K. Hairiah, S. Rahayu, 2007, Pengukuran ”Karbon Tersimpan” di Berbagai Macam
Penggunaan Lahan. Bogor: World Agroforestry Center – ICRAF, SEA Regional Office, University of Brawijaya, Indonesia.
[7] P.L. Mafongoya, K. E. Giller, C. A. Palm, 1998, Decomposition and nitrogen release patters of trees prunings and litter, Agroforestry systems 38: 77-97.
[8] P.K. Nair, 1993, An Introduction to agroforestry, 499pp, Kluwer academic publishers, Netherlands.
[9] M. Palace, M. Keller, G. P. Asner, J. N. M. Silva, C. Passos, 2007, Necromass in undisturbed and logged forests in the Brazilian Amazon, Forest Ecology and Management 238: 309–318.
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[10] M.E. Harmon, D. F. Whigham, J. Sexton, I. Olmsted, 1995, Decomposition and mass of woody detritus in the dry tropical forests of the northeastern Yucatan peninsula, Mexico, Biotropica 27: 305–316.
[11] M. Keller, M. Palace, G. P. Asner, R. Pereira, J. N. M. Silva, 2004b, Coarse woody debris in undisturbed and logged forests in the eastern Brazilian Amazon, Global Change Biology 10: 784–795.
[12] T. Kira, 1978, Community architecture and organic matter dynamics in tropical lowland rain forests of Southeast Asia with special reference to Pasoh Forest, West Malaysia, Pages 561–590, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
[13] Heinrichs, M. Bernhardt, W. Schmidt, 2010, The estimation of aboveground biomass and nutrient pools of understorey plants in closed Norway spruce forests and on clearcuts, Eur J Forest Res.
[14] Larcher, 2001, O¨ kophysiologie der Pflanzen. 6, Auflg, Ulmer, Stuttgart.
[15] D. Meziane, B. Shipley,1999, Interacting determinants of specific leaf area in 22 herbaceous species: effects of irradiance and nutrient availability, Plant cell environ
22: 447–459 [16] P.J. Myerscough, 1980, Epilobium
angustifolium L, J Ecol 68: 1047– 1074 [17] J.P. Ricard, C. Messier, 1996, Abundance,
growth and allometry of red raspberry (Rubusidaeus L.) along a natural light gradient in a northern hardwood forest. For Ecol Manage 81: 153–160
[18] B. Shipley, 2000, Plasticity in relative growth rate and its components following a change in irradiance, Plant Cell Environ 23: 1207– 1216
[19] . E. Garnier, G. Laurent, 1994, Leaf anatomy, specific mass and water content in congeneric annual and perennial grass species, New Phytol 128: 725–736.
[20] . L.M. Tritton, J. W. Hornbeck, 1982, Biomass equations for major tree species of the Northeast, U.S. Forest Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-69. 46 pp.
[21] T.R. Crow, 1983, Comparing biomass regressions by site and stand age for red maple, Can J. For, Res. 13: 283-288.
[22] D.F. Grigal, L. K. Kernik, 1984, Generality of black spruce biomass estimation equations, Can. J. For, Res. 14: 468-470.
38 ISSN 2088-9127
PATENT DATA ANALYSIS AND INNOVATION TREND IN AIR POLLUTION
CONTROL SYSTEM
Diah Anggraeni Jatraningrum
Center for Innovation-Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Gedung A LIPI Lt.3 Jl. Gatot Subroto No.10
Jakarta,INDONESIA
Corresponding author: [email protected]; [email protected]
Abstract
Industrializations and urban transportations are the highest contributor to air pollution which becomes a serious threat to human life and the environment. Air pollution is a matter that definitely happening from any economic activities mentioned above. However, human life could not running such as today if there are no industrializations. Therefore, we need to maintain the environment from the impacts of industrialization. Industrial activities on the development of innovation and technology in the field of Air Pollution Control System (APCS) and Air Quality Control System (AQCS) have become one of the economy fields, especially after some of the global environmental regulations implemented. Furthermore, there are many patents related to these innovation and technology fields. This study aims to determine how the industry has made technological breakthroughs and innovations in these areas. Innovation trend in air pollution control technologies, especially in the last decade, needs to be evaluated and analyzed in order to determine the diffusion of new innovations and economic opportunities in this area. As the main focus, patent data analysis through a global patent database and comparison with what are widely used in industries has been conducted in this study. Filtration, absorption, adsorption and oxidation are the most developed technology for last decade.
Keywords: air pollution control system, air quality control system, innovation trend, patent data analysis
Introduction
Starting in the 20th century, we have witnessed a shift in people's life from agriculture to industrialization age. This shift has brought a change in the standard of living and even further to the global economic system; even geographic boundaries are no longer a barrier of industrialization. Increased industrial activities and the exploitation of natural resources as the main economic activities have brought new problems as well as the benefits. New issues are very different from the problems that exist in the agricultural age. These problems should be handled properly for sustainable human life. Air pollution is one of the major problems stemming from the process of industrialization and urban transportation. The increase in emissions has been recognized as a threat to the environment if not managed properly. The main causes of air pollution are emissions of gases such as carbon oxides, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere. Most of the gas produced and released due to industrial activities such as power plants, fertilizer plants, cement plants,
iron ore production, oil refining, and so on. Environmental impact assessment has been requiring the placement and localization of industrial activities is far from human habitation. So it can be reduced the direct impact of air pollution on the health of human life. Activities in urban transportation are also a serious problem for humans. Vehicles in large numbers have also donated huge air pollution. This is evidenced by the increase volume of fuel consumption for urban transportation activities. Increased emissions have changed the global climate and human health. Global warming and increasing effects of air pollution are one of the main issues that have recently attracted great attention of governments and authorities around the world. Furthermore, it has been encouraging for greater international dialogue, policy changes and technological innovations.
Due to the growing problems of air pollution, it has been many attempts to find the solution. It is indicated that there were major changes in government regulations for managing the environment. Even in developed countries, government regulation has promoted innovation
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International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 39
in air pollution control. Governments around the world have come up with measures and regulations to reduce emissions. With the help of government subsidies and regulations, enterprises and institutions of intensive technological development has made several innovations in the Air Pollution Control System (APCS) and Air Quality Control System (AQCS). And now it has become a business that is highly developed as part of a business model to help industry reduce emissions. The field of air pollution control management has shown a lot of research and development in recent decades with very many patents as legal protections for their inventions.
The purpose of this study is to understand the innovation activities in the field of APCS and AQCS as the technology domain, and to determine how the industry has made technological breakthroughs and innovations in these areas. Such as has been understood from existing theories, the number of patents application is one indicator of the progress of innovation, science and technology of a country [1], [2]. The idea is to observe interesting trends in the domain of patent practice in the field of APCS and AQCS with patents data mining related to the technology and to analyze innovation activities in last decade. Underlying logic is that the patent is an indicator of innovation activities, where the patent protects the invention of science that provides economic returns by companies and institutions [3]. Innovation trend in air pollution control technologies, especially in the last decade, needs to be evaluated and analyzed in order to determine the diffusion of new innovations and economic opportunities in this area. The goal of the study is to identify the trend of innovation in order to obtain an idea for APCS and AQCS institutions or enterprises whether the researches that are ongoing or will be conducted prioritize innovation and market demand or not. The trend of innovation focuses on patent data analysis through a global patent database and comparison with what are widely used in industries. Materials and Methods
In conducting this study, the determination of the technology/topic became the main base in patent searching. Methodology used was the adoption of benchmarking data is processed by professional system analysis software and free
online database [4]. The methodology used in this study as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Research methodology
Determining keywords require separate in-
depth discussion is closely related to the selection of technology being discussed. Technology chosen will determine the pattern of keywords that will be used in searching online databases. In preliminary patent searching step, it will be found the technology which often stated the title, description or claims in patents application. From the selected technology, the discussion to determine the final keywords in patent searching is subsequently conducted.
The scope of the research work limits itself to APCS and AQCS research for evaluation of innovative activities in various countries. The patent data in the technology domain has been analyzed from year 2001 to 2010. Limitation of patent data is number of patent and number of patent family. Goal of answering research question has been accomplished by understanding patenting activities at the most developed technology/topic.
Results and Discussion
Below will be discussed cumulative patent
data for most developed technology that has been analyzed and discussed. Increase and decrease in patent filings per year has been
Technology/topic
Preliminary patent search
Keyword short listing
IPC filtration
Final search
Patent statistic
Patent data mining
40 ISSN 2088-9127
understood to indicate the growth or reduce the innovation activities. Patent Analysis
Figure 2 illustrates the trend in patenting individual patents and patent family in the field of APCS and AQCS. The number of patent applications is a family of different sizes invention patents filed while an individual gives an idea about the number of patent filings in different jurisdictions on the same topic.
Patent family filed every year is a measure of innovation activities because each patent family can be considered as a unique invention or part of a larger discovery [5]. As observed from the picture below, the patent in the APCS and AQCS trend has been up and down. When analyzed collectively it shows a decline in innovation activities in 2001-2004, with a reduction in the number of patent family per year compared with the previous year. This figure also presents an increase of the patent family after 2004. Overall innovation activities shows a decrease in 2001-2004, grew in the following years with a slower growth rate in 2007-2009 and accelerated again in 2010.
Explanation for falling down trend in 2001-2004 on the graph above is there was a decline in investment after the global crisis hit most of the country in Asia Pacific during 1998-2000. Most of the manufacturing and processing industry investments are located in developing countries in Asia Pacific. Most of the industry did not engage in investment on the air pollution control due to their reduced production levels. After economic recovery in 2000, industry restructured their environmental control system again as impact of their production levels increased. APCS and AQCS institutions or enterprises saw again this opportunity as the economy growth and initiate research and development again. After 2004, there was a fairly significant improvement until 2007. From 2007-2009 it shows no growth of patents filed, and increased again in 2010. Most Developed Technologies
In table 1, there are several technologies in practice which are used in APCS and AQCS [6].
practice which are used in APCS and AQCS [6].
Figure 2. Trend and patent filing (2001-2010)
Table 1. Technology in practice in APCS and AQCS
Technology Technique principle
Gravitation Sinking chamber, Cyclone Dust scrubbing Dust scrubber, Spray tower Filtration Venturi scrubber, Fabric filter, Demister Condensation Condenser, Cryocondensation Adsorption Adsorption zeolites, Adsorption polymeric Absorption Gas scrubber, Acid gas scrubber Biological cleaning Bio filtration, Biological scrubber Oxidation Catalytic incinerator, Photo oxidation
Chemical reduction Selective catalytic reduction, Selective non-catalytic reduction
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International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 41
Patent analysis of each technology will be discussed in Figure 3, to find which technology that mostly filed in patent application. It is important to understand that high number of patent filing for one technology means that the technology has high demand in industries.
As illustrating in Figure 3, we can understand that filtration, adsorption, absorption, and oxidation are the most developed technology in APCS and AQCS. Filtration as part of separation method in removing particles has the most patent application in last decade. Mostly for filtration technology, types of claim in patent are method, process and device. In the other hand, types of claim for adsorption,
absorption and oxidation technology are mostly method and process. Different with gravitation and dust scrubbing technology, where the type of claimed is devices.
As illustrating in Figure 4, we can see the trend of patent filed for the most APCS and AQCS developed technology. Filtration has the anomaly of trend where it decreased from 2001-2005 and then increased after 2005. It is similar with anomaly in patent trend that has been discussed above. Absorption and adsorption are two technologies that have consistency in development although in small numbers of paten filed. Different with oxidation, this type of technology consistently decrease until 2010.
Figure 3. Trend of APCS and AQCS developed technology (2001-2010)
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Figure 4. Trend of patent for the most APCS and AQCS developed technology (2001-2010)
Conclusion
Innovation activities in the field of APCS and AQCS indicate a decrease in 2001-2004, grew in the following years with a slower growth rate in 2007-2009 and accelerated again in 2010. From patent trend and analysis we can conclude that there are four technologies in APCS and AQCS mostly developed for last decade, those are filtration, absorption, adsorption, and oxidation. Filtration has the anomaly of trend where it decreased from 2001-2005 and then increased after 2005. Absorption and adsorption are two technologies that have consistency in development although in small numbers of paten filed. Different with oxidation, this type of technology consistently decrease until 2010.
Acknowledgment
Thanks to Center for Innovation - Indonesian Institute of Sciences, that has given the times and supports in conducting some patent analysis during assisting and registering patent from research centers in LIPI.
References
[1] S.V. Ramani, and A.L. Marie, 2002. Using patent statistic as knowledge base indicator in the biotechnology sector: an Application to France, Germany and the UK. Scientometrics (54/3) 319-346
[2] M. Reffitt, C. Sorenson, N. Blodgett, R. Waclawek, and B. Weaver, 2007. Innovation indicators, report to the council to the labor and economic growth. Michigan Department of Labor and Economic Growth, US
[3] H Dou, V Leveillé, S Manullang and JM Dou Jr, 2005. Patent analysis for competitive technical intelligence and innovative thinking. Data Science Journal (4) 209-236
[4] P. Schwander, 2000. An evaluation of patent searching resources: comparing the professional and free on-line databases. World Patent Information (22) 147-165
[5] T. S. Eisenschitz and J. A. Crane, 1986. Patent Searching Using Classifications and Using Keywords, World Patent
Information (8) 3840 [6] E. Schenk, J. Mieog and D. Evers, 2009.
Fact sheets on air emission abatement techniques, Infomil, file B8176 February 2009
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International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 43
SEEDLINGS PERFORMANCE OF INDIGINEOUS SPECIES WITH FERTILIZER
ADDITION AND WEEDING IN EARLY STAGE REFORESTATION IN MT.
PAPANDAYAN NATURE RESERVES, WEST JAVA
Gibran Huzaifah Amsi El Farizy1* and Endah Sulistyawati2
1Biology Program, Institut Teknologi Bandung
2Forestry Engineering Research Group, Institut Teknologi Bandung
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
During the last decades, deforestation occured not only on global, but also on national scale (1,871 million ha/year). The exact solution for this problem is conservation-oriented reforestation; to restore the structure and composition of forests. The best reforestation method known so far was using germinated indigenous species with fertilizer addition combined with weed controlling as post-seeding treatment. This research aimed to verify the influence of fertilizer addition and weed removal towards the survivorship and growth rate of several indigenous species from Mount Papandayan Nature Reserves (MPNR). Seedlings from each indigenous species, i.e. Acer laurinum, Distylium stellare,
Schima walichii, Dacrycarpus imbricatus, and Syzygium glomeruliferum were used in four kind of treatment (control, fertilizer addition treatment, weed removal treatment, combination of fertilizer addition and weed removal treatment). After eight months, result shows that fertilizer addition and weed removal treatment doesn’t directly affect survivorship and growth rate. The highest survivorship
rate showed by the fertilizer addition treatment (85 ± 0.06 %), and the lowest survivorship rate showed by the combination of fertilizer addition and weed removal treatment (58 ± 0.18 %). This result shows that weed gives positive effect for survivorship and growth of seedlings. This phenomenon called the nursing effect is a condition where weeds give coverage and formed micro-environmental condition that intensify the growth rate and survivorship of target plants. Syzigium glomeruliferum is the species with highest survivorship rate (80 ± 0.08%) and A. laurinum is the species with the highest Relative Growth Rate of Height (RGRH) (0.69 ± 0.03cm cm-1month-1) Relative Growth Rate of Diameter (RGRD) (0.18 ± 0.02mm mm-1 month-1). S. glomeruliferum showed the best overall seedlings performance, therefore it is recommended as species for reforestation in MPNR. Statistic analysis using one-way ANOVA shows that inter-treatment survivorship value is significantly different (α =
0.05, sig = 0.016), the post-hoc Turkey test shows that inter-treatment survivorship value is different distinctly (coefficient = 0.27). The Relative Growth Rate (RGR) shows no inter-treatment significant difference (α = 0.05, sig = 0.052).
Keywords: nursing effect, Papandayan, Restoration, Reforestation, seedlings performance.
Introduction
Forests are important part on earth that has a central role as habitat, carbon sink, food and oxygen providers, and so on [1] [2]. Ironically, with this crucial role, decreasing of forests areas (deforestation) occured widespreadly. Rate of deforestation in Indonesia has reached 1.6-2.5 million hectare in 2000-2005. Moreover, forests area remained only 28% from 109 million hectare that was existed. This deforestation impact to habitat loss, decreasing of carbon sink and water retain capacity that implicate to key
species extinction, global warming, and natural disaster [2][3]
Mount Papandayan Nature Reserves (MPNR) has deforestated by illegal land-conversion of natural forest to be agricultural area in 1990’s. One of the solution for this
problem is reforestation. Unfortunately, the most common action of reforestation that had been done was to make a production forest on the degraded land, instead of restoring its real structure as natural forest.
A research in grassland in South Kalimantan showed that reforestation using indigenous species have higher survivorship [5].
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It also mentioned that the most affected factor of survivorship is the capability to compete with weeds [6]. Another study showed that survivorship of seedlings in land without weeds are higher than seedlings grow in grassland [7]. Higher nutrition in soil can also make higher survivorship [8]. Accordingly, reforestation with indigenous species with nutrition adding and weed removal can affect positively to plant’s
growth and survivorship. This research aimed to discover the effect of nutrition adding and weed removal to survivorship and growth of some selected indigenous species in MPNR.
Materials and Methods / Experimental
This research was performed in the 40 x 40
m plot in Dayeuh Luhur MPNR exactly at S 07o 17’ 22.4”, E 107
o 46’ 05.3” at altitude 1735 m (Figure 1). This area has relative humidity 71% and temperature 19.72oC. This study used five indigenous species: Acer Laurinum, Distylium
stellare, Schima wallichii, Dacrycarpus
imbricatus, and Syzygium glomeruliferum. Seedlings performance was measured in four different treatments (control, fertilizer addition treatment, weed removal treatment, combination of fertilizer addition and weed removal treatment). Each treatment used 20 individuals for each species. These twenty individuals were firstly-germinated seedlings at the same age (3 months) and have average height of approximately 17.6 cm. Planting distance for each individuals is 1 m. Methods for fertilizing and weeding refer to FORRU (2005) [3][4].
Figure 1. Research Location (Source : Citra
Spot, 2008).
This study measured survivorship, height, health score, weeding score, and diameter of each individuals. Data was taken every two months from May to December 2011. Survivorship score was calculated with this formula.
x 100% (1)
N2 is amount of individuals survived till the
last, and N1 is amount of individuals planted from the beginning (20 individuals). Height data was used to calculate the Relative Growth Rate of Height (RGRH) and diamter data was used to calculate Relative Growth Rate of Diameter (RGRD). Relative Growth Rate of Diameter was calculated with formula:
(2)
M1 dan M2 respectively are height/diameter
at the beginning and the end of observation. Value of RGRH and RGRD were calculated in average for a month. The statistical analysis used was one-way ANOVA with SPSS 17.0 software.
Results and Discussion
Survivorship
Result shows that fertilizer treatment has the highest survivorship compared to other treatments (85± 0.06%) (Table 1). Fertilizer and weed removal treatment has the lowest survivorship. Syzigium glomeruliferum is the species with the highest average survivorship in all treatments (80 ± 0.08%), while A. laurinum is the lowest (66,25 ± 0.16%).
Result of survivorship from all species (73.25 ± 0.13%) is higher than similar previous studies [10][11]. This higher survivorship is affected most significantly by the use of germinated seedlings. Survivorship of germinated seedlings is better than wildlings [10][12][13].
Comparing the weeding score data (Figure 3.1), fertilizer treatment has the highest average rate of weeds. Accordingly, the survivorship also shows the highest rate. In contrast, the weed removal treatment (III and IV) with zero weeding scores has the lowest survivorship.
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International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 45
Tablel 1. Survivorship (%) all species from each treatment.
Species
Survivorship (%)
Treatment I
(normal)
Treatment II
(fertilizer)
Treatment III
(weeding)
Treatment IV
(combination)
Average for
each species
Acer laurinum 80 ± 0.08 80 ± 0.04 70 ± 0.06 35 ± 0.19 66.25 ± 0.16
Distylium stellare 85 ± 0.04 85 ± 0.05 70 ± 0.12 55 ± 0.14 73.75 ± 0.13
Schima wallichii 75 ± 0.09 80 ± 0.03 75 ± 0.07 40 ± 0.17 67.5 ± 0.13
Dacrycarpus imbricatus 70 ± 0.09 95 ± 0.00 75 ± 0.06 75 ± 0.09 78.75 ± 0.09
Syzygium glomeruliferum 75 ± 0.05 85 ± 0.03 75 ± 0.10 85 ± 0.06 80 ± 0.08
Average for each
treatment 77 ± 0.08 85 ± 0.06 73 ± 0.09 58 ± 0.18
OVERALL
73.25 ± 0.13
Figure 2. Graph comparing the average score weeding.
This results shows that the existence of
weeds is actually giving positive effects to plant’s survivorship. We can predict that weeds
here act, not as a competitor, but is giving a better micro-environmental conditions for seedlings. This better micro-environmental condition can increase the survivorship of seedlings. In other study, this phenomenon was called Nursing Effect. Nursing effect is a shading mechanism of a nurse plant to other plant (target species) under coverage. These shades are making a microhabitat condition with light intensity, temperature, humidity and nutrients that helps the growth of seedlings [18]. Some studies show that nursing effect can really increase growth and survivorship of plants [17][18][21][20].
Nursing effect can also happen when abiotic factors are limiting the plant growth [17]. Ren et al. (2008) also mentioned that the positive effect of nursing effect is higher when the threatening abiotic factors is happening to the plant at the early stage of reforestation [18]. On the observation, primarily on August - September, the environmental condition was threatening; low rainfall to none in 28 days, high light intensity that’s causing high mortality of
plants caused by drought. The existence of shades was in role for protecting plants from the excessive exposal of sunlight. Sun light radiation can damage the center of photosystem reaction and produce oxidative damage [18]
Another reason for plant lower-survivorship from the weeding removal treatment was probably caused by the abundance of nutrients availability in soil, making competition become irrelevant. Competition usually happens because of limited resources available in soil contested by individuals, both inter-species and intra-species [19]. The abundance of nutrients is actually sufficient to eliminate competition and resource exploitation. These nutrients were retrieved from the fertilizer, given at the beginning of observation. Other than that, referring to previous land-use for agriculture, there might be fertilizer residues in soil [12].
The result of statistical analysis using one-
way ANOVA shows a significant difference between survivorship rate from each different treatment (α = 0.05, sig = 0.016, Ho rejected).
The result of post-hoc test using Turkey test shows that the group of fertilizer addition treatment is significantly different with the
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group of combination (fertilizer addition and weeding removal) with coefficient of 0.27.
Relative Growth Rate of Height (RGRH)
Taken from observation and data analysis, combination of fertilizer addition and weeding removal treatment shows the highest RGRH (0.66 ± 0.03 cm cm-1 month-1) compared to other treatment (Table 3.2). Acer laurinum also shows the highest RGRH (0.69 ± 0.03 cm cm- month-1). For the group with the lowest RGRH is the control treatment group (0.40 ± 0.02 cm cm-1 month-1) and the fertilizer addition treatment group (0.50 ± 0.02 cm cm-1 month-1), and the species with the lowest RGRH is S. walichii
(0.42 ± 0.02 cm cm-1 month-1). Taken from the results, the surviving
species shows more efficient growth [16]. A study in Taiwan about Cryptomeria japanica
shows that the surviving individuals are the species with a high value of RGR. In this research, A. laurinum shows a high RGR. This
fact shows, that the surviving individuals shows a high relative growth rate. The fourth treatment (combination of fertilizer and weeding removal) has the highest RGR caused by low survivorship value, and the surviving individuals in this treatment shows a high RGR [16]. Fertilizer addition in the fourth treatment is also affecting the high value of RGR because the species with abundant resources also have a high RGR [16].
Relative Growth Rate of Diameter (RGRD)
Data of Relative Growth Rate of Diameter also shows variation in result (Table 3.3). Fertilizer addition treatment is increasing the survivorship and relative growth rate of diameter in tested seedlings. This treatment has the higher value compared to the control treatment. This data is different from weeding removal treatment and combination of fertilizer addition and weeding removal that is actually giving a negative effect compared to control treatment and also as a probable effect of nursing effect.
Table 2. Relative Growth Rate of Height (cm cm- month-1) of all species.
Species
RGR (cm cm-1
month-1
)
Treatment I
(normal)
Treatment II
(fertilizer)
Treatment III
(weeding)
Treatment IV
(combination)
Average for
each species
Acer laurinum 0.74 ± 0.02 0.55 ± 0.01 0.73 ± 0.04 0.73 ± 0.05 0.69 ± 0.03 Distylium stellare 0.46 ± 0.01 0.56 ± 0.01 0.64 ± 0.02 0.66 ± 0.03 0.58 ± 0.02 Schima wallichii 0.14 ± 0.03 0.54 ± 0.01 0.32 ± 0.02 0.76 ± 0.03 0.44 ± 0.04 Dacrycarpus
imbricatus
0.43 ± 0.02 0.45 ± 0.02 0.39 ± 0.03 0.71 ± 0.02 0.50 ± 0.03
Syzygium
glomeruliferum
0.23 ± 0.03 0.43 ± 0.03 0.59 ± 0.01 0.44 ± 0.01 0.42 ± 0.02
Average for all
treatments
0.40 ± 0.02 0.50 ± 0.02 0.53 ± 0.03 0.66 ± 0.03 0.52 ± 0.03
Table 3. RGRD (mm mm-1 month-1) of all species.
Species
RGR Diameter (mm mm-1
month-1
)
Treatment I
(normal)
Treatment II
(fertilizer)
Treatment III
(weeding)
Treatment IV
(combination)
Average for
each species
Acer laurinum 0.16 ± 0.12 0.16 ± 0.04 0.19 ± 0.03 0.20 ± 0.02 0.18 ± 0.02
Distylium stellare 0.10 ± 0.03 0.17 ± 0.05 0.12 ± 0.01 0.12 ± 0.03 0.11 ± 0.03
Schima wallichii 0.11 ± 0.07 0.13 ± 0.03 0.13 ± 0.03 0.07 ± 0.06 0.13 ± 0.03
Dacrycarpus
imbricatus 0.15 ± 0.05 0.13 ± 0.00 0.14 ± 0.06 0.06 ± 0.01 0.13 ± 0.01
Syzygium
glomeruliferum 0.15 ± 0.03 0.17 ± 0.03 0.13 ± 0.64 0.10 + 0.02 0.15 ± 0.02
Average for all
treatments 0.13 ± 0.04 0.15 ± 0.05 0.14 ± 0.00 0.09 ± 0.02
OVERALL
0.13 ± 0.02
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International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 47
The study done by Alvarez-Aquino et al.(2004) in Mexico is emphasizing the fact that the plantation done in forest (in shades) is significantly having a higher survivorship and RGR compared to the seedlings planted outside [9]. More specifically, Turner (2004) stated that water deficit and low-humidity can happen without shades, thus, causing death. RGR of seedlings is increasing with the existence of other plant’s shade [5].
Health Score
Taken from the results (Table 3.4), the fertilizer addition treatment shows the highest health score compared to other treatment. The species with the highest health score is S.
glomeruliferum. This result shows that health score is
correlated with survivorship. High health score on fertilizer treatment was caused by nursing effect. Thus, in conclusion, nursing effect is not only affecting survivorship and RGR, but also to health score. Health score is showing the growth quality of plants, with the visually given parameter such as leaf color, amount of leaf, leaf
dryness, and survivorship. Nursing effect is giving a suitable microclimate condition for plants to grow faster and healthier [3].
Seedlings Performance in the Early Stage of
Reforestation
Observation result shows a survivorship performance dynamic from each species per month (Figure 3). D. Imbricatus and S.
glomeruliferum shows a high survivorship Acer
laurinum and S. walichii shows a low survivorship, and D. Stellare shows moderate survivorship.
The first three months were the most critical phase for plant growth due to relatively high mortality on such phase according to the study results of Setiawan [12] that also shows a high mortality of plants in the first three months. Syzigium glomeruliferum, D. imbricatus, and D.
stellare has a relatively high survivorship in dry season. Compared to the wet season (high rainfall, October-December), the mortality of all plants is realtively low, except for D. Imbricatus that shows high mortality rate [12].
Tabel 4. Health Score for each spesies in every treatment.
Species
Health Score
Treatment I
(normal)
Treatment II
(fertilizer)
Treatment III
(weeding)
Treatment IV
(combination)
Average for
each species
Acer laurinum 2.79 ± 0.07 2.64 ± 0.08 2.64 ± 0.21 1.46 ± 0.75 2.38 ± 0.35
Distylium stellare 2.76 ± 0.15 2.74 ± 0.11 2.11 ± 0.39 2.59 ± 0.19 2.55 ± 0.41
Schima wallichii 2.49 ± 0.19 2.69 ± 0.18 2.45 ± 0.23 1.98 ± 0.54 2.40 ± 0.28
Dacrycarpus
imbricatus 2.51 ± 0.20 2.88 ± 0.09 2.53 ± 0.35 2.59 ± 0.30 2.63 ± 0.15
Syzygium
glomeruliferum 2.75 ± 0.10 2.91 ± 0.06 2.72 ± 0.21 2.79 ± 0.15 2.79 ± 0.70
Average for all
treatments 2.66 ± 0.19 2.77 ± 0.15 2.49 ± 0.35 2.28 ± 0.66
OVERALL
2.55 ± 0.43
Figure 3. Survivorship of all species for eight months.
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Figure 4. RGRH of all species for eight months.
Dystilium stellare has the second highest RGR. Compared to S. glomeruliferum and D.
imbricatus that has a high survivorship, but low height RGR, and D. stellare shows both, high growth rate and high survivorship. Each species has each own character and different response to nutrient addition and weeding removal. These characteristics are worth noting before the starting reforestation.
Conclusion
In conclusion, The treatment of fertilizer addition shows the best results on survivorship values, relative growth rate of height and diameter, and health score. This is caused by nursing effect; shadings by fast-growing weeds and nurse plant as a result of abundant nutrient from fertilizer addition. Syzygium
glomeruliferum and Distylium stellare shows a good performance in every treatments as a result of high survivorship and high growth rate on the early stage of reforestation. Acer laurinum is the species with the highest growth rate.
Acknowledgment
We thank for Dr. Endah Sulistyawati for the advisory and supervision during the research and writing process of this paper, for my partners in Ecology Laboratory SITH ITB; Ahmad Iqbal, Nuri Nurlaila, Steffina Rozieanti, Abraham Basani, Dinna Tazkiana, Sidiq Pambudi, Okta Noviantina, Roos Haikal for the discussion so this paper can be done, and to Gresa Palma for helping me to translate, spell-check, and proof-read the paper. Big thanks for all.
References
[1] FAO (2007) : State of the World Forests
2007, United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation, Rome.
[2] FORRU. (2005). How To Plant a Forest:
The Principles and Practice of Restoring
Tropical Forests. Chiang Mai: Biology Department Chiang Mai University.
[3] FORRU. (2008). Research for restoring
tropical forest ecosystems: a practical
guide. Chiang Mai: Chiang Mai University. [4] Otsamo, A., Adjers, G., Hadi, T. S.,
Kuusipalo, J., & Vuokko, R. (1997). Evaluation of Reforestation Potential of 83 Tree Species Planted on Imperata cylindrica Dominated Grassland. New Forests , 127-143.
[5] Turner, I. (2004). The Ecology of Trees in
the Tropical Rain Forest. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
[6] De Steven, D. (1994). Tropical tree seedling dynamics: recruitment patterns and their population consequences for three canopy species in Panama. Journal of
Tropical Ecology , 10, 369–83 [7] Newton, A. C. (2007). Forest Ecology and
Conservation: Handbook of Techniques. New York: Oxford University Press.
[8] Pareliussen, I., Olson, E.G.A., Armbruster, W.S. (2006) : Factors Limiting the Survival of Native Tree Seedlings Used in Conservation Efforts at The Edges of Forest Fragments in Upland Madagascar, Restoration Ecology, 14 (2), 196-203.
[9] Alvarez-Aquino, C., Williams-Linera, G., & Newton, A. C. (2004). Experimental Native Tree Seedling Establishment for the Restoration of a Mexican Cloud Forest.
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International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 49
Restoration Ecology Vol 12 No. 3 , 412-418.
[10] Adjers, G., Hadengganan, S., Kuusipalo, J., Otsamo, A., & Vesa, L. (1998). Production of Planting Stock from Wildlings of Four Shorea Species. New Forests 16 , 185-197.
[11] Raman, T. R., Mudappa, D., & Kapoor, V. (2009). Restoring Rainforest Fragments: Survival of Mixed-Native Species Seedlings under Contrasting Site Conditions in the Western Ghats, India. Restoration Ecology , 137-141.
[12] Setiawan, N. N. (2011). Curahan Biji, Germinasi Biji, dan Kemampuan Bertahan Anakan Spesies Pohon Lokal pada Tahap Awal Reforestasi di Cagar Alam Gunung Papandayan, Jawa Barat. Thesis S2 Biologi
ITB [13] Nasution, R.E. (1999) : Acer L, 39-40,
dalam : Sosef, M.S.M., Hong, L.T., Prawirohatmodjo, S., Eds., Plant Resources
of South-East Asia No. 5(3): Timber trees :
Lesser-known timbers. Backhuys Publishers. Leiden.
[14] Sulistyawati, E., Maryani, E., Sungkar, R., Ariwibowo, M., Rosleine, D., dan Gurnita (2005) : Keanekaragaman Hayati Gunung
Papandayan: Tumbuhan, Burung, dan
Ancamannya, Departemen Biologi ITB, 9-42
[15] Atmandhini, R. G. (2008). Penyebaran, Regenerasi, dan Karakteristik Habitat Jamuju (Dacrycarpus imbricatus Blume) di Taman Nasional Gede-Pangrango. Bogor: Skripsi Fakultas Kehutanan IPB.
[16] Guan, B. T., Lin, S.-T., Lin, Y.-H., & Wu, Y.-S. (2008). Growth Efficiency - Survivorship Relationship and Effects of Spacing on Relative Diameter Growth Rate of Japanese Cedars. Forest Ecology and
Management 255 , 1713-1723. [17] Padilla, F. M., & Pugnaire, F. I. (2006).
The Role of Nurse Plants in the Restoration of Degraded Environment. Front Ecology
Environment , 196-202. [18] Ren, H., Yang, L., & Liu, N. (2008). Nurse
Plant Theory and Its Application in Ecological Restoration in Lower Subtropic of China. Natural Science 18 , 137-142.
[19] Barbour, M. G., Burk, J., & Pitts, W. (1987). Terrestrial Plant Ecology. California: Benjamin Cummings.
[20] Jansen, A. M., Lof, M., & Witzell, J. (2012). Effects of Competition and Indirect Facilitation by Shrubs on Quercus robur Ssaplings. Plant Ecology 213 , 535-543.
[21] Wagner, S., Fischer, H., & Huth, F. (2011). Canopy Effects on Vegetation Caused by Harvesting and Regeneration Treatments. Europe Journal of Forest Restoration 130 , 17-40
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GREEN BUILDING MATERIALS FROM NATURAL FIBERS
REINFORCED CEMENT
Ismail Budiman1*, Mohamad Gopar1, Subyakto1 and Bambang Subiyanto2
1Research and Development Unit for Biomaterials, Indonesian Institute of Sciences,
Jl. Raya Bogor Km. 46 Cibinong, Bogor 16911, Indonesia 2Center for Innovation, Indonesian Institute of Sciences,
Jl. Gatot Subroto Kav.10, Jakarta 12710, Indonesia
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
Nowadays, application of natural fiber reinforced cement based materials in housing construction as non-structural housing components such as wall and roofing are increasing. The composites have excellent mechanical properties, dimensional stability, decay and fire resistance. Furthermore, utilization of natural fibers give environmental advantages since it reduces utilization of glass fiber or other non-renewable materials that usually used as reinforcement. In this research, we proposed two kind of natural fibers (abaca and sisal fibers) to reinforce cement bonded board. The results showed that combination of fibers treatment and addition of catalyst (magnesium chloride and calcium chloride) improved the physical and mechanical properties of the boards.
Keywords: Natural fibers, cement, composites, environmental advantages.
Introduction
Wood as raw material from natural and plantation forests decrease with increasing rate of forests deforestation in Indonesia. This is due to the widespread illegal logging that has been draining contents of forest and attention of governments in addressing this issue. As there is forest deforestation, it is necessary to find alternative of raw materials that have relatively similar function with wood. This product may be used as raw materials of commercial products derived from wood. One of the sources in the manufacture of commercial products is natural fiber derived from plants that have cellulose such as sisal, abaca, kenaf and others.
Sisal (Agave sisalana) and abaca (Musa
textilis) are two of the natural fibers that contain of cellulose which can be utilized as raw material for various types of products in the manufacture of cement board and other building materials. It is quite easy to conduct the various studies of the raw sisal fiber [1]. Sisal, one type of crops, is growing wild in South Blitar, Pamekasan and Sumenep. Sisal is suitable growth in dry weather, rocky and sloping hill-slopes. Furthermore, sisal is a perennial plant and it is periodically taken from the fiber of the leaves. Sisal area in Indonesia is around 1000 ha with a productivity of 1 ~ 1.2 tonnes fiber / ha /
year [2]. Another natural fiber with a high potential in Indonesia is abaca. The abaca plant area in Indonesia about 2000 ha with a potential of about 500 tons of fiber per year.
In industry, sisal and abaca fibers are widely used as ropes for ship, the composite with formaldehyde adhesives, plastics, and cement. However, composites of sisal with formaldehyde adhesive, such as urea formaldehyde (UF) or melamine urea formaldehyde (MUF) have a weakness in thickness swelling properties [3]. Sisal composites with plastics, including polyethylene and polystyrene, are the base material of furniture or car interior. While sisal fiber-cement composites are used as building materials and materials that require fire-resistant properties [4]. In addition, sisal fibers can also be used as building material by mixing with soil and cement in a certain ratio. Mixing results can be used as a building material that has a good ability to reduce abrasion of materials and has good strength [5].
The main problem of making fiber-cement bonded board is how to mix particles and cement to get excellent performance of board. Sisal fibers contain high extractives. Chemical components sisal fibers composed of 48~78% cellulose, 7~11% lignin, 10~24% hemicellulose, 10% pectin and 0.1% wax [6], [7]. The chemical
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composition of sisal fiber is influenced by age and place of growth. The same problem also encountered by abaca fiber. Presumably the high content of extractive substances of this fiber can reduce the adhesion properties of cement. Treatment of abaca fiber immersion in a solution of 5% NaOH and steam treatment of sisal fibers are expected to reduce extractive substances content of fiber to strengthen bond with the cement. Furthermore, the addition of catalyst calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), calcium chloride (CaCl2) and magnesium chloride (MgCl2) are expected to enhance the physical and mechanical properties of cement board. Addition of MgCl2 5% in the manufacture of cement board oil palm frond increases the suitability of a mixture of cement and oil palm frond (compatibility factor / CA) for more than 90%. It also can improve the physical and the mechanical properties [8].
The purpose of this study was to observe the influence of pre-treatment carried out on the fiber and to use of catalysts in order to improve the physical and mechanical properties of the cement board.
Methodology
Materials
Abaca fibers were obtained from Subang, West Java, while sisal fibers were obtained from Blitar, East Java. Other materials used were portland cement, natrium hydroxide (NaOH), calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), calcium chloride (CaCl2) and magnesium chloride (MgCl2). The tools used were steaming equipment, autoclave, oven and Universal Testing Machine (UTM).
Methods
1. Fiber pre-treatment
The abaca fiber was cut into 2 cm length. NaOH 5% solution was prepared to soak abaca fiber for 120 minutes. Furthermore, the abaca fiber drained and washed with clean water. The washing process was done repeatedly so that the abaca fiber has a pH of 7. Moreover, abaca fiber was dried in oven with a temperature of 60 ºC for 3 days, until the moisture content of fiber was more than 5%.
The sisal fibers were divided into two groups. The first group, sisal fiber was cut into 0.5 ~ 1 cm in length. The steam treatment was using an autoclave at 121º C and pressured of 1.15 atm conducted on fibers for 120 minutes. The fibers were then rinsed with clean water and
dried in oven for 3 days with a temperature of 60ºC until the moisture content of fiber was not more than 5%. The second group, sisal fiber is cut into 40 ~ 60 cm length. Vapor treatment using a steaming equipment at the boiling point of water carried to the fiber for 120 minutes. Fibers were rinsed with clean water and dried in oven for 3 days with a temperature of 60 ºC until the water content of fiber is not more than 5%..
2. The manufacture of cement board
The manufacture of cement board using a mold with the size of 25 x 25 x 1 cm. Density for fiber cement board with abaca and sisal fibers with steaming treatment is 1.0 g/cm3. Fiber cement ratio that used in this study is 1 : 3 based on weight, while the water cement ratio is 1:2 based on weight. Catalysts used in the manufacture of abaca fiber cement board is Ca(OH)2 as much as 5% by weight of cement. While in the the manufacture of sisal fiber cement board, both sisal fiber treatment by autoclave and steaming equipment (mild steam), the catalysts used are CaCl2 and MgCl2 as much as 5% by weight of cement.
Board manufacturing done by first wetting the fibers until moisture content reaches 60%. After 24 hours, fibers, cement and remaining water was added catalyst, are mixed to form a mixture. Mixture was then inserted into a mold that has been provided. Furthermore board sheet was cold press for 24 hours. After that the board was cured at room temperature for 28 days until the time of testing.
3. Test of Cement-fiber composites
Tests performed were moisture content, thickness swelling, water absorption, modulus of rupture, screw withdrawal, and internal bond. Standards that used are ISO 8335:1987 [9] and JIS A 5908-1994 [10].
Results and Discussions
Effects of fibers pre-treatment
Soaking treatment of abaca fiber in 5% NaOH solution reduced carbohydrate content (25.43 to 14.50%), tannins content (5.35 to 0.96 ppm), extractive substances (41.80 to 19.92%) and holoselulosa content (80.56 to 77.72%), but increasing water conent (6.81 to 8.32%), lignin content (5.28 to 10.82%) and cellulose content (57.20 to 68.19%).
Autoclave treatment of sisal fibers reduced extractive substances in cold water, hot water,
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and ethanol benzene. In the fiber without treatment, extractive substances in cold water, hot water and ethanol benzene are 15.82%, 16.76% and 4.03% respectively [3]. In the autoclave treatment for 120 hours, extractive substances in cold water, hot water and ethanol benzene decreased to 3.04%, 3.16% and 2.12%, respectively. The reduced content of extractive substances in the fibers were expected to strengthen properties of cement board. Physical and mechanical properties of boards
Physical and mechanical properties of cement-fiber composites are shown in Table 1. 1. Moisture content
Moisture contents of all cement board that produced were between 3.18% to 9.45%. Moisture content of abaca fiber cement board with soaking treatment in 5% NaOH solution is smaller than the moisture content of fiber board without treatment. Moisture content of the autoclaved sisal fiber cement board without catalyst is lower than the cement board with catalysts both CaCl2 and MgCl2. This is due to the nature of the catalyst used, CaCl2 and MgCl2 are hygroscopic or absorbs water. The water content of cement board-mild steamed sisal fiber results ranged from 3.18% to 5.47%. The smallest value of water content is 3.18% with cement board using 5% CaCl2 as catalyst.
Based on the standard cement board manufacturing using the ISO 8335:1987 standard which requires that the maximum cement board moisture content is 12%, then the whole boards made in this study were met the standard.
2. Thickness swelling
Treatment on the fiber, either abaca or sisal, does not give improvement for thickness swelling of cement board. In the abaca fiber-cement board, addition of Ca(OH)2 catalyst cannot improve to the thickness swelling. On the other hand, addition of CaCl2 and MgCl2 catalysts on sisal fiber cement boards improve the thickness swelling (0.76 ~ 0.95%).
Based on the standard cement board manufacturing using ISO 8335:1987 standard which requires that the maximum cement board
thickness swelling is 2%, some boards in this study are met the standard.
3. Modulus of rupture
The use of CaCl2 and MgCl2 catalysts on sisal fiber cement board increase the modulus of rupture (7.518~12.464 MPa). While the use of catalysts Ca(OH)2 on abaca fiber cement board did not improve the modulus of rupture.
Based on the standard cement board manufacturing using ISO 8335:1987 standard which requires that the minimum of modulus of rupture is 9.0 MPa, some boards are met the standard.
4. Internal bond
The use of CaCl2 and MgCl2 catalysts on sisal fiber cement board increase the internal bond (0.104~0.588 MPa). While the use of catalysts Ca(OH)2 on abaca fiber cement board did not improve the internal bond of cement board.
Based on the standard cement board manufacturing using ISO 8335:1987 standard which requires that the minimum of internal bond is 0.5 MPa, some boards are met the standard.
5. Screw withdrawal
The use of CaCl2 and MgCl2 catalysts on the sisal fiber cement board increase the screw withdrawals (249.7~338.8 MPa). While the use of catalysts Ca(OH)2 on the abaca fiber cement board did not improve the screw withdrawals.
Based on the standard cement board manufacturing using JIS A 5908-1994 standard which requires that the minimum of screw withdrawals is 300 N, some of the boards are met the standard.
Conclusion
It can be conclude that autoclave and
steaming treatments on sisal fiber and providing catalysts (CaCl2 and MgCl2) can improve the physical and mechanical properties of cement board. While treatment of soaking fiber with 5% NaOH solution and addition of catalyst Ca(OH)2 does not enhance of the boards properties.
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Table 1. Physical and mechanical properties of cement-fiber composites
Composition of fiber cement bonded board Physical and Mechanical Properties
MC (%)
TS (%)
MOR (MPa)
IB (MPa) SW (N)
Untreated abaca fiber 9.23 6.38 4.340 0.006 70.0 Abaca fiber with soaking in 5% NaOH solution 7.68 9.54 1.740 0.002 33.4 Untreated sisal fiber without catalyst 6.71 5.53 3.992 0.035 92.3 Untreated sisal fiber + CaCl2 5% 7.37 5.23 4.691 0.023 97.5 Untreated sisal fiber + MgCl2 5% 7.25 5.33 5.053 0.019 110.3 Autoclaved sisal fiber without catalyst 6.12 7.96 1.622 0.003 45.9 Autoclaved sisal fiber + CaCl2 5% 8.79 0.76 7.518 0.104 338.8 Autoclaved sisal fiber + MgCl2 5% 9.45 0.95 9.809 0.588 296.5 Mild steamed sisal fiber without catalyst 5.47 6.45 2,515 0.009 88.3 Mild steamed sisal fiber + CaCl2 5% 3.18 2.64 12.265 0.372 314.8 Mild steamed sisal fiber + MgCl2 5% 4.85 5.14 12,464 0.536 249.7
Note: MC = Moisture content, TS = Thickness swelling, MOR = Modulus of Rupture, IB = Internal Bond, SW = Screw withdrawal
References
[1] Sastrosupadi, A. 2006. Potential of East Java as Natural Fiber Producer for Various Agro Industry. Sinar Tani. Edisi 12 – 18 April 2006.
[2] Anonimous. 2006. Balai Penelitian Tanaman Tembakau dan Serat, Ministry of Agriculture. Information of natural fiber (internal communication).
[3] Syamani, F.A.; K.W. Prasetiyo; I. Budiman; Subyakto; B. Subiyanto. 2008. Physical and mechanical properties of particleboard from sisal and abaca fiber after steaming treatment. Jurnal Ilmu dan Teknologi Kayu Tropis 6 (2): 56 – 62.
[4] Li, Y.; Y.W. Mai; L. Ye. 2000. Sisal Fibre and Its Composites: A Review of Recent Developments. Composites Science and Technology 60: 2037-2055.
[5] Mattone, R. 2005. Sisal Fibre Reinforced Soil or Cactus Pulp in Bahareque Technique. Cement & Concrete Composites 27: 611 – 616.
[6] Mishra, S.; A.K. Mohanty; L.T. Drzal; M. Misra; G. Hinrichsen. 2004. A Review on Pinneapple Leaf Fibers, Sisal Fibers and Their Biocomposites. Macromolecular Materials and Engineering 289: 955-974.
[7] Munawar, S.S. 2008. Properties of Non-Wood Plant Fiber Bundles and the Development of Their Composites [Dissertation]. Graduate School of Agriculture, Departement of Forestry and Biomaterials Science, Kyoto University.
[8] Hermawan, D., Subiyanto, B., Kawai, S. 2001. Manufacture and Properties of Oil Palm Frond Cement-Bonded Board. Journal of Wood Science 47 (3): 208-213.
[9] ISO 8335:1987. Cement-bonded particleboards - Boards of Portland or equivalent cement reinforced with fibrous wood particles. International Organization for Standardization. Geneva.
[10] JIS A 5908:1994. Particles Boards, Japanese Standard Association, Japan.
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CULTURAL AND PRACTICAL USE OF FOREST PLANT RESOURCES IN DAYAK
TUNJUNG COMMUNITY AT KELEKAT VILLAGE, EAST KALIMANTAN
Okta Noviantina1* and Endah Sulistyawati 2
1Biology Study Program, School of Life Science and Technology,
Institut Teknologi Bandung, Bandung 2 Forestry Technology Research Group, School of Life Science and Technology,
Institut Teknologi Bandung, Bandung
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
The function of forest for the society is not only ecological, but also economic and cultural. Traditional knowledge is inherently linked to use and management of natural resources. This study aimed to investigate the traditional knowledge of use and the factual use of forest plant resources of Dayak Tunjung community in Kelekat Village, East Kalimantan. This ethnobotany study was conducted in February - April 2011, and Oktober 2011. To obtain information on the plant local names and the knowledge of people on plant use, 32 respondents were randomly selected for interview. To asses the actual uses of plants by the people, scan observation was conducted in 43 families. Sampled plants were brought for species identification in Herbarium Bandungense, ITB. This study found that 151 ethno-species were used by people in Kelekat Village; according to interviews, 18 ethno-species were used as medicine, 20 ethno-species were used as firewood, 54 ethno-species were used as building material, 42 ethno-species were used as tools material, 73 ethno-species were used as foods, and 31 ethno-species were used for others. According to scan observation data, we found that 6 ethno-species were used as medicine, 4 ethno-species were used as firewood, 15 were used as building materials, 15 were used as tools materials, 11 were used as foods, and 5 were used for others. This study suggests that Dayak Tunjung people have high number of forest plants in their traditional knowledge of use, however the number of forest plants species in factual use was lower than number of forest plant species in traditional knowledge. Keyword: Ethno-botany, forest-plant, Dayak Tunjung
Introduction
Borneo (or Kalimantan) is one of the largest
islands in Indonesia. It is known as one of the centers of plant diversity in the world, with estimated 10,000-12,000 species of flowering plants, with a huge number of endemic species. The cultural diversity of Borneo is as distinct and varied as the plant life which exists on the islands.
It is generally accepted that human has a close interaction with the environment around. Human ecology is one of disciplinary that discusses this interaction. Information in human ecologically scope is interpreted and translated into applied values and knowledge in either local or universal social system. Traditional knowledge is an accumulation of practical knowledge and believes which change adaptively through time [1]. Specific discipline in
human ecology studying the interaction between human and plants are called ethno-botany.
The early people of Borneo were hunter-gatherers and later they have settled down as shifting cultivators. The indigenous population practising shifting cultivation in Borneo is usually referred collectively as “Dayak”.
However, hunting and gathering of forest produce continue to be an indispensable part of life for Dayak people, and through many generations they have accumulated extensive knowledge on the usage of plants. Harvest and gatherer plants forest product activity is important for indigenous people who live near and in the forest. These activities become the limited action which is contributed the biggest source revenue [2].
Shifting cultivation is still being practised by the Dayaks although only in limited extent. However, forest plant gathering activity by indigenous people tends to decrease rapidly.
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Among the reasons causing such trend are deforestation and limited access to forests by indigenous people. The decrease in the activity to collect forest products becomes a serious concern as it may lead to loss of traditional knowledge, especially on the local plant use. Therefore, it is important that the traditional knowledge of local plant use currently being practised is documented and this study is an effort in that direction. This study was conducted to investigate the traditional knowledge of use and the factual use of forest plant resources of Dayak Tunjung community in Kelekat Village, East Kalimantan.
Method
This study was conducted at Kelekat village
in Kutai Kertanegara, East Kalimantan. Geographically, Kelekat village are situated at 00⁰ 12’ 555’ S and 116⁰ 18’ 325’ W. The ecosystem found in the study area are swamp forest, riparian forest, and rice field. Field works were conducted in early February 2011 until April 2011, and October 2011. The people
Dayak Tunjung is one of tribal communities in Kalimantan that mostly lives in Kutai districts. Dayak Tunjung has relationship with Dayak Benuaq[3]. Both of Benuaq and Tunjung are part of Luangan Ethnic Group [4]. Because of the long term cultural acculturation, now Tunjung people in Kelekat have many believe systems. Most of Tunjung people are Christian and the rest are Muslims and Animism. Like others Dayaks, shifting cultivation, hunting, and gathering forest plants are still practised by Dayak Tunjung people.
They still rely on these activities to meet the family daily needs. However, nowadays most of young Tunjung people work in industries near the village to fulfill their daily needs.
Free listing method
Free listing involves asking participants to spontaneously list the name of all the useful forest plants they knew and all the uses of each plant in their list[5]. The free listing method was used to reveal the knowledge of plant use representing cultural data. The number of respondents involved in freelisting were 32 randomly selected consisting of 13 men, and 19 women. We have asked several questions to the respondents, to get information about the plant
use in their traditional knowledge. We categorized the use of plant into 6 groups : food, firewood, medicine, tools, construction, and others.
Scan observation method
Scan observation method was intended to reveal the actual use of plant representing the practical data. It was conducted by visiting the house of respondents and recording the plant-based materials currently being used in the visited household. As many as 43 households were selected randomly. We asked to them about plants species that they brought to their household[6]. We categorized the use of plants into 6 groups: food, firewood, medicine, tools, construction, and others.
Specimen Identification
The initial specimen identification was conducted in REAKON’s library, using some
literature as Dransfield[7], and Wee[8]. Then, the next identification continued in Herbarium
Bandungense ITB, using some plant systematic literature as Munawaroh and Purwanto[9], Rao[10], Setyowati[11], Newman[12], van Balgooy[13] and identification website[14]. For the validity name we checked the plants name in the official site[15]. During the field work, not all plants that were mentioned by the respondents can be found while sampling. In such a case, we present the respondents with the picture of plants from an identification book to confirm and facilitate translation from local name to scientific name.
Result and Discussion
Dayak Tunjung Tradition
The forest for Dayak Tunjung people not only provide land for farming, but also supply them with various daily needs. They usually go to Gunung Anggi, or forest around Belayan river to search for firewood, foods, medicines, materials for construction and making tools. Dayak Tunjung still practice rituals inherited from their ancestors, for example marriage ceremony, ritual for opening forest for farming and ritual for expressing gratitude for good harvest.Another ritual still widely practised was traditional healing ceremony called Belian. The word belian is taken from the word beli, which means evil spirit. They believe that this ceremony can send away the evil from a sick person. They use some plants to fulfill the needs
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of the ceremony, which are taken from forest or their own garden. Some plant species that are used for belian are ron jélo (Musa acuminata
Colla.), kelapa (Cocos nucifera L.), teli’an
(Eusideroxylon zwageri Teijsm. & Binn.), benda’a (Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr.), sirih (Piper betle L.), tembakau (Nicotiana tabacum L.), and pulut (Oriza sativa L.).
In spite of that, there are still a lot of other Dayak Tunjung’s heritage that still be practiced
up to the present. Every their tradition from their ancestors, represent human interaction and relation with nature. In other words, they show us the tradition is not only to explore natural resources, but also as a lesson to live with nature mutually. Cultural and Practical Analysis
Various uses of forest plants have been found from traditional knowledge, and factual use. Overall, 151 ethnospecies were listed by respondent in interview, and 36 ethnospecies were brought to household by scan observation respondent. In Figure 1, we show the comparison between ethnospecies that represent the traditional knowledge (free listing data), and factual use ethnospecies (scan observation data).
For all categories, the number of uses reported was higher than the number of uses observed. For example, informants cited 18 different ethno-species for medicine, but we only observed 6 ethno-species being used as medicine. Food is significantly different among other categories, which informants cited 73 different ethno-species are edible, but we only observed 11 ethno-species being home as food. It is likely because of observation period not coinciding within fruit season. Free listing method captured Tunjung’s local knowledge of
plant use. This local knowledge is collected inherently from long term knowledge by the time. Tunjung people know the uses of a plant species from their ancestor and parents, and it inherited through generations. They know the use of a plant although in present forest can not be found anymore. This explains why number of ethno-species that cited by informants during interview is more than number of ethno-species that observed.
Figure 2 shows ten highest cultural ethno-species. From 151 total cited ethno-species, we found 10 ethno-species that have high value in cultural analysis. There are kayu teli’an
(Eusideroxylon zwageri Teijsm & Binn), belaa’ng (Borassodendron borneense J.
Dransf.), merembu’ng (Shorea bracteolate
Dyer.), ron biru (Licuala grandis H. Wendl.), lotong (Durio oxleyanus Griff.), kayu kapur (Shorea sp.), naka’a talun (Artocarpus integer
(Thunb) Mer.), gaay sega (Calamus caesius
Blume.), kayu kenikara (Dillenia excelsa (Jack) Gilg in Engl. & Pr.), and gaay kotok (Daemonorops fissa Blume.).
Teli’an wood (Eusideroxylon zwageri), merembu’ng (Shorea sp.) and keni kara (Dillenia excelsa) are common plants that are used as building construction and foundation. But people in Kelekat prefer Teli’an
(Eusideroxylon zwageri) for construction because of the Kelekat village location is in riparian area, and usually flooded if the rain comes. Teli’an is chosen because of its hard and
sturdy wood structure. The wood has low permeability and thick cell wall that makes it binds lots of water in hydroxyl cluster. Thus, in under water, Teli’an wood will be tighter than
the normal one[16]. Belaa’ng (Borassodendron
borneense), and ron biru (Licuala grandis) are two plants that frequently used to make serawung, one of Dayak’s handycraft. Both
species are dispersed in wide range of Borneo, especially east Kalimantan forest[17]. Lotong (Durio oxleyanus) and naka’a talun (Artocarpus
integer) are used as food, while gaay sega (Calamus ceasius) and gaay kotok (Daemonorops fissa) are used as tools basic material.
Figure 3 shows proportion of plant forest used divided by 6 categories. The most uses plant forest as for food. The second is uses for building and tools.
Ethno-species cited for firewood is relatively low. This is because the plentitude of prime stock firewood species, leheban (Vitex
pinnata), in the forest. Almost all of respondent cited this species for firewood that make this percentage of number species rated low. Unfortunately, uses for medicine are the lowest cite by informant. This is because of the plentiful number of chemically medicines that are sold at store around the village.
Figure 4 shows ten highest practical ethno-species. From 36 total observed ethnospecies, we found 10 ethno-species that have high value in practical analysis. There are gaay sega (Calamus caesius Blume.), gaay jahap (Calamus trachycoleus Becc.), preng bambu (Dendrocalamus asper (Schult.) Backer.), teli’an (Eusideroxylon zwageri Teijsm. & Binn.), ron biru (Licuala grandis H.Wendl.),
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International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 57
rumbia (Nypha sp.), ron bengkuang (Pandanus
kaida Kurz.), gaay kotok (Daemonorops fissa
Blume.), merembu’ng (Shorea bracteolate Dyer.), and gaay jepung (Daemonorops crinita Blume).
In the other hand, free listing result shows that uses category in scan observation result
mostly used as building and tools material. Both of uses category are durables, thus can be found during observation period in their house. The percentage of using forest plant as building material is 41.67%, while food is about 30.56%, medicine 16.67%, 13.89% for other uses, and 11.11% for firewood.
Figure 1. Local knowledge of plant use data from free listing method (n=151) compare with the plant
factual use with scan observation method (n=36).
Figure 2. Ten highest cultural ethnospecies.
Figure 3. Ethno-species uses (in %) from total 151 cultural ethno-species cited by respondent.
Cul
tura
l Spe
cies
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Figure 4. The ten highest practical ethno-species.
Conclusion
This study suggests that Dayak Tunjung people have high number of forest plants in their traditional knowledge of use, however the number of forest plants species in factual use was lower than number of forest plant species in traditional knowledge.
Acknowledgment
The study reported is sponsored by PT. REA Kaltim Plantation, Conservation division and is partly supported by forestry technology research group of biology study program, School of Life Sciences and Technology ITB.
References
[1] Stepp. J. R., Jones, E. C., Pavao-Zuckermann, M., Casagrande, D., Zarger, R. K., 2003, Remarkable Properties of Human Ecosystem, Conservation Ecology,
Vol 7 (3): 11 [2] Arnold. J. E. M, 1994, Nonfarm
Employment in Small-scale Forest-based
Enterprises: Policy and Enviromental
Issues, The Environmental and Natural Resources Policy and Training Project, Madison, Wiconsin.
[3] Gӧnner. C, 2001, Natural Resources
Maintenance in a Dayak Bnuaq’s Village:
A Dynamic and Prospects, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), Eschborn, Germany.
[4] Weinstock. J. A, 1983, Kaharingan and
Luangan Dayaks: Religion and Identity in
Central-East Borneo, Doctoral Dissertation, Cornell University.
[5] Martin. J. G, 1995, Ethnobotany: A People
and Plants Conservation Manual, Chapman and Hall, UK
[6] Reyes. G. V., Huanca. T., Vincent. V., Leonard. W., Wilkie. D, 2006, Cultural, Practical, and Economic Value of Wild Plants: A Quantitative Study in the Bolivian Amazon Economic Botany, Vol 60 (1): 62-74.
[7] Dransfield. S, 1992, The Bamboos of
Sabah, Herbarium Forest Centre, Sabah, Malaysia.
[8] Wee. Y. C, 2005, Ferns of the Tropics:
Revised Edition, Times Edition Marshall Cavendish, Singapore.
[9] Munawaroh. E., dan Purwanto. Y, 2008, Studi Hasil Hutan Non Kayu di Kabupaten
Malinau, Kalimantan Timur, Pusat Konservasi Tumbuhan Kebun Raya Bogor, LIPI, Bogor.
[10] Rao. A. N., Rao. V. R., Williams. J. T., Dransfield. J., Dransfield. S., Widjaja, E., dan Renuka. C, 1998, Priority Species of
Bamboo and Rattan, IPGRI and INBAR, Serdang, Malaysia.
[11] Setyowati. F. M, 2010, Etnofarmakologi dan Pemakaian Tanaman Obat Suku Dayak Tunjung di Kalimantan Timur, Media
Litbang Kesehatan, Vol, 20 (3): 104-112. [12] Newman. M. F., Burgess. P. F., dan
Whitmore. T. C, 1999, Pedoman
Identifikasi Pohon-Pohon
Dipterocarpaceae Pulau Kalimantan,
Prosea, Bogor. [13] van Balgooy. M. M. J, 1997, Malesian Seed
Plants: Volume 1- Spot Character,
Rijksherbarium, Leiden, Netherland. [14] Silk. F, 2009, www.asianplant.com.
[Access on 12 October – 13 December 2011]
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[15] Plantlist, 2011, http://www.plantlist.org. [Access on12 Oktober 2011 – 21 Maret 2012]
[16] Basri. E., Rullianty. S., dan Saefudin, 2008, Sifat dan Kualitas Pengeringan Lima Jenis
Kayu dari Kebun Raya Bogor, Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia, Bogor.
[17] Toma. T., Oka. T., Marjenah., Tatawi. M., Mori. T, 2001, Forest Rehabilitation
Requires Fire Prevention and Community
Involvement, CIFOR, Bogor.
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COMPARISON OF FIBER MORPHOLOGY OF THE BRANCHWOOD BETWEEN
Acacia mangium AND Paraserianthes falcataria AS RAW MATERIAL FOR PULP
MANUFACTURE
Ridwan Yahya
Department of Forestry, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Bengkulu
Jl. WR. Supratman, Bengkulu, 38371
Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
Acacia mangium Wild and Paraserianthes falcataria L. Nielsen are two fast-growing timber species. Both of them have been planted since the 1980s in Indonesia. The branches of these species are abundant and left on the ground as logging wastes in plantations. The purpose of this study was to compare fiber morphology of the branchwood both of the species for manufacture of pulp. The samples from both species were macerated using Franklin solution at 60ºC for 48 h. The disintegrated wood sample was measured and calculated to determine fiber dimensions and derived values, respectively. The branchwood of A. mangium had thinner cell wall, smaller runkel ratio, coefficient of rigidity and muhlsteph ratio than P. falcataria. Based on these properties, the branchwood of A.
mangium should give better pulp strength than P. falcataria. Keyword: Acacia mangium, Paraserianthes falcataria, branch, fiber dimension
Introduction
Paraserianthes falcataria L. Nilesen dan Acacia mangium Willd were selected by the Indonesian government for the development of the industrial forest estate and reforestation [1]. Those two species have become common as the supply from natural forest has diminished, while demand for forest products increased [2]. Both species were selected to be planted in plantations because they were promising species in term of adaptability and growth. Stem of those species are used as raw material for pulp and paper manufacture.
Complete utilization of fiber resources will become imperative in the future as demand for wood and other fibrous materials rises steadily. Also, the continuous increase in logging cost will eventually lead to a more complete utilization of the tree. Presently, the forest product industry is using only approximately one half of the weight of the entire tree, and this amount constitutes the marketable bole. Very little information appears to exist on the quantities and potential utilization of the other parts of the tree such us branches. One of the major reasons why only the trunk is harvested is the difficulty in cutting, handling and preparing the smaller and less symmetrical portions of the
tree. However, considerable progress has recently been made with the development of portable barker-chipper units which can probably be used effectively for converting branches to chips at the logging site.
Yahya [3] reported that fiber length, diameter and wall thickness of P.falcataria stemwood were 1.172 µm, 2.7 µm dan 0.4 µm, respectively. Fiber dimensions of A. mangium stemwood were reported by Pasaribu [4]. However to date there is no information on comparison of fiber morphology of branchwood between those species.
Methodology
One tree each of A. mangium and P.falcataria - 6 years old were used in this study. From each tree, sample was prepared from branch of big 6-8 cm. Each sample was chipped into match-size splints and placed in test tubes and macerating fluid (equal volume of 30% hydrogen peroxide and 60% glacial acetic acid was added. The wood chips were washed repeatedly with water until acid-free. The solution was shaken until the wood were completely defibered. Fibers were stained with safranin for convenience in measuring the cell
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wall thickness, lumen and fiber diameter, and fiber length.
The length of 50 macerated fibers and the total fiber width and lumen width at mid-length were measured using a micrometer through a microscope. Cell wall thickness was calculated as (fiber width – lumen width) / 2. The results were averaged arithmetically.
From the fiber dimension data, derived values were calculated according to the formulae:
RR = (FWT)2/FLD [5] MR = (FD)2 - (FLD)2/( FD)2 [6] SR = FL/FD [7] CR = FWT/FD [6] FC = FLD/FD [8]
where: RR = Runkel ratio MR = Muhlsteph's ratio SR = slenderness ratio CR = Coefficient of rigidity FC = flexibility coefficient FL = fibre length FD = fibre diameter FWT = fibre wall thickness FLD = fibre lumen diameter A t-test was used to compare fiber
morphology of branchwood between A.
mangium and P.falcataria.
Results and Discussion
Average actual and derived values of fiber dimensions for branchwood of A.mangium and P.falcataria are shown in Table 1.
According to Mablilangan and Estudillo [9], a runkel ratio less than or about equal to unity (1.25 and below) and a flexibility coefficient equal to or greater than 0.5 indicate that the material is suitable for pulp and papermaking. On the hand, Aday et al. [10]
stated that a muhlsteph percentage of 80% or less is considered favorable for pulp and papermaking. The average values of the runkel ratio of A.mangium and P.falcataria were 0.34 and 0.44, respectively. The respective fiber ratios were 0.74 and 0.69, while the corresponding muhlsteph ratios were 45.33 and 52.12 (Table 1). Based on those derived values, branchwood of A. mangium & P. falcataria would be ideal material for pulp and paper manufacture.
Fujiwara et al. [11] stated importance of hardwood resources has increased. Expectation have been raised about the potential of previously unused hardwoods, or small diameter material. Haygreen and Bowyer [12] added that branches were acceptable raw materials, although for some wood species, those might be less desirable than trunks because of low pulp strength.
Cell wall in A. mangium branchwood was statistically thinner than P. falcataria (Table 1). Thick-walled fibers produce paper which have low burst and tensile strength [13] , [12]. Biermann also mentioned that paper made from thick-walled cells also results in low folding endurance [14].
Statistically, the runkel ratio, coefficient of rigidity and muhlstep ratio in A. mangium was significantly smaller than that of the P.
falcataria and its flexibility coefficient higher. As mentioned above that less a runkel ratio [9] and a Mulhsteph ratio [10] indicate that the material is favorable for pulp and papermaking. There is a positive correlation between flexibility coefficient and burst [15], breaking length and tear resistance [9]. Based on those properties, the branchwood of A. mangium should give better pulp strength than P.
falcataria.
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Table 1. Average value of fiber dimensions and the derived values for branchwood of A.mangium and P.falcataria
No Fiber dimensions & derived values A. mangium P. falcataria
1 Fiber length (µm) 862 888 2 Fiber diameter (µm) 16.5 16.0 3 Fiber lumen diameter (µm) 12.2 9.2** 4 Fiber wall thickness (µm) 2.1** 3.2 5 Runkel ratio 0.34** 0.44 6 Slenderness ratio 52.3 55.5 7 Flexibility coefficient 0.74 0.69** 8 Coefficient of rigidity 0.13** 0.15 9 Muhlsteph ratio 45.33** 52.12
** Significantly different at the 0.01 level
Conclusions
1. Based on the runkel ratio, fiber ratios and muhlsteph ratio, branchwood of A.
mangium & P. falcataria would be ideal material for pulp and paper manufacture.
2. Statistically, the runkel ratio, coefficient of rigidity and muhlstep ratio in A. mangium was significantly smaller than that of the P.
falcataria and its flexibility coefficient higher. Based on those properties, the branchwood of A. mangium should give better pulp strength than P. falcataria.
References
[1] Sumiasri, N., D. Priadi, S. Yokota & N. Yoshizawa. 2006. Tissue culture of fast growing tropical trees in Indonesia: Mangium (Acacia mangium Willd.) and sengon (Paraserianthes falcataria (L) Nielsen). In: Y. Imamura, T. Umezawa & T. Hata (eds.), Sustainable development and utilization of tropical forest resources: 123–130. Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere, Kyoto University, Kyoto.
[2] Wahyudi, I., T. Okuyama, Y.S. Hadi, H. Yamamoto, M. Yoshida & H. Watanabe. 2000. Relationship between growth rate and growth stresses in Paraserianthes
falcataria grown in Indonesia. J. Trop. For. Prod. 6: 95–105.
[3] Yahya, R. 2003. Kualitas pulp kertas batang kayu sengon (Paraserianthes falcataria L/ Nielsen). Prosiding Seminar Nasional VI Masyarakat Peneliti Kayu Indonesia (MAPEKI). Bukittinggi, 1-3 Agustus 2003. P 176-180.
[4] Pasaribu, R.A. 1989. Pulp and paper quality of several species from the timber estate
program. Forestry Research and Development Agency. Bogor.
[5] Runkel R. 1949. Uber die herstellung von zellstoff aus hollz der gattung Eucalyptus
und versuche mit zwei unterschiedlichen Eucalyptusarten. Das Papier 3: 476–490. (In German)
[6] Tamolang, F.N. and F.F. Wangaard. 1961. Relationship between hardwood fibre characteristics and pulp sheet properties. Tappi Journal 44: 200–216.
[7] Varghese M, K. Vishnu, S.S.R Bennet & S. Jagades. 1995. Genetic effect on wood and fibre traits of Eucalyptus grandis
provenances. Pp. 64–67 in Eucalypt
Plantations: Improving Fibre Yield and
Quality. CRCTHF–IUFRO Conference. 19–
24 February 1995, Hobart. [8] Wangaard F. 1962. Contributions of
hardwood fibres to the properties of kraft pulps. Tappi Journal 45: 548–[14].
[9] Mabilangan L.C and C.P Estudillo. 1996. Philippines woods suitable for kraft pulping process. Trade Bulletin Series 5: 1–9.
[10] Aday J.U., J.G Palisoc, Y.L Tavita, and L.V Villavelez. 1980. Some Philippines Hardwood Species with Morphological Characteristic Suitable for Pulp and Papermaking. Philippine Forest Products Research Development Institute, FORPRIDECOM Technical Publication, p 1-23
[11] Fujiwara S., K. Sameshima, K. Kuroda & N. Takamura. 1991. Anatomy and properties of Japanese hardwoods. I. Variation of fibre dimensions and tissue proportions and their relation to basic density . IAWA Bull. n.s, 12: 419-424.
[12] Haygreen J. G and J.L Bowyer. 1996. Forest Products and Wood Science: An
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Introduction. Third edition. Iowa University Press, Ames.
[13] Casey J.P. 1952. Properties of paper and converting. Pp. 835–837 in Pulp and Paper
Chemistry and Chemical Technology.
Volume 2. Interscience Publisher Inc., New York.
[14] Biermann C.J. 1993. Essentials of Pulping
and Papermaking. Academic Press Inc., California.
[15] OnaT, T. Sonoda, K. Ito, M. Shibata, Y. Tamai, Y. Kojima, J. Ohshima, S. Yokota& N. Yoshizawa. 2001. Investigation of relationship between cell and pulp properties in Eucalyptus by examination of within-tree property variations. Wood
Science and Technology 35: 363–375.
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TREE INVENTORYAND CARBON STOCK MEASUREMENT ON ITB’s GANESHA
CAMPUS
Sidiq Pambudi1* and Endah Sulistyawati2
1Biology Study Program, School of Life Science and Technology, Institut Teknologi Bandung,
INDONESIA 2Forestry Technology Research Group, School of Life Science and Technology, Institut Teknologi
Bandung, INDONESIA
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
Vegetation of ITB’s Ganesha Campus makes up an important part of green open space in the
northern Bandung. This study aimed to investigate the tree diversity, density, diameter distribution and to estimate carbon storage in tree stand on ITB Ganesha Campus. A complete enumeration for trees with DBH > 5 cm were conducted in zone B, C, D, E, F, G, H of Ganesha Campus. Data collected were name of species, number of trees, height, and DBH. Biomass was estimated by allometry equations developed by Chave et al. (2005) taking into account diameter, height, and wood density. The value of aboveground carbon stock was estimated as 50% of biomass. The results shows that within the campus area of 28.68 ha, there were 1,565 trees from 139 different species in 45 families with the tree density of 54.22 trees/ha. Five species with the highest individual density were Syzygium
polyanthum (4.3 individuals / ha), Swietenia macrophylla (3.6 individuals/ha), Agathis dammara
(damar) (3.5 individuals/ha), Lagerstroemia Flos-reginae (bungur) (2.91 individuals/ha), Mimusops
elengi (2.91 individuals/ha), respectively. The zones with the highest to the lowest tree density were zone F (72.04 individuals/ha), zone B (66.75 individuals/ha), zone C (57.72 individuals/ha), zone H 56.28 (individuals/ha), zone G (54.38 individuals/ha), zone D (34.93 individuals/ha), zone E (33.82 individuals/ha). The total carbon stock from trees at ITB Ganesha Campus was 886.03 Mg or 30.89 Mg/ha.
Keywords: Tree Inventory, tree stand, carbon stock, ITB Ganesha Campus
Introduction
Carbon stock measurement has largely been
conducted at natural habitats, meanwhile the role of vegetation in urban area in storing carbon space has generally gained limited attention. Through photosynthetic activity in which the atmospheric carbon is converted into plant biomass, urban green space can play a role in reducing atmospheric CO2 as well as providing variety of ecological services such as habitat for animals. Among the components of urban green space, tree can store larger amount of carbon in its biomass compared to other life forms such as herbs/grasses and shrubs [1].
Vegetation of ITB’s Ganesha Campus
makes up an important part of green open space in the northern Bandung. Large number of big trees of many species growing in many parts of the campus creates a distinct vegetated patch in the urban area of northern Bandung. However, there has been no detailed account on the
composition of vegetation in the campus. This study is therefore aimed to provide such information for the first time. Specifically, this study aimed to investigate the tree diversity, density, diameter distribution and to estimate carbon storage in tree stand on ITB’s Ganesha
Campus. The result from this study is expected to obtain data that can be used for monitoring, planning and management of green open space in the Ganesha Campus.
Materials and Methods / Experimental
This study was conducted in ITB Ganesha
Campus, Bandung, Indonesia. The study focused on tree component only. A complete enumeration for trees with DBH > 5 cm were conducted in zone B, C, D, E, F, G, H of Ganesha Campus (Figure 1). Area of each zone was determined using ArcGIS software based on satellite image of 2007 obtained from the Center
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for Remote Sensing ITB. The areas of each zone are presented in Table 1.
Figure 1. Zone in ITB Ganesha Campus
For each tree to be measured, the data
collected were species name, height, and diameter at breast height (1.3 meters; DBH). For species identification, leaves and/or flowers were sampled for examination in the laboratory using an identification guidebook. Aboveground
biomass of tree was estimated by an allometric equation developed by Chave et al. [12] taking into account diameter, height, and wood density:
AGB = 0.0509 x ρ x D
2 x H (1)
AGB = Above-ground biomass (kg) ρ = Wood density (g/cm3) D = DBH (cm) H = height (m)
Wood density data were taken from http://www.worldagroforestry.org/ [15], http://cdm.unfccc.int/ [16], and Global wood density database [3]. Wherever the wood density of the tree species was unavailable, the standard average of 0,6 g/cm3 was taken [4]. The value of aboveground carbon stock was estimated as 50% of biomass [5].
Results and Discussion
Tree Species Composition
The results show that within the campus area of 28.68 ha, there were 1,565 trees from 139 different species in 45 families with the tree density of 54.22 trees/ha. Table 2 presents three tree species with the highest number of individuals in each zone.
Table 1. Area of each zone within Ganesha Campus Zone Total Zone B Zone C Zone D Zone E Zone F Zone G Zone H Area (Ha) 28.863 4.21 3.084 3.75 3.46 3.734 4.744 5.881
Table 2. Tree species with the highest number of individuals in each zone Zone Tree Species Number of
Individuals Zone Tree Species Number of
Individuals B Agathis damara 39 F Ficus lyrata 34 B Syzygium polyanthum 32 F Syzygium polyanthum 20 B Bauhinia purpurea 16 F Pinus merkusii 19 C Syzygium polyanthum 31 G Swietenia macrophylla 26 C Lagerstroemia Flos-
reginae 29 G Casuarina equisetifolia 25
C Tabebuia argentea 15 G Elaeocarpus
grandiflorus 23
D Tabebuia argentea 25 H Swietenia macrophylla 48 D Lagerstroemia Flos-
reginae 17 H Mimusops elengi 47
D Mimusops elengi 10 H Syzygium polyanthum 24 E Agathis damara 25 Total Syzygium polyanthum 124 E Erythrina crista-galli 18 Total Swietenia macrophylla 104 E Lagerstroemia Flos-
reginae 13 Total Agathis damara 102
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Most of tree species that were planted in Ganesha Campus have specific functions mainly for shading and decoration. There were no species that was markedly dominant. Syzygium
polyanthum has the highest relative abundance, however it constituted only 7.92% among the total 139 tree species. Genus Syzygium has highest relative abundance but constituted only 8.56 % of the total genus. Fabaceae were higher than others, but it constituted only 12.46%. These imply a high diversity nature of vegetation in the Ganesha Campus. Apart from its importance for conservation especially in urban area, such composition is ideal for preventing pest problems. Santamour [6] suggests that urban ecosystems should not have more than 10% of tree population consisting s of the same species, no more than 20% of tree population consisting of the same genus and not more than 30% of tree population consisting of the same family. Species diversity may inhibit spreading of diseases and pests. The presence of various species in an ecosystem can support the survival of any species both flora and fauna that interact within ecosystem [7].
The tree density on ITB Ganesha Campus varied for each zone (Table 3). The average tree density was 54.22 individuals/ha and this is higher than in similar land uses in Barcelona (about 25 trees / ha) [8] and 14.4 to 111.6 trees / ha [9]. Large part of land in the Ganesha Campus were occupied by buildings and other infrastructure, and tree s on the campus were generally planted to fill the empty space in the courtyard or in the roadside. Table 3. Tree density in each zone Zone Number of
Individuals Tree density
(Individuals/ha) Total 1565 54.22 Zone B 281 66.75 Zone C 178 57.72 Zone D 131 34.93 Zone E 117 33.82 Zone F 269 72.04 Zone G 258 54.38 Zone H 331 56.28
Tree Diameters Diameter range of trees in ITB Ganesha
Campus were quite diverse. Each zone there
were trees with small diameter (5 cm) and large diameter (above 80 cm). Based on the average diameter, zone with lot of big trees are in zone D, E, G and H. The diameter of a tree can be taken as indication of tree’s age. The proportion
of small trees and large trees related with a history of tree plantation on ITB Ganesha. Along with the development of infrastructure new trees were planted. While the older trees are maintained in considering the importance of conservation. Therefore, the large variation of tree diameters found at present represents a long history of tree planting in Ganesha Campus since its establishment. Table 4. Tree diameter distribution Zone Diameter
range (cm) Average
diameter (cm) Total 5 – 134.62 40.46 ± 20.89 Zone B 5.08 – 109.22 37.2 ± 19.27 Zone C 5 – 108.97 30.96 ± 17.55 Zone D 5.08 – 121.41 45.26 ± 19.03 Zone E 5.08 – 103.02 43.26 ± 15.94 Zone F 5.08 – 85.09 29.95 ± 13.81 Zone G 5.08 – 132.38 49.3 ± 22.83 Zone H 5.08 – 134.62 44.98 ± 27.33
Zone G and H zone is an area where there
are buildings constructed during the early days of ITB Ganesha Campus. The existence of the trees were maintained since the beginning of the ITB Ganesha Campus, so the trees were able to grow to maximum size. Meanwhile, small-diameter trees were planted later along with infrastructure development.
The trees that grow in urban areas have opportunity to live and grow in a long time. In urban areas generally trees are planted in open areas with enough space between individual, so that each individual tree has a chance to get more nutrients from the soil and larger space to grow. Trees that grow in urban areas receive more light due to the presence of a wider open space. The amount of light exposure may increase the rate of growth, but besides that the temperature difference compared with the natural habitat led to increased evapotranspiration rates [1].
Figure 2 shows that the proportion of trees with small diameter were higher than trees with large diameter.
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Figure 2. Comparison of the number of tree individuals based on the diameter range
Richards [10] suggests a state of ideal tree population according to age distribution, i.e. the proportion of trees with a diameter below 20 cm is about 40% population, diameter between 20-40cm diameter is about 30% population, diameter between 40-60cm diameter is about 20% population, and diameter above 60 cm is about 10%. According to these parameters, the tree composition the Ganesha Campus was close to the ideal. The presence of variation of trees age (shown in the variation of diameter) would
help the management of trees, because not all trees mature in the same time. It this way, it can reduce the cost of replanting maintenance [11].
Aboveground Carbon Stock Estimation The carbon stock was estimated using the
equation developed by Chave et al. [12] with the conversion of biomass to carbon by 50% [5]. Table 5 shows the above ground carbon stock estimation for each zone.
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Table 5. Above ground carbon stock estimation in each zone
Zone Total Carbon Stock (Mg)
Carbon stock perhectar (Mg/ha)
Total 886.03 30.89 Zone B 138.95 33.01 Zone C 57.97 18.80 Zone D 74.90 19.97 Zone E 49.37 14.27 Zone F 63.80 17.09 Zone G 210.72 44.42 Zone H 290.31 49.37
The value of aboveground carbon stock is
influenced by several factors including the diameter and height of trees, wood species density and number of individuals in an area [13]. Species that contributed the largest amount of carbon was Swietenia macrophylla
(mahogany) with the total carbon stored in all individuals of this species of about 240.22 Mg or 27% of the total carbon stored on the Ganesha Campus. This species had high number of individuals, high average of diameter and height. The average carbon stock in the Ganesha Campus was 30.89 Mg/ha. A similar study conducted in a urban open green space in the United States shows the value of carbon stored in trees of 25.1 Mg / ha [1] and in Leipzig, Germany States shows the value of carbon stored in urban open green space around 29.38 ± 11.41 Mg / ha [14]. Relatively high value of carbon stock found in the Ganesha Campus suggests that ITB’s Ganesha Campus have
important role for storing carbon in the urban area.
Compared with natural ecosystems, the potential of carbon storage per hectare in urban ecosystems are lower. However, if viewed per tree unit, the tree carbon storage in urban ecosystems can be higher than the trees found in natural ecosystems. This corresponds to the composition of the trees that make up the urban ecosystem. In urban areas large trees tend to be more common than in natural ecosystem. On the average, individual trees in urban areas that have large-diameter four times more storage carbon than the trees in the forest [1].
Conclusion
This study found 1565 individual trees of
139 species belonging to 45 families in the ITB’s Ganesha Campus. The tree composition in
the ITB’s Ganesha Campus can be considered
ideal judged by its diameter distribution and composition of species, genus and family. The aboveground carbon stock of trees in the entire ITB Ganesha Campus was 886.03 Mg, which is equal to 30.89 Mg / ha. The level of carbon stock found suggest that the ITB’s Ganesha
Campus has important role in storing carbon in urban ecosystems.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to express gratitude
to Mrs. Endah Sulistyawati as supervisor, Ecology Laboratory staff, Biosystematics Laboratory staff and all friends who helped during the field works and species identification.
References
[1] Gann, S. B. 2003. A Methodology for
Inventorying Stored Carbon in An Urban
Forest. Master Thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Master of Forestry, Virginia.
[2] Grey G. W., F. J. Deneke. 1978. Methods in
Plant Ecology. London: Blackwell Scientific Publications.
[3] Zanne, A.E., Lopez-Gonzalez, G., Coomes, D.A., Ilic, J., Jansen, S., Lewis, S.L., Miller, R.B., Swenson, N.G., Wiemann, M.C., and Chave, J. 2009. Global wood
density database. Dryad. Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10255/dryad.235.
[4] Waran, A. 2001. Carbon Sequestration
Potential Of Trees In And Around Pune
City. M.Sc. Dissertation, University of Pune, Department of Environmental Sciences.
[5] Smith J. E., Heath L. S., Jenkins J. C. 2002. Forest Volume-to-Biomass Models and
Estimates of Mass for Live and Standing
Dead Trees of U.S. Forests. Pennsylvania: United States Department of Agriculture.
[6] Santamour, F. S. 1990. Trees for urban planting: Diversity, uniformity and common sense. Proc. 7th Conf.
Metropolitan Tree Improvement Alliance
(METRIA), 7: 57-65. [7] Miller, R. W. 1997. Urban Forestry:
Planning and Managing Urban
Greenspaces (2nd Edition ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, Unites States of America: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
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[8] Chapparro, L., Terradas, J. 2009. Ecological Services of Urban Forest in
Barcelona. Centre de Recerca Ecològica i Aplicacions Forestals Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra
[9] Nowak, D.J., Hoehn, R.E., Crane, D.E., Stevens, J.C., Walton, J.T., Bond. J. 2008. A ground-based method of assessing urban forest structure and ecosystem services. Arboriculture and Urban Forestry. 34(6): 347-358.
[10] Richards, N.A. 1983. Diversity and stability in a street tree population. Urb. Ecol.
7:159-171 [11] Wright, G. M. 2005. City of Lacey: Urban
Forest Management Plant. Olympia, WA: Washington Forestry Consultant
[12] Chave, J., Andalo, C., Brown, S., Cairns, M. A., Chambers, J. Q., Eamus, D., Fo¨ lster, H., Fromard, F., Higuchi, N., Kira, T., Lescure, J.P., Nelson, B. W., Ogawa H., Puig, H., Rie´ra, B., Yamakura, T. 2005. Tree allometry and improved estimation of
carbon stocks and balance in tropical forests. Oecologia , 145 (ECOSYSTEM ECOLOGY), 87–99.
[13] Nowak, D. J. 2001. Carbon storage and sequestration by urban trees in the USA. Environmental Pollution 116, 381–389.
[14] Strohbach, M. W., Haaseb, D. 2011. Above-ground carbon storage by urban trees in Leipzig, Germany: Analysis of patterns in a European city. Landscape and
Urban Planning , 104, 95-104. [15] Anonym. 2012a. accessed 10 May 2012,
from http://www.worldagroforestry.org/: http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/products/afdbases/wd/asps/
[16] Anonym. 2012b. http://cdm.unfccc.int/. accessed 10 May 2012, from http://cdm.unfccc.int/filestorage/B/7/Y/B7Y5L3VPMSJN0ODWU2HARC41Z9XG8I/ref%2016a%20Local%20data%20for%20wood%20density%20.pdf?t=cEZ8bTNwNG9wfDCRnF12m7NeBSTmzTR5F-Q
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THE EFFECT OF Cerbera manghas (APOCYNACEAE) SEED EXTRACT AGAINST
STORAGE PRODUCT PEST Sitophilus oryzae (COLEOPTERA: CURCULIONIDAE)
Didi Tarmadi*, Ikhsan Guswenrivo, Arief Heru Prianto, Sulaeman Yusuf
R&D Unit for Biomaterials – LIPI
Jl. Raya Bogor Km. 46 Cibinong- Bogor 16911
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
Cerbera mangha’s seed is widely known as a poisonous fruit. Previous study of C. manghas seed’s extract showed the highly toxic and likely to be an alternative insecticide against subterranean termite Coptotermes gestroi and larvae of Aedes aegypti. The aim of this study is determine the effect of C. manghas seed’s extract against storage product pest Sitophilus oryzae. Drying seed powder of C.
manghas was extracted with methanol by using maceration method. First, it was evaporated by evaporation at 400C. Second, it was dried with waterbath to obtain drying extract. Third, the separation of active compound used n-hexane and ethyl acetate solvents, to obtain the n-hexane and ethyl acetate fractions. Finally, we analyzed the n-hexane and ethyl acetate fractions, using the phytochemical screening method. On the Bio-assay test, 3%, 5% and 7.5% concentration of crude extract and the fractionation applied the rice on the petri dish. Then we put twenty five imagos of S. oryzae. C.
manghas seed’s extract had an influence on the mortality of S. oryzae. N-heksane and ethyl acetate fractions had a bigger activity than crude extract. In additional, N-heksane fraction had a bigger protection than ethyl acetate fraction. C. manghas seed’s extract contains Saponium, Alkaloid,
Favonoid, Triterfenoid glikosida, and steroid.
Keywords: Cerbera manghas, storage product pest Sitophilus oryzae, n-hexane fraction, ethyl acetate fraction
Introduction
The harvest of agriculture can be getting into damage and losses, caused by against insect pest, fungi or mouse during storage time. Among the various storage product pests that we had known, the insect pest is the biggest caused of disadvantage and damage than the others. The rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae (L.) is one of the most destructive pests, found in stored cereals and processed cereal products [1]. It causes extensive losses in both the quality and quantity of commercial products as well as deterioration of seed viability worldwide [2]. Based on attack orientation and eating pattern, S. oryzae is
classified into internal feeder. Internal feeder is storage pest insect against which attacks seed. Therefore, pest control on the harvest of agriculture is needed to decrease inefficiency and losses. Nowadays, some pesticides in public market, contain dangerous material such as klorpyrifos, imidacloprid, phoxim, fanvalerate and diazinon. Utilization chemical material to application in the agriculture and the settlement
is very dangerous to human health and environment [3], [4], [5]. Beside this, this material contaminates the water in some area [6].The environmentally threat that these chemicals pose and the resistance of S. oryzae to insecticides have increased over the last five decades [7]. There is an urgent need to develop new materials or methods that are effective against these pests but are safe for humans and the environment [8]. Plants may provide potential alternatives to currently used insect-control agents because they constitute a rich source of bioactive chemicals [9]. Since these are often active against a limited number of species including specific target insects, are often biodegradable to non-toxic products, and are potentially suitable for use in integrated pest management, they could lead to the development of new classes of safer insect-control agents. Utilization of natural pesticide as a alternatively technology in the integrated Stored pest Control program has a potency to be developed as replacement of utilization chemical pesticide which have negative effect to ecology-
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agriculture system and human being. The use of environmentally friendly bio-pesticide would control pest against which attack agriculture product.
C. manghas is poisonous tree from Apocynacea family. C. manghas’s kernel is
poisonous and contains cerberin as active part of cardenolide. This tree includes in 50% dangerous tree caused 10% poison case in Kerala India [10]. Beside Ceberin, there are two cardenolide identified from C. manghas root as antiproliferatif agent and antiestrogenik when it was evaluated to big intestine cancer cell of human being [11]. In this kernel, its contains tanghinigen and Neriifolin which include in steroid class as cardiac glycoside. Cardiac glycoside have an anti cancer [12], [13]. C.
manghas’s kernel is effectively at soil termite
Coptotermes gestroi and have potency to be developed as naturally insecticide [14].
The aim of this research is to know the influence of extract C. manghas- kernel concerning the storage pest Sitophylus oryzae.
Materials and Methods
Extraction procedure : First, the kernels of C. Manghas were dried and were refined become dust with it passed at 40 mesh. Then the dust were extracted with metanol using Maserasi system. We extracted the solvent until the resolvent was clear. We got the extract of Metanol by distilling of residu with its extract using refining paper whatman. Then extract solution were evaporated using rotavapor at 40 oC. After that it was dried on waterbath to get drying extract. Fraksination Procedure : First, 175 gram of drying extract C. manghas’s kernel and aquades
were mixed until we got 300 ml of extract. Second, this extract was put in the separating funnel (capacity 1000 ml). Third, it was extracted with 300 ml n-hexana (1:1). Fourth, that this extract was stirred in order to get admixture between aquades and n-hexana. Fifth, it set aside some minutes until there was separation between two solvents. In the end of this step, we got n-hexana dissolvable and insoluble fraction. Insoluble fraction was re-extracted with other solvent such as etil asetat. On this stage, we carried out several times to get pure n-hexana dan etil asetat extracts. Sixth, the solvent extract of fraksination, was evaporated
using rotavapor at 40 oC. Seventh, it was dried on waterbath to get drying extract. Yield of each extract was calculated by : Yield (%) = x 100 %
Which : BKA = weight of drying extract that we get (gram) BKS = weight of drying extract that is extracted (gram)
Bioassay test of S. oryzae
The rice weevil, S. oryzae was obtained from Laboratory of Pest Control and Biodegradation, RDU Biomaterial-LIPI. They were provided with rice grains as food in a plastic container (20×25×30 cm) and were maintained under the following conditions: room temperature, 70-80% humidity. Approximately two-week old adult S. oryzae
were used for this experiment, which was carried out under dark conditions to avoid the effects of light. On the Bio-assay test, we applied 3%; 5% and 7.5% concentration of crude extract and the result of fractionation, at rice where we put it on the petri-dish. We choose rice because S. oryzae feeds it.
First, the rice on petri dish was given treatment. After that we put it on oven at 40 oC for 6 hours to break of solvent. Then twenty five imagos S. oryzae added on petri dish which the rice was on it. We observed the percentage of mortality and loss weight everyday during a week. Persentase mortalitas =
Where, R1= Total quantity before test
R2= Total t quantity after test Weight loss percentage = ((ODS1-ODS2)/ODS1) x 100%
Where, ODS 1 = oven-dried sample before test ODS 2 = oven-dried sample after test
Phytochemical analysis
Alkaloid test
Condensed methanol extract of Carbera
manghas L. seed solved on chloroform and filtrated. 2 N Sulfuric acid added to the filtrat and the acid layer separated to further test. Alkaloid contain analysis was conducted by
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reacting Dragendorf, Mayer and Wagner reactants in the acid layer solution, and sediment formation observed16. Positif test confirmed by various colour of sediment formed, Dragendorf showed by orange sediment; Mayer by lemon-colored sediment, and Wagner by brown sediment.
Steroid, Tryterpenoid and Saponin Test
Condensed methanol extract of Carbera
manghas L. seed filtrated and evaporated followed by adding diethylether and reacting with Liebermann-Buachard reactant, then color change observed. Residual extract added by hot aquadest, shaked until form foam layer and left for 30 m. If the foam layer is still persistence, acid chloride solution added followed by extraction with diethylether and reacting with Liebermann-Buachard reactant, then color change observed [15]. Steroid noticed by green or blue color, tryterpenoid on red, violet or brown.
Phenolic test
Condensed methanol extract of Carbera
manghas L. seed placed on plate and dropped by 1% FeCl3 solution, the color change observed. Phenolic compounds noticed by green or blue color.
Flavonoid test
Twenty mg extract of simplisia were added on 10 ml hot water, boiled during 10 minutes, filtered with paper filter, got filtrate that will use as test solvent. Five ml test solvent is added by powder or “lempeng” magnesium then adding 1
ml chloride acid concentrated and 5 ml amil alcohol. Shaking it and letting until separate and there is red on the amil alcohol layer showing flavonoid component.
Results and Discussion
Two hundreds and eight gram drying extract resulted 2000 gram drying powder C.
manghas kernel, so that the extract content consisted in C. manghas kernel as 10,04%. Then from 208 gram drying extract was separated into 175 gram and it was resulted yield 25.99% n-heksan fraction, 7.46 % of ethyl acetate fraction and 66.55% fraction insoluble (Tabel. 1). The extract result which we got, were influenced by
behavior of natural material and material which was extracted. Solid – liquid of extraction method resulted perfect extraction. Extractive substance of C. manghas kernel is more resolvability than polar solvent. Tabel. 1. Extractive content C. manghas seed
after fractionation of 175 gram crude extract.
Content of extractive substance
Fraction Weight(g) Yield (%) n-hexana soluble 45.48 25.99 etil asetat soluble 13.05 7.46 insoluble substance 116.47 66.55 Crude extract 175 The results bio-assay test of S. oryzae
Tabel. 2 show percentage of mortality S.
oryzae after “terpapar” crude C. manghas’s kernel extract at concentration 3%, 5% and 7.5%. Based on this test, we knew the biggest mortality was caused by 7.5% concentration. It was 51% in the end of observation after that the mortality decreased together with decreasing of concentration. This result showed decreasing of concentration influences on the percentage mortality of C. oryzae. Efication of extract substance is marked with significant mortality if it considered with control. Level of mortality is indicator of efication substance extract. Substance extract have bigger efication if extractive substance including in the extract give bigger mortality percentage [16]. The chemicals that attract insects at lower doses are not practical for industrial repellent use [17]. Crude extract of C. manghas’s kernel result the
low activity on mortality of S. oryzae whereas we applied the much concentration. Essential oil of Chamaecyparis obtusa leaves with 0.26 mg/cm2 impregnated paper, caused 80% mortality 2 days after treatment [1]. Extract from C. cassia (Lauraceae) bark, cinnamon oil, horseradish oil, and mustard oil acted rapidly causing 100% mortality within 1 day after treatment. An extract from Cinnamomum
sieboldii (Lauraceae) root bark was effective (80% mortality) at 1 day after treatment and gave 100% mortality at 2 days after treatment [18].
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Tabel 2. Mortality of S. oryzae after giving treatment by C. manghas seed extract during 7 days of observation.
Kind of extract
Concentration (%)
Persentage mortality of S. oryzae Days after exposure began
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Crude extract
0 0 0 0 1 3 3 3 3 3 7 9 14 22 25 30 5 6 10 12 22 27 38 45
7.5 8 11 16 21 38 46 51
n-hexane fraction
0 1 2 4 5 6 8 10 3 87 96 98 100 5 100
7.5 100
Ethyl acetate fraction
0 0 0 0 4 4 4 4 3 18 24 28 100 5 30 40 50 100
7.5 88 96 100
The result of fraction n-heksane test was different with the fraction ethyl acetate test. Fraction n-heksane gave a bigger influence than fraction ethyl acetate on the mortality of S.
oryzae. At 5% and 7.5% concentration, the mortality of S. oryzae reached 100% on the first day of testing. At the 3% concentration, the 100 % of mortality was reached on the third day of testing. Fraction of ethyl acetae also gave the big influence on the mortality of S. oryzae. This indicated that fraction n-heksan and fraction ethyl acetate from kernel of C. manghas are better than crude extract of C. manghas kernel.
Beside mortality observation of S. oryzae, we also observed percentage of decreasing weight loss rice at the end of observation. The percentage of weight loss showed consumption level.
Table 2 showed that consumption S. oryzae varied, depending of extracted substance was tested and concentration level. All of substance tested showed increasing of concentration affected consumption level of S. oryzae. Concentration level is inversely proportional with weight loss. The bigger concentration resulted decreasing weight loss. Giving N-hexane fraction caused great decreasing of consumption S. oryzae. This results show great n-hexane fraction giving protection of attacking S. oryzae. Ethyl acetate fraction is better of protection level if it compare with crude C.
manghas seed extract. Decreasing weight loss that it caused increasing extract concentration show additional extract gave increasing durability [19].
Mortality of S. oryzae is in consequence of toxic that consisting in C. manghas. Seed extract Phytochemical analysis of C. manghas kernel can be showed in Tabel 4.
Tabel 3. Weight Loss of rice on the rice given extract treatment of C. manghas kernel.
Kind of extract Concentration (%)
Weight loss (%)
Crude extract
0 7,57 3 5,27 5 4,38
7.5 3,98
n-hexan fraction
0 7,23 3 1,24 5 0,64
7.5 0,53
Ethyl acetate fraction
0 7,46 3 1,98 5 1,87
7.5 1,32
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Tabel 4. Phytochemical analysis of Carbera manghas seed kernel extract
Kind of extract Group name
Crude extract Saponim, alkaloid, flavonoid, triterfenoid glikosida, steroid n-hexane fraction Saponim, alkaloid, flavonoid, triterfenoid glikosida
ethyl acetate fraction Alkaloid, flavonoid, triterfenoid, steroid, glikosida
Saponin has poisonous effect toward insect, while steroid influence insect hormon insect exfoliation cycle [15]. Triterpenes from Junellia
aspera (Gillies ex Hook) (Verbenaceae) and chemical derivatives were evaluated for their antifeedant and toxic effects against adults of S.
oryzae. Five triterpenoids were acutely toxic by ingestion. The compounds maslinic acid, daucosterol, and 3b-hydroxy-12abromine-( 28-13)-oxide-oleanane showed the highest toxic effects, while oleanolic acid and oleanonic acid showed less toxicity [20].
Conclusion
Based on this research we concluded that C.
manghas kernel have an influence to mortality of S. oryzae. N-heksane fraction and ethyl acetate fraction have bigger activity than crude C. manghas kernel extract. However, n-heksane fraction has a better protection than ethyl acetate fraction. C. manghas seed extract contains Saponim, alkaloid, flavonoid, triterfenoid glikosida and steroid.
References
[1] Park, I.K., S.G. Lee., D.H. Choi, J.D. Park
and Y.J. Ahn. 2003. Insecticidal activities of constituents identified in the essential oil from leaves of Chamaecyparis obtusa
against Callosobruchus chinensis (L.) and Sitophilus oryzae (L.). Journal of Stored Products Research 39: 375-384
[2] Madrid, F.J., N.D.G. White and S.R. Loschiavo. 1990. Insects in stored cereals, and their association with farming practices in southern Manitoba. Canadian Entomol.122: 515-523
[3] FQPA (Food Quality Protection Act). 1996.
IPM Practitioner 18(10):10-13 [4] NRC (National Research Council). 1993.
Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and
Children. National Academy Press, Washington, DC. 386h
[5] Wright, C.G., R.B. Leidy and H.E. Dupree, Jr. 1994. Chlorpyrifos in the air and soil of
houses eight years after its application for termite control. Bull. Environ. Contam.
Toxicol. 52(1):131-134 [6] [6] Johnson, W. 2004. Diazinon and
Pesticide Related Toxicity in Bay Area
Urban Creeks: Water Quality Attainment
Strategy and Total Maximum Daily Load
(TMDL). Final Project Report, California Regional Water Quality Board, San Francisco Bay Region, March 2004, 1515 Clay St., Oakland, CA. 120 pp
[7] Kljajic, P. and I. Peric. 2006. Susceptibility to contact insecticides of granary weevil Sitophilus granarius (L.) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) originating from different locations in the former Yugoslavia. Journal of Stored Products Research 42: 149-161
[8] Yoon C, SH. Kang, SA. Jang, YJ. Kim, GH. Kim. 2007. Reppelent efficacy of Caraway and Grapefruit Oils for Sitphilus oryzae (Colepotera: Curculionidae). Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomol. 10(3): 263-267
[9] Wink, M., 1993. Production and application of phytochemicals from an agricultural perspective. In: van Beek, T.A., Breteler, H. (Eds.), Phytochemistry and Agriculture, Vol. 34. Clarendon, Oxford, UK, pp. 171–
213 [10] Gillard Y, Ananthasankaran, K Fabien B.
2004. Cerbera odollam: a ‘suicide tree’ and
cause of death in the state of Kerala, India. J. Ethnopharmacology .95 123–126
[11] Chang LC, Joell JG, Krishna PL, Lumonadio L, Norman RF, John MP, A. Douglas K. 2000. Activity-Guided Isolation of Constituents of Cerbera manghas with Antiproliferative and Antiestrogenic Activities. Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters. 10 2431-2434
[12] Wang GF, Yue WG, Bo F, Liang L, Cai GH, Bing HJ. 2010. Tanghinigenin from seeds of Cerbera manghas L. induces apoptosis in human promyelocytic leukemia HL-60 cells. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology. 30 31–36
[13] Zhao Q, Yuewei G, Bo F, Liang L, Caiguo H, Binghua J. 2011. Neriifolin from seeds
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of Cerbera manghas L. induces cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in human hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cells. Fitoterapia .82 735–741
[14] Tarmadi D, M. ismayati, KH. Setiawan, S. Yusuf. 2010. Antitermite activitiy of Carbera manghas L seeds extracts. Proceeding of The 7th Pacific Rim Termite Research Group. Singapura, 1-2 Maret 2010
[15] Harborne. 1987. Phytochemical Methods: A Guide to Modern Techniques of Plants Analysis. Chapman & Hall: New York
[16] Tarmadi, D., Setiawan, K.H., Ismayati, M., Yusuf, S. 2009. The Effication of Areca catechu L Kernel Extract against Subterranean Termite Coptotermes gestroi. Proceeding of The 1st International Symposium of Indonesia Wood research Society (IWRS), Bogor, 2-3 November 2009, pp.: 212 - 215 ISBN : 978-979-96348-6-3
[17] Hori, M. 2004. Repellency shiso oil components against the cigarette beetle,
Lasioderma serricorne (Fabricius) (Coleoptera: Anobiidae). Appl. Entomol. Zool. 39: 357-362
[18] Kima SI, JY. Roha, DH. Kima, HS Leeb, YJ Ahn. 2003. Insecticidal activities of aromatic plant extracts and essential oils against Sitophilus oryzae and Callosobruchus chinensis. Journal of Stored Products Research 39 293–303.
[19] Falah, S., T. Katayama, Mulyaningrum. 2005. Utilization of Bark Extractives from Some Tropical Hardwoods as Natural Wood Preservatives: Termitidial Activities of Extractives from Barks of Some Tropical Hardwoods. Proceeding of the 6
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[20] Pungitorea, CR., M. Garcıa, JC. Gianelloa,
M E. Sosab, CE. Tonn. Insecticidal and antifeedant effects of Junellia aspera (Verbenaceae) triterpenes and derivatives on Sitophilus oryzae (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). 2005. Journal of Stored Products Research 41 433–443
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EFFECT OF LOW ASH COAL ADDITION ON THE PROPERTIES OF BIO-
PELLET FROM BAMBOO BETUNG (Dendrocalamus asper)
Wida B. Kusumaningrum*, Ismail Budiman, Sasa Sofyan Munawar
Research and Development Unit for Biomaterial LIPI
Jl. Raya Bogor Km 46 Cibinong Bogor 16911
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
Bio-pellet that formed by densification method from biomass could be used as an alternative energy to substitute coal for household and industrial energy which could not be renewed. At present, bio-pellets are produce from wood powder and wood waste which are potentially declined. On the other hand, non-wood sources such as bamboo betung (Dendrocalamas asper) have potential to be used as raw material to produce bio-pellet. Bamboo betung is fast growing plant, wide spread in all kind of Indonesian region, and could grow in critical area such mining former with success index of about 72%. The advantages of bio-pellet from biomass are sustainable, renewable, could recycled the carbon dioxyde by photosynthesis process, less emission of sulfur, less of combustion ash, could be more environmentally friendly than that of coal briquettes. To produce bio-pellet, first of all, bamboo was milled with ring flaker and hammer mill to obtain bamboo powder qualified from 40 mesh in size. Then the material was dried to achieve water content of less than 10%. Subsequently, bio-pellets were produced by densification method with conventional pelletizer. Pressing temperatures were determined in 150, 200, and 250C and pressing time in 15 minutes. Bio-pellets were produced for 1 cm in diameter which is in accordance with the world standard of 6 mm to 1 cm. The additions of low ash coal of 5 and 10% in composition by total weight were conducted to investigate the effect on the physical, mechanical, and combustion analysis properties. Physical and mechanical properties were improved by increases of pressing temperatures. Addition of low ash coal was slightly affected to the physical and mechanical properties. Calorific value was increased by increasing of the pressing temperatures for all formula. Low ash coal addition was decreased the calorific value, ash content, and fixed carbon. Calorific values for bamboo pellet were 4,258 and 4,360 cal/g for pressing temperature of 200C and 250C.
Keywords: betung bamboo, low ash coal, bio-pellet, calorific value
Introduction
National Target Energy Mix 2025 that refers to Government Regulation No. 5/2006 explained that the extinction of fossil energy have been actuated for exploring renewable source for alternative energy. The renewable sources that could be potentially obtained in Indonesia is biomass from agricultural and forestry industries. Until 2007, biomass resources were explored for commercial uses that have potential energy about 49.81 GW and some of them about 0.3 GW [1].
Biomass is materials that compose from organic compound to produce fuel for heat, electrical, and transportation [2]. Biomass could directly obtain from the nature such as from wood, agricultural waste, forestry waste,
plantation waste, industrial waste, and also aquatic plants [3]. The unfavorable properties of biomass that could not directly burnt because of the low density has resulted in low energy. Moreover the handling problems such as biomass packaging and transportation have been unsolved [2]. Densification method could enhance the energy content of biomass and reduce of transportation cost [2].
Bio-pellet is a solid fuel that processed with carbonization and densification method from part of wood like wooden rod or bark. The advantages of bio-pellet compared with coal briquettes are renewable, sustainable, carbon dioxide lifecycle support, less sulfur emission, less ash combustion and conclude that bio-pellet is an eco-friendly bio-fuel. First production of bio-pellet was in Sweden on 1983 and national
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consumption was 1,400,000 ton/year for energy sources that mainly used for housing heater. Wood and wooden waste like sawn wood were used as bio-pellet materials. Japan and Korea were the Asian countries that consumed bio-pellet as one of the energy. Murray has notified that Korea still needs about 6 million ton of bio-pellet per year [4]. While the bio-pellet consumption in Indonesia is still unknown.
In Indonesia, byproducts from the forest industry were used for bio-pellet material. Deforestation has been effected for raw material continuity because of the wood production was decreased significantly. Hence, materials from non-wood sources were potentially used for bio-pellet production. One of the most potential non-wood materials is bamboo. Bamboo is classified as a Bamboidae that the growth rate could attained 5 cm per hour or equal to 120 cm per day. More than 75 genus and 1,250 species bamboo were noted and about 85% were growth in South Asia and South East Asia [5]. The advantageous of bamboo are because of easy handled and could well live in critical land or mined land. [6]. According to the Study of Environment and Natural Resources Department in Philippine corporate with mining industry in Province Benguet, have been indentified three varieties of bamboo that potentially used for reclamation or re-vegetation for mined land. Bambusa blumeana, Bambusa blumeana var
luzoniensis and Dendrocalamus asper were identified as reclamation plant for mined land with success index were quietly high reached 99%, 87%, and 72% respectively related to water soaking. [7]. Bamboo betung (Dendrocalamus asper) was mostly found in
Indonesia and the growth level was not affected by climate condition.
The objectives of this research were to produce bio-pellet from bamboo betung as renewable and sustainable materials and to investigate the effect of low ash coal addition on the physical and mechanical properties of the pellets.
Material and Methods
Bamboo betung was obtained from Cibinong, Bogor. Low ash coal was obtained from Sukabumi, West Java. First of all bamboo betung were milled with drum chipper, ring flaker, hammer mill, and disc mill. The material was obtained in powder form with qualified from 40 mesh in size. Subsequently it oven dried until the water content reached less than 10%. Low ash coal that qualified from 100 mesh was used.
Conventional pelletizer was used to produce bio-pellet from bamboo with densification method. Powdered bamboo and low ash coal were dry blended until well mixed. The compositions of low ash coal were determined in 0, 5, and 10%. Bio-pellets were done in 15 minutes with processing temperature 150, 200, and 250C (Table 1). Bio-pellets were kept in airtight container to maintain the water content. The bio-pellet testing consists of fuel analysis, physical, and mechanical properties. Water content, ash content, fixed carbon, calorific value, density, compressive strength, and shacking resistance on horizontal shacking movement for 1 minutes were tested. The standard JIS A 5908 2003, ASTM D3174, ASTM D3173, and ASTM D1989 were used.
Table 1. Formulation of Bio-pellet from Bamboo Betung
Codes Formulation
PB A (BBM 0%) 150C Bio-pellet bamboo betung with pressing temperature of 150C PB A (BBM 0%) 200C Bio-pellet bamboo betung with pressing temperature of 200C PB A (BBM 0%) 250C Bio-pellet bamboo betung with pressing temperature of 250C
PB B (BBM 5%) 150C Bio-pellet with 5% composition of low ash coal and pressing temperature of 150C
PB B (BBM 5%) 200C Bio-pellet with 5% composition of low ash coal and pressing temperature of 200C
PB B (BBM 5%) 250C Bio-pellet with 5% composition of low ash coal and pressing temperature of 250C
PB C (BBM 10%) 150C Bio-pellet with 10% composition of flow ash and pressing temperature of 150C PB C (BBM 10%) 200C Bio-pellet with 10% composition of flow ash and pressing temperature of 200C PB C (BBM 10%) 250C Bio-pellet with 10% composition of flow ash and pressing temperature of 250C
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a
b
c
Figure 1. Bio-pellet made from bamboo betung without the addition of low ash coal at pressing temperatures of 150C (a), 200C (b), and 250C (c).
Physical and Mechanical Properties
Density is defined as a mass unit per volume which by the higher value will difficult to package and distribute. Bio-pellet production become one of the solution so that biomass easier to package and could eliminate the difficulties of transportation problem. Bio-pellet is commercially produced with 1.5 cm in length, 1 cm in diameter, and 25 gram in weight equal to 21.23 g/cm3.
Table 2 explains the density of bio-pellet from bamboo betung both with addition of low ash coal and without addition of low ash coal. Density of bio-pellet with addition of low ash coal was higher than that of without addition of coal. It could be due to the density of coal that was higher than that of bamboo betung. Beside that both the size and form of particle affected the densification on the bio-pellet process production.
Water content on solid fuel were transported and storage with the product simultaneously. The determination of minimum water content was required because it could affected the heat content per kg of bio-pellet and furthermore the smoke availability. Moreover the water content promoted internal particle bond and in particular level facilitate heat transfer radiation. The water content analysis was resulted of 0.12-2.31% for all bio-pellet production with and without addition of low ash coal, whereas the standard for solid fuel should approximate in 0.5-10% [9].
Mechanical testing was conducted related to the storage and transportation purpose. The quality of bio-pellet could be detected with strength approach. Brazillian test for cylindrical material were done to strength testing in longitudinal position. The maximum strength resulted 3,194 kgf/mm for bio-pellet with 10% addition of low ash coal at temperature process of 150C. This result could be indicated that fine particle form of coal filled the empty space and create compact pellet. The compression strength
was decreased with increases of temperature. It could be caused of overheated some materials that affected bio-pellet become friable and addition of coal in high level temperature reduced particle intern bond. Shacking resistance is required to maintain the bio-pellet form and weight during transportation. The testing was done with vertical shacking at a certain time. The result was calculated by percent of mass endurance during shacking period. Table 2 shown that bamboo bio-pellet has good shacking resistance both for bio-pellet with addition of coal and without addition of coal.
Fuel Analysis of Bamboo Betung Pellet
Bio-pellet for solid fuel required several fuel analysis include volatile matter, fixed carbon, ash content, and calorific value. Table 3 explains the fuel analysis for bamboo betung pellet. Fixed carbon provides raw calorific value approximation of solid fuel. Main component is carbon and some of it includes hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen. Table 3 informs that the highest fixed carbon was give from bamboo betung pellet without addition of low ash coal. In this case carbon content of coal was low and slightly decreased the fixed carbon value. Hence, bamboo betung pellet with addition several amount of coal were give lower fixed carbon.
Volatile matter from solid fuel indicated other substances such us methane, hydrocarbon, hydrogen, carbon monooxyde, and un-combustibles gas like carbon dioxyde and nitrogen. It could be indicate the un-combustibles gas index on solid fuel. Value of it’s could be as ignition time approximation [9].
Highest volatile matter attained on bio-pellet from bamboo betung without addition of low ash coal, whereas low ash coal gives the lowest one. Table 3 informs that volatile matter was decreased with addition of low ash coal for all temperature process. It could be means that
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International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 79
volatile matter bio-pellet from bamboo betung has high other substances and un-combustibles matter. The tendency was found almost similar between fixed carbon and volatile matter.
Ash content is un-combustibles dirt that could clump and stoppage on furnace area. Ash could effect for handling and combustibles efficiency on furnace or boiler. Table 3 informs that ash content increased as the addition of low ash coal, whereas 5-40% permitted for solid fuel as the standard [9]. Ash content also increased with temperature level up ash. This case because some of materials were burned up and become carbonizes as well.
The important part of fuel is calorific value or combustion degree. Calorific value is heat production per mass units it influenced with water content, ash content, and types of raw
material. Table 3 shown those calorific values were increased as the temperature increased for all formula. It could be caused by the reduction of water content thereby latent condensation heat was decreased. Highest calorific values were found in bamboo betung pellet and with addition of low ash coal decreased the combustion degree. This case could effect by lower calorific value of coal that range between 4000-5000 cal/g. Only several formulas that could classified for solid fuel, there were bamboo betung pellet that produced at 200 and 250C, bamboo betung pellet that produced at 200 and 250C with 5% addition of low ash coal, and bamboo betung pellet that produced at 250C with 10% addition of low ash coal.
Table 2. Physical and Mechanical Properties Bio-pellet from Bamboo Betung
Formula Density Water content Compressive strength Shacking resistance
(g/cm3) (%) (kgf/mm) (%)
PB A (BBM 0%) 150C 0.290 1.65 0.564 98.83 200C 0.354 1.87 0.691 99.92 250C 0.435 0.12 1.253 98.70 PB B (BBM 5%) 150C 0.296 0.38 2.391 98.94 200C 0.434 2.31 0.666 99.84 250C 0.436 1.08 0.976 99.28 PB C (BBM 10%) 150C 0.450 0.12 3.194 99.76 200C 0.419 1.16 1.445 99.89 250C 0.511 0.89 0.643 98.78
Table 3. Fuel Analysis of Bio-pellet from Bamboo Betung
Formula Volatile matter ash content Fixed carbon Calorific value
(%) (%) (%) (cal/g)
PB A (BBM 0%) 150C 77.62 3.75 18.63 3,930 200C 77.76 4.27 17.97 4,258 250C 72.63 4.73 22.64 4,360 PB B (BBM 5%) 150C 75.25 8.15 16.60 3,956 200C 76.67 6.68 16.65 4,000 250C 68.46 8.71 22.83 4,001 PB C (BBM 10%) 150C 69.87 12.60 17.43 3,750 200C 72.23 11.17 16.60 3,978 250C 69.48 11.42 19.10 4,010
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Conclusion
Bio-pellet from bamboo betung
potentially used as bio-fuel that renewable and sustainable. Physical and mechanical properties were increased by temperature increased for bio-pellet with and without addition of low ash coal. The addition of low ash coal was slightly affected the physical and mechanical properties that include density, compression strength, and shacking resistance. Fuel analysis were informed that calorific value, ash content, and fixed carbon increased by the temperature increased for control, by 5% and 10% low ash coal addition. Whereas, calorific value, fixed carbon, and ash content were declined for bio-pellet that added with low ash coal. Volatile matter which referred to the substance except carbon was indicated that other substances like un-combustible matter could dash the calorific value. Therefore with the addition of low ash coal could decrease bio-pellet performance.
References
[1] http://www.esdm.go.id. Blueprint PEN by date of 10 November 2007. Accessed on 20 February 2012
[2] Zamirza, F., 2009, Pembuatan Biopelet Dari Bungkil Jarak Pagar (Jathropa Curcas L.) DenganPenambahan Sludge Dan Perekat Tapioka. Fakultas Teknologi Pertanian, IPB
[3] Bergman R. dan J. Zerbe. 2004. Primer on
Wood Biomass for Energy. USDA Forest
Service, State and Private Forestry Technology Marketing Unit Forest Products Laboratory. Madison, Wisconsin
[4] Murray, G. 2010. Canadian Wood Pellet Industry Opportunities for Korea. November 25, 2010. Wood Pellet Association of Canada.
[5] Taurista, A. Y., Riani, A. O. Dan Putra, K. H. 2006. Komposit laminat bambu serat woven sebagai bahan alternatif pengganti fiber glass pada kulit kapal. Tugas Akhir. Situs Web Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember. http://www.kemahasiswaan.its.ac.id. Downloaded on 3 August 2007.
[6] http://kaltimpost.co.id. Siapkan Bambu bagi Investasi Warga di Masa Mendatang,
Upaya Perusahaan Tambang atasi
Kerusakan Lingkungan (2-Habis), 08 Februari 2012, Accessed on 20 February 2012.
[7] http://www.sinartani.com. Bambu untuk Rehabilitasi Bekas Pertambangan. http://www.sinartani.com/IPTEK/Bambu-untuk-Rehabilitasi-Bekas-Pertambangan.html. Accessed on 20 February 2012.
[8] Fatriasari, W., Hermiati, E., 2006, Analisis Morfologi Serat dan Sifat Fisis Kimia Beberapa Jenis Bambu sebagai Bahan Baku Pulp dan Kertas, Laporan Teknik UPT Biomaterial LIPI.
[9] http://www.eergyefficiensyasia.org. Pedoman efisiensi energi untuk Industri di Asia. Accessed 23 November 2011.
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International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 81
DRY FOREST BIOMASS IN EAST NUSA TENGGARA
Aah Ahmad Almulqu
Kupang State of Agricultural Polytechnic (Politani Kupang), INDONESIA
Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
The forest ecosystem is an important carbon sink and source containing majority of the above
ground terrestrial organic carbon. The condition of East Nusa Tenggara forest is declining due to fire or logging activities. Sustainable management strategies are necessary to make this forest as carbon sink rather than source. To assess the forest’s carbon source potential, dry forest biomass is quantified
since 50% of it is carbon. This study aims to estimate the above-ground biomass of the entire study area.
Keywords: Forest ecosystem, carbon sink, above ground teresterial organic carbon, dryforest, above ground biomass
Introduction
Estimation of above ground biomass is an
essential aspect of studies of carbon stocks and the effects of deforestation and carbon sequestration on the global carbon balance and also provides valuable information for many global issues. Estimating above ground biomass is a useful measure for comparing structural and functional attributes of forest ecosystems across a wide range of environmental conditions [1].
Direct measurements of tree biomass are labor intensive, time consuming, and destructive, requiring the harvesting and handling of large amounts of plant samples. Furthermore, such destructive techniques are not suitable for studies where plants cannot be removed from the experimental plots. As an alternative, an indirect regression approach is commonly used to develop predictive equations for estimating biomass from attributes that can be measured easily.
Biomass estimation has been practiced widely as a conventional part of forest inventory, and as a result, biomass equations have been developed and reported for many species of trees in Indonesia. However, only limited biomass data exist for dry forest species. In this paper, we present a set of allometric equations for estimating above-ground biomass of dry forest species in East Nusa Tenggara.
Methods / Experimental
c.1. Location The study was located at Camplong Nature
Recreation Park, Kupang East Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia which can be classified into three forest types as virgin forest, plantation forest and savanna. c.2. Field sampling and data analysis
The total biomass of a stand measured in this research consisted of the biomass in understorey biomass (harvesting/destructive method), litters (harvesting/destructive method), living trees (algometric equation/non destructive method), dead standing trees/ necromass (algometric equation/non destructive method), felled trees/necromass (algometric equation/non destructive method) and stumps/ necromass (non destructive method) remained on forest floor [2].
Measurement for tree was conducted in 20 m x 100 m (2000 m2) plot, where the tree will devide into 2 class of diameter. That’s, diameter 5 – 30 cm (small tress), and diameter > 30 cm (big tress). Whereas sampling for understorey and litter were conducted in four 1 x 1 m2 sub-plots and litter were conducted in eight 0,5 x 0,5 m2 sub-plots, it’s located purposively within
5 x 40 m2 (200 m2) plot.
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20 m x 100 m Plot
= Tree with diameter > 30 cm (big trees) = Tree with diameter 5 cm - 30 cm (small trees)
= Understorey and litter
Figure 1. Design plot of tree, understorey and litter in plot 20 m x 100 m and 5 m x 40 m
Figure 2. Estimation of length and diameter to calculated felled trees/necromass in transect strip
In each plot, the biomass of tree was
estimated using the allometry method. In this method, the diameter at breast high (or DBH) of all trees will measured and these values were later converted into biomass using an allometric equation. The equation used in this study was specifically developed for dry vegetation , i.e. Y = 0.139D2.32 [2]. Where, Y refers to aboveground biomass (kg) and D refers to tree diameter (cm).
In contrast, the biomass of litter and understorey was estimated trough destructive sampling. Understorey taken as sample was all live tree specimens with the diameter of less than 5 cm, shrubs, and herbs. In destructive sampling, the vegetation in a given area was cut and weighed (fresh weight), and the subsamples of them was dried at 80oC, and weighed again after oven-drying. Finally, all biomass values were converted into carbon using 0.5 conversion factor [3].
Results and Discussion
Total biomass per plot of research ranged between 47,543 ton/ha and 100,266 ton/ha according to the stand, where its contributed by understorey, litter, tree, standing dead tree, fallen woody debris and stump (Figure 3). The dry forest biomass was highest for the virgin forest (100, 266 ton/ha) followed by plantation forest (75,954 ton/ha) and savanna (47,543 ton/ha).
The tree component has the significant approximate value to the total biomass potency, that is 38,514 ton/ha (virgin forest), 36,991 ton/ha (plantation forest) and 27,621 ton/ha (savanna) (Figure 4). Higher tree biomass could provide more litter, resulting in a positive relationship between biomass and nutrients; higher biomass could also be the result of more nutrient availability [3]. It shows the role of tree biomass is highly essential in supporting carbon.
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International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 83
Figure 3. Total of biomass from each plot of research
Figure 4. Contribution of biomass pools from each plots
The measurement of biomass potency in
trees biomass is conducted in two classes of tree size; those are small trees (DBH 5-30 cm) and big trees (DBH >30 cm). In general, stem diameter (diameter at breast height) was better predictor variable for biomass than tree height [4], its easily measured in the field and readily in available in forest inventory. The contribution of tree species based on small and big tree range
0,045 % (lamtoro) – 37,233 % (koelnasa) (Virgin Forest), 0,008 % (mahoni) – 36,565 % (johar) (Plantation Forest), 0,047 % (kabung) – 44,502 % (kayu putih) (Savanna); and on the big trees range 0,438 % (anonak) – 28,054 % (kesambi) (Virgin Forest), 0,758 % (flamboyan) – 64,348 % (jati) (Plantation Forest), 0,966 % (anonak) – 67,925 % (kayu putih) (Savanna).
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Figure 6. Contribution of trees in plantation forest
Figure 7. Contribution of trees in savanna
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International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 85
Table 1. Average of wood density
Species Average of wood density (kg/m3) Species Average of wood density
(kg/m3) Akasia 404 Kabesak 870 Anonak 600 Kabung 530 Asam 870 Kayu merah 480 Bafkefu 500 Kayu putih 725 Beuk 600 Keolnasa 710 Buni 750 kesambi 1010 Cendana 870 Kisel 840 Damar 660 Kopi hutan 690 Flamboyan 800 Lamtoro 820 Gamal 750 Nangka 610 Hau sena 610 Nikis 920 Hau susu 420 Pulai 300 Haufote 560 Taduk 300 Johar 840 - -
Source : http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/products/afdbases/wd/index.htm
Virgin forest has the highest potential of biomass potency and following by the plantation forest and savanna respectively. Tree sizes in virgin forest, plantation forest and savanna at 5 – 30 cm (small tree) has trend of biomass potential more than other size classes. This evidence indicates the potential for growth to reach the climax stage of succession in the near future. These smaller trees are not the highest carbon sequestration potential but they are relevant in terms of their future potential to grow up [5].
This contribution of species is related with the wood density, where biomass content increasing with wood density (Table 1). Because its highly correlated with the density of carbon per unit volume and is thus of direct applied importance for estimating ecosystem carbon storage and fluxes [6].
Trees play a key role in the global C cycle. Managing forests through agroforestry, forestry and plantation systems is seen as an important opportunity for climate change mitigation and adaptation [7].
Conclusions
Biomass potency in dryforest varies from forest types (virgin forest, plantation forest and savanna). Virgin forest has the highest potential of biomass potency and following by the plantation forest and savanna respectively. Tree sizes in virgin forest, plantation forest and
savanna at 5 – 30 cm (small tree) has trend of biomass potential more than other size classes. This evidence indicates the potential for growth to reach the climax stage of succession in the near future. These smaller trees are not the highest carbon sequestration potential but they are relevant in terms of their future potential to grow up. With high biomass potential in Camplong Nature Recreation Park, the Ministry of Forestry must urgently consider to strictly protect and conserve these forests for sequestering atmospheric CO2, which can increase carbon sink into the natural forest. Dryforest in East Nusa Tenggara can contribute to reduce the problem of greenhouse effects regarding global warming and climate changes.
Acknowledgments
The participation in this research was financed by DIKTI. We thank the Ministry of Forestry, for allowing access to Camplong Nature Recreation Park.
References [1] K. Hairiah, M. Van Noordwijk, C. Palm,
1999, Methoda for sampling above and below ground organics pools, In modelling global change impact on the soil environment (D. Mudiyarso, M. Van Noordwijk, D.A. Suyamto, eds), IC-SEA Report No. 6 (Report of training
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workshop on modelling global change impact on the soil environment at BIOTROP – GCTE/IC – SEA, Bogor, Indonesia, on 5 – 13 May 1998), BIOTROP – GCTE/Impact Centre for Southeast ASIA (IC-SEA), Bogor.
[2] S. Brown, 1997, Estimating biomass and biomass change of tropical forests: a primer. United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy.
[3] CV. Castilho, WE. Magnusson, RN. Arau´jo, RCC. Luiza, FJ. Luiza, AP. Lima, N. Higuchi, 2006, Variation in aboveground tree live biomass in a central Amazonian Forest: Effects of soil and topography, Elsevier Forest Ecology and Management.
[4] P. Ritson, S. Sochacki, 2003, Mesurement and prediction of biomass and carbon
content of Pinus pinaster trees in farm forestry plantation, South-Western Australia, Elsevier Forest Ecology and Management.
[5] J. Terakunpisut, N. Gajaseni, N. Ruankawe, 2007, Carbon sequestration potential in aboveground biomass of Thong Pha Phum National Forest, Thailand, Applied Ecology and Environmental Research.
[6] S. Mani, N. Parthasarathy, 2007, Above-ground biomass estimation in ten tropical dry evergreen forest sites of peninsular India, Elsevier, Biomass and Energy.
[7] M. Henry, N. Picard, C. Trotta, RJ. Manlay, R. Valentini, M. Bernoux and LS. André, 2011, Estimating Tree Biomass of Sub-Saharan African Forests: a Review of Available Allometric Equations. Silva Fennica.
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International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 87
HYDROTHERMAL SYNTHESIS OF RECYCLED K-RICH ASH OBTAINED FROM
EMPTY FRUIT BUNCH AND ITS APPLICATION FOR CO2 CAPTURE AND
MINERAL CARBONATION
Anggoro Tri Mursito1*, Widodo1, Anita Yulianti1, Eki Naidania Dida1, Djupriono1, Fuad Saebani1, and Syamsul Rizal Muharam2
1Research Centre for Geotechnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Jl. Sangkuriang, Gd. 70,
Bandung 40135, Indonesia 2Faculty of Mathematic and Sciences Education, University of Pendidikan Indonesia, Jl. Dr. Setiabudi
229 Bandung 40154, Indonesia
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
In this study, hydrothermal carbonation of K-rich ash derived from Pontianak, West Kalimantan-Indonesia was evaluated at temperatures ranging from 50oC to 300oC, initial CO2 pressure at between 2 MPa to 2.5 MPa and a maximum final pressure of 8.5 MPa and a residence time of 30 minutes. Raw K-rich ash was hydrothermally treated without any treatment and just with the addition of water in the laboratory scale. The yield of the solid products was about between 47 wt% and 66 wt% and the effective CO2 content which was captured by hydrothermally solid products was between 0.057 ton/ton and 0.115 ton/ton following hydrothermal carbonation. In addition, dehydration of solid product occurred at mostly 300oC, while oxidation was started at low temperature. Hydrothermally solid products are characteristically resistant to moisture adsorption at high humidity, which makes it promising for CO2 adsorption materials. The change in the carbon functional groups and their properties, as determined by FTIR and XRD, are discussed in terms of the hydrothermal carbonation process.
Keywords: hydrothermal treatment, K-rich ash, CO2 captured and storage
Introduction
The consumption of coal for electricity generation is 39.7 million tons of 25 power plants in 2008, with 11376MW of installed capacity in Indonesia. The use of coal releases proportionately more CO2 emission than other fossil energy carriers (oil and gas). Indonesian peatland fires are predominantly anthropogenic and source of more CO2 emission, started by local (indigenous) and immigrant farmers as part of small-scale land clearance activities, and also, on a much larger scale, by private companies and government agencies as the principal method of clearing forest before crops are established. Total CO2 emissions from in Indonesia alone were increased for about 38% from 233.0 in 1998 to 376.3 million tons in 2008 and are projected to increase in the future [1]. Even though, there was only one-forth of total CO2 emission of Japan in 2008 which is 1390.6 million tons.
Page et al.[2] estimated that between 0.81 and 2.57 Gt of carbon were released into the
atmosphere in 1997 from Indonesia as a whole, as the result of burning peat and vegetation [2]. This is equivalent to 13%–40% of the mean annual global carbon emission from fossil fuels, and it contributed greatly to the largest annual increase in the atmospheric CO2 concentration detected since records began in 1957. If emissions from peatland drainage and degradation (including fires) are included, Indonesia is rated third in global CO2 emissions, behind the USA and China. This CO2 emission will continuously increase with the construction of new coal fueled power plant and the increase on the capacity of existing coal fueled power plant.
Several evidences of man-made climate change have been accumulating over the past decades. Rising carbon dioxide concentrations due to anthropogenic emissions are scientifically proven to be the main cause for it. One of an alternative option to reduce the CO2 emission without modifying and/or combined within the energy production system is the retention or sequestration of carbon dioxide in stable
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geological reservoirs [3-6]. Such a strategy, so-called geological carbon sequestration, consists of capturing gaseous CO2 from emissions sources and injecting it as a supercritical fluid in terrestrial reservoirs, such as saline aquifers, depleted oil and gas fields or deep coal seams. In geological reservoirs, the supercritical CO2 could be retained by stratigraphic or structural trapping (physical isolation), solubility trapping (dissolved in the aqueous phase) and/or hydrodynamic trapping (associated to long residence time of dissolved CO2-bearing fluids in aquifers). Moreover, the CO2 dissolution into the pore water and the consequent carbonic acid formation can result in the dissolution of several minerals (mainly carbonate, oxides and hydroxide minerals) affecting the long-term confinement properties of the reservoirs [7]. Although this mechanism favors the permanent CO2 sequestration, it is expected to be slow in geological formation (hundreds of years) due to the slow kinetics of silicate mineral dissolution and carbonate mineral precipitation.
However, mineralogical carbon sequestration could contribute significantly to CO2 sequestration in the proximity of the emission source, without the need of storing the gas into a geological reservoir. This technology is called ex-situ mineral sequestration of CO2, as originally proposed by Seifritz [8] and first studied in detail by Lackner et al. [9]. At the present time, several theoretical and/or experimental studies on CO2 sequestration have been reported in the literature. The basic concept behind mineral CO2 sequestration is to mimic natural weathering processes in which potassium, calcium or magnesium silicates and/or oxides are transformed into carbonates:
)()(),,()()(),,( 2323 sSiOsCOMgCaKgCOsSiOMgCaK
(1)
Various publications [10-12] have proposed the mineral sequestration of CO2 in controlled reactors as a viable approach to reduce CO2 emissions into the atmosphere using liquid or solid alkaline residues such as municipal-waste combustion fly-ash, bottom ash, brine alkaline solutions, waste concrete and cements, steel slag, coal combustion fly-ash, alkaline paper mill waste, asbestos, etc. Obviously, the capacity to sequester CO2 for these alkaline residues depends directly on the proportion of binary oxides (K2O, CaO and MgO) and/or hydroxides
(KOH, Ca(OH)2 and Mg(OH)2) contained in the waste matrix.
In 1896, a Swedish chemist put forward the idea that CO2 emissions from the combustion of coal could enhance the greenhouse effect; leading to adverse catastrophic consequences caused by global warming [13] and has been proven by [14]. In the face of a potentially serious global climate change, 158 countries reached a historical agreement on limiting greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in December 1997, in Kyoto. While the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) signed at the Earth Summit in June 1992, other Annex I countries (i.e., the OECD countries and countries with economies in transition) already committed and engaged in projects that aim at stabilizing CO2 emission (and other greenhouse gases) at their 1990 levels by 2000. They set legally binding emissions targets and timetables for reaching emission reduction. Particularly, Indonesia as Non-Annex I can only participate in the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) for carbon trading. A CDM project is a development project, driven by market forces, that reduces green house gases (GHG). The CDM may be implemented in the following way. An emitter in Annex I calculate the cost of making the target set by its government. It may then achieve the required reduction at the calculated cost through its own ‘‘internal actions’’, such as decreasing
consumption of fossil energy, and so forth. Indonesian government has ratified Kyoto
Protocol on December 3rd, 2004, which means Indonesia has to participate in worldwide emission reductions. At present, Indonesia is not subjected to any commitments towards reducing GHG emissions. However, as Parties to Kyoto, Indonesia can voluntarily participate in the CDM and benefit from investments in the GHG
emission reduction projects [15]. The objective of the research were to utilize
and demonstrate that K-rich ash could potentially be for the CO2 sequestered and captured material and treated by hydrothermal carbonation due to the amount of alkaline content.
Materials and Methods
Raw K-rich ash samples were obtained from the incinerator plant of palm oil plant factory in PTP Nusantara XIII (Persero) Pontianak, West Kalimantan, Indonesia. The
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experiments were conducted in a 0.5 L batch-type reactor (Taiatsu Techno MA22) that was equipped with an automatic temperature controller and had a maximum pressure of 30 MPa and a maximum temperature of 400oC (Figure 1). The slurry samples were introduced to the reactor without any pretreatment. The amount of the slurry added to the reactor was 300 g, corresponding to 40 g of moisture-free K-rich ash. The reactor was then pressurized with CO2 to 2.0 and 2.5 MPa at ambient temperature. Next, the raw peat was heated with agitation at 200 rpm while the reaction temperature was automatically adjusted from 50 °C to 300 °C at an average heating rate of 6.6 oC/min. After the desired reaction time of 30 min, the reactor was cooled immediately. After cooling down, the gas products were released through a gasometer (Shinagawa DC-1) and the volume was determined by collection into a gas micro syringe (ITO MS-GANX00). The solid and liquid phases were then collected from the reactor and separated by filtration (ADVANTEC 5C) using a water aspirator.
The liquid product was analyzed for total organic carbon (TOC) and total inorganic carbon (TIC) using a TOC analyzer (Shimadzu TOC-5000A VCSH). The solid products were analyzed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) (JASCO 670 Plus), X-ray fluorescence (XRF) (Shimadzu EX-700) and X-
ray diffraction (XRD) (Rigaku Multiflex). The results of XRD profile are discussed elsewhere. The primary components and chemical structure of the K-rich ash and solid product were further analyzed by FTIR using diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy (DRIFTS) and JASCO IR Mentor Pro 6.5 software for spectral analysis.
Results and Discussion
Table 1 show the concentration of oxide
elements of raw K-rich ash and solid products treated at different CO2 pressures and temperature measured by XRF. Raw K-rich ash contained for about 70 wt.% of K2O followed by Si, Ca, Al and Mg oxides. This ash is rich in alkaline earth elements was possibly contained in palm oil trees and the nutrients from earth or land. Empty fruit bunch has an averagely high ash content for more than 3 wt.%, eventhough other wastes generated from palm oil trees such as fiber, shell, trunk and frond has lower K2O content.
As increasing treated temperature and CO2 treated pressure, CaO and SiO2 content of solid product increased manifold. While K2O content in solid products decreased due to the high solubility in water. These indicated that possibly Ca containing carbonates were decomposed and remained in solid products as well as Si.
Figure 1. Schematic figures of hydrothermal batch type reactors [16].
Stirrer
100 V
Sealed & Screw
Rotary Stirrer
H2O out H2O in
Gas Collector
N2
Temperature Control
Vessel
Heater Elements
Gasometer
Vent
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Table 1. Oxide concentration in raw K-rich ash and solid products Oxides Raw
(wt.%)
Treated at 2.0 MPa (wt.%) Treated at 2.5 MPa (wt.%)
50oC 100
oC 200
oC 300
oC 50
oC 100
oC 200
oC 300
oC
K2O 68.195 29.589 24.388 21.155 25.555 31.992 20.199 20.255 22.656 SiO2 8.274 22.961 29.621 33.064 36.928 21.801 34.301 33.301 37.444 CaO 8.178 32.599 28.030 28.828 24.677 34.735 31.609 30.330 25.238 Al2O3 5.398 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Cl 4.347 1.346 2.334 1.559 1.286 1.656 1.473 1.635 1.018 MgO 2.029 5.912 7.470 8.137 5.676 5.162 4.898 8.044 7.262 SO3 1.279 0.179 0.000 0.207 0.183 0.000 0.233 0.215 0.196 Fe2O3 0.000 1.378 1.314 1.610 1.585 0.000 1.914 0.000 1.583
A
bs.
(a.u
.)
Wavenumber (cm-1)
1000200030004000
Raw K-rich ash
50oC; 2 MPa
100oC; 2 MPa
200oC; 2 MPa
300oC; 2 MPa
3650
3580
3260
1600
1480
1150
1420
870
750
570
Figure 2. The FTIR spectra of raw K-rich ash and solid products at selected treated CO2 pressure
Development of the carbonation process
that affects on oxygen functional group development of inorganic sample will be explained by using FTIR spectroscopy analysis. Figure 2 explains about the development of oxygen and other functional group analysis results of raw K-rich ash and solid products. The examination of the 3500–3100 cm-1 zone revealed a progressive lowering in relative intensity of OH stretch content of the solid products produced started at 30oC. This peak is somewhat diminished in relative intensity, probably due to the dehydration. The strong
bands in the 3580 and 3650 cm-1 regions are due to the Si–OH stretching modes of silicate clay minerals. Increasing relative intensity of Si–OH stretching with increasing treated temperature is clearly seen in the solid product. In addition, significant changes in the oxygen content of the functional groups can also be observed in the 1600–1100 cm-1 zone. The distribution of increasing of oxygen content of the functional groups was also observed during the process.
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International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 91
Figure 3. The amount of CO2 content in hydrothermally treated solid product of K-rich ash at selected
treated CO2 pressure
Figure 3. explained the amount of CO2 content in hydrothermally treated solid product of K-rich ash. These indicated that as increasing treated temperature results in decreasing of CO2 content in hydrothermally treated solid product. As increasing of treated pressurized CO2 gas results in increasing of CO2 content in hydrothermally treated solid product. At 50oC, both treatment at 2.0 and 2.5 Mpa of pressurized CO2 gas has the maximum CO2 content of solid products at 0.087 and 0.115 ton/ton following the hydrothermal carbonation respectively.
Conclusion
In this research and study, hydrothermal carbonation of raw K-rich ash was evaluated at temperatures ranging from 50oC to 300oC at purged CO2 gas of 2.0 and 2.5 MPa, a maximum final pressure of 8.5 MPa and a residence time of 30 minutes. Raw K-rich ash has potentially be for the CO2 sequestered and captured material. The sequestered capacity of the K-rich ash depends on the treated temperature and purged CO2 gas. At 50oC, both treatment at 2.0 and 2.5 MPa of pressurized CO2 gas has the maximum CO2 content of solid products at 0.087 and 0.115 ton/ton following the hydrothermal carbonation respectively.
Acknowledgment
The authors gratefully acknowledge the contributions of PTP Nusantara XIII (Persero) Pontianak, West Kalimantan, Indonesia for serving us the sample and assistances of Center for Wetlands People and Biodiversity - Tanjungpura University, Indonesia for serving
us during the field research and experiment and contribution of intern students from Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia (UPI). The authors also gratefully acknowledge the contribution of the Laboratory of Mineral Processing and Recycling – Kyushu University Japan and Laboratory of Bitumen and Coal - Research Centre for Geotechnology LIPI for providing us the equipments and analytical instruments. Financial support was partly provided by a Research Project of Prioritas Nasional (PN-9) Penelitian Geoteknologi Perubahan Iklim.
References
[1] British Petrol (BP). BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2009.
[2] Page SE, Siegert F, Rieley JO, Boehm H-DV, Jaya A, and Limin S. The amount of carbon released from peat and forest fires in Indonesia during 1997. Nature 2002;420:61–65.
[3] S. Bachu, Sequestration of CO2 in geological media: criteria and approach for site selection in response to climate change, Energy Convers. Manage. 41 (2000) 953–
970. [4] S. Bachu, Sequestration of CO2 in
geological media in response to climate change: road map for site selection using the transform of the geological space into the CO2 phase space, Energy Convers. Manage. 43 (2002) 87–102.
[5] S. Bachu, J.J. Adams, Sequestration of CO2 in geological media in response to climate change: capacity of deep saline aquifers to sequester CO2 in solution, Energy Convers. Manage. 44 (2003) 3151–3175.
Temperature (oC)
50 100 150 200 250 300 350
CO
2 e
(to
n/t
on
) (t
ers
era
p)
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.102 MPa (CO
2)
30 minutes
Temperature (oC)
50 100 150 200 250 300 350
CO
2 e
(to
n/to
n)
(te
rse
rap
)
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
0.142.5 MPa (CO
2)
30 minutes
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[6] S.J. Friedmann, Geological carbon dioxide sequestration, Elements 3 (2007) 179–184.
[7] Y.K. Kharaka, D.R. Cole, S.D. Hovorka, W.D. Gunter, K.G. Knauss, B.M. Friefeld, Gas-water-rock interactions in Frio Formation following CO2 injection: implications for the storage of greenhouse gases in sedimentary basins, Geology 34 (2006) 577–580
[8] W. Seifritz, CO2 disposal by means of silicates, Nature 345 (1990) 486.
[9] K.S. Lackner, C.H.Wendt, D.P. Butt, E.L. Joyce, D.H. Sharp, Carbon dioxide disposal in carbonate minerals, Energy 20 (11) (1995) 1153–1170.
[10] Y. Soong, D.L. Fauth, B.H. Howard, J.R. Jones, D.K. Harrison, A.L. Goodman, M.L. Gray, E.A. Frommell, CO2 sequestration with brine solution and fly-ashes, Energy Convers. Manage. 47 (2006) 1676–1685.
[11] W.J.J. Huijgen, G.-J. Witkamp, R.N.J. Comans, Mechanisms of aqueous wollastonite carbonation as a possible CO2 sequestration process, Chem. Eng. Sci. 61 (2006) 4242–4251.
[12] W.J.J. Huijgen, R.N.J. Comans, G.-J. Witkamp, Cost evaluation of CO2
sequestration by aqueous mineral carbonation, Energy Convers. Manage. 48 (2007) 1923–1933.
[13] Othman MR, Martunus, Zakaria R, Fernando WJN. Strategic planning on carbon capture from coal fired plants in
Malaysia and Indonesia: A review. Energ Policy 2009;37:1718–1735.
[14] Yantovski E, Gorski J, Smyth B, ten Elshof J.. Zero-emission fuel-fired power plants with ion transport membrane. Energy 2004;29:2077–2088.
[15] UN (United Nations). Implementation of the CDM in Asia and the Pacific: Issues, challenges and opportunities. New York; 2003a.
[16] Mursito AT, Hirajima T and Sasaki K. Upgrading and dewatering of raw tropical peat by hydrothermal treatment. Fuel 2010;89:635–641.
[17] Mursito AT, Hirajima T and Sasaki K. Alkaline hydrothermal de-ashing and desulfurization of low quality coal and its application to hydrogen-rich gas generation. Energy Conversion and Management 2011; 52; 762-769.
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International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 93
THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND COMPRESSION TIME ON PHYSICAL,
MECHANICAL AND DURABILITY PROPERTIES OF PULAI (Alstonia scholaris (L)
ROBERT BROWN) DENSIFIED WOOD
Farah Diba
Forestry Faculty, Tanjungpura University,
Ahmad Yani Street, Pontianak, West Kalimantan, Indonesia
Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
Densification is a treatment to improve the quality of wood. The aim of this research was to evaluate the effect of temperature and compression time on physical, mechanical and durability properties of Pulai densified Wood. Pulai wood sample with measured 40 mm (R) by 80 mm (T) by 300 mm (L) and average density of 0.31 kg/cm3 was densified in different temperature and compression time. All samples were treated by steam for 1 hour with temperature 120oC. After that samples were then compressed 50% in the radial direction with compression temperature of 160°C and 180°C and compression time of 40 minutes, 50 minutes and 60 minutes respectively. Finally, after conditioning for a week in room temperature, all samples were evaluated for moisture content, density, thickness swelling, maximum cruishing strenght (MCS), modulus of elasticity (MOE) and modulus of rupture (MOR) measurements. The durability properties against termites also conducted. The result showed that temperature and compression time has improved the physical, mechanical and durability properties of Pulai wood. The average of moisture content were 6.9213%~9.8402%; density were 0.4866 kg/cm3~ 0.5310 kg/cm3; thickness swelling were 2.9409%~4.5324%; MOE were 45209,3277 kg/cm2~72345,48191 kg/cm2; MOR were 459,5852 kg/cm2~ 512,7416 kg/cm2; and MCS were 187,2919 kg/cm2~240,4178 kg/cm2. Meanwhile the mortality of subterranean termites Coptotermes
curvignathus was 61.22%~75.53% and wood weight loss was 0.65%~2.88%. The best result was achieved on Pulai densified wood with compression temperature 180°C and compression time 60 minutes. Keyword: densified wood, Pulai, compression temperature, compression time, physical, mechanical,
and durability properties
Introduction
Pulai wood (Alstonia scholaris (L) Robert Brown) found throughout Indonesia forest is a fast growing species which has a tolerant properties in a wide range of soils and habitats. Pulai has a straight trunk and a potential wood as raw material for the timber industry. Pulai wood density and durability is low, and need technology to improve the properties of wood. Various wood processing technology has been deve loped and many engineered wood products has established with different from either original materials or in the form of dimension, the nature and quality. Wood processing technology to improve the quality of wood being developed, and one of the technology was wood densification.
Densification is a process that aims to increase the density and strength of wood. Densification of wood is an alternative technology which considered necessary as one solution to overcome the demand of wood with high quality timber. Densification process is believed to improve physical and mechanical properties of wood. Wood densification process is influenced by several factors such as initial density, pre treatment before the compression process, the wood moisture content, and temperature of the compression and time of compression. Temperature and compression time is an important role in the effort to get the compaction timber with the highest physical and mechanical properties. This study aims to obtain the best temperature and compression time best in the process of densification of Pulai wood.
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Material and Methods
Material used in the study was Pulai wood from Sungai Ambawang district, Kubu Raya Regency, West Kalimantan Province. Sample test size was 40 mm (R) x 80 mm (T) x 300 mm (L) and moisture content was 12%. Pre-treatment procedure before densification process as follow : sample test were steamed in autoclave for 60 minutes with temperature 1200C. This pre-treatment to obtain the wood cells become soft and the deformation during compression can happen perfectly and not damage the timber during the process. After steaming is complete, the test sample was cooled for 50-10 minutes, then wrapped with aluminium foil to prevent burning during hot compress sion.
Densification of wood is done by the process of compression wood in the radial direction with a 30% reduction target thickness. The compression temperature used were 1600C and 1800C and compression time were 40 minutes, 50 minutes and 60 minutes. Pressure during compression is given by 60 kg/cm2. Sample test then cut into:
a. sample test for moisture content and density (2 cm x 2 cm x 2 cm)
b. sample test for thickness swelling(10 cm x 2 cm x 2 cm)
c. sample test for Maximum Crushing Strenght (MCS) (6 cm x 2 cm x 2 cm)
d. sample test for Modulus of Elasticity (MOE) and Modulus of Rupture (MOR) (30 cm x 2 cm x 2 cm)
e. sample test for durability against subterranean termites Coptotermes
curvignathus Holmgren (1 cm x 1 cm x 2 cm) The procedure of testing the physical and
mechanical properties of pulai densified wood was conducted based on British Standard Methods No. 373 (1957) [1], meanwhile testing on durability of wood against subterranean termites Coptotermes
curvignathus Holmgren was as follow: A glass jar with diameter of 4.5 cm and 11.5 cm high was fill with 30 grams of sand and 6 ml distilled water. Test sample was put on the top of sand, in the center of glass jar. 165 termites contain of 150 worker and 15 soldier were put on the top of sample test. Then the glass jar was keep in termites rearing room in the laboratory for 21 days. After that, the test sample removed from the glass jar, cleaned, and
and oven-dried and reweight to determine percentage weight loss from the equation: Weight loss (%) = (W1 – W2) /W1 × 100 (1) Where, W1: weight of wood block before exposure to
termite W2: weight of wood block after exposure to
termite Number of dead termites was recorded at the end of the test. Mortality test was determined from the equation : Mortality (%) = (N1 – N2) / N1×100 (2) Where, N1: number of initial workers N2: number of dead workers
Result and Discussion
Physical Properties of Wood
Moisture Content of Pulai Densified Wood
Wood moisture content value of Pulai densified wood was 6.92% ~ 9.84%. The best moisture content present in the Pulai densified wood with compression tempera ture 180oC and compression time 60 minutes. Analysis of varian showed that temperature and compression time given an effect to moisture content, but neither to the interaction between temperature and compression time. The average of Pulai wood moisture content values were presented in Figure 1.
Increasing temperature and compression time will result in the lower wood moisture content and vice versa. This is caused due to moisture contained in the cell cavities (free water) is empty and water contained in the cell walls (bound water) is reduced until the water content of fiber saturation point.The content of the water below the fiber saturation point in the densified wood will affect the dimensional stability and strength of wood increases. Amin and Dwianto (2006) [2] states that heat will push the water vapor out of the wood. Damage to water molecules due to the high temperature treatment causes damage to the Hydrogen bonding between molecules in the hemicellulose-lignin matrix. Increasing temperature and increasing duration of com ponents subjected to heat causes the degradation of wood hemicellu loses as the
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International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 95
major components that play a role in the binding of water molecules that can reduce the hygroscopic properties of wood cell densified wood.
Thickness Swelling of Pulai Densified Wood
The average value of thickness swelling of Pulai densified wood was range between 2.94% ~ 4.53%. The best value was achieved on Pulai densified wood with compression temperature 180oC and compression time 60 minutes. Analysis of varian showed that temperature signifcantly influenced the thickness swelling of Pulai densified wood, meanwhile the compression time and the interaction between temperature and compression time didn’t influenced the
thickness swelling of Pulai densified wood. The less water content and the content of
hemicellulose present in the cell wall can be estimated to reduce the dimensional of wood. Densification of wood with moisture content 12~18% will result in the wood which is more stable than the control wood (without
densification process). Sulistyono (2001) [3] said that during the compression process, lignin will flow to fill the space matrix due to the influence of heat. Lignin Lignin will serve as a binder or adhesive of wood component, then when lignin turn to hard after the densification process, it will make the wood dimension stable and not return to its original thickness. Densification process with high temperature caused water molecul dried and damage the Hydrogen bonding to the cyrsytalit area. It will makes wood more stable and reduce the sweeling of the wood.
Amin and Dwianto (2006) [2] said hemicellulose can degradation by heat from 180oC. It caused the stress in microfibril will release by cell wall polymer of wood. Decomposition and degradation of hemicellulose, as a main component of binding the water molecul will reduce the hygrocopis of cell wall polymer. The average value of thickness swelling in Pulai densified wood and control were presented in Figure 2.
Figure 1. The Moisture Content (%) of Pulai Densified Wood and Control
Figure 2. Thickness Swelling (%) of Pulai Densified Wood and Control
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Density of of Pulai Densified Wood
The average value of density of Pulai densified wood was range between 0,486 kg/cm3 ~ 0,531 kg/cm3. The best value was achieved on Pulai densified wood with compression temperature 180oC and compression time 60 minutes. Analysis of varian showed that temperature and compression time didn’t influenced the density
of Pulai densified wood but the interaction between temperature and compression time was signifcantly influenced the density of Pulai densified wood.
Martawijaya et al (1989) stated that Pulai wood has a density of 0.27 to 0.49 kg/cm3, while according to PIKA (1981) [4] the average of Pulai wood density value was 0.46 kg/cm3. Result of the research showed that densification process has increase the density of Pulai wood. This process increased the strong class of Pulai from class IV to class III. Haygreen and Bowyer (1989) [5] stated that density was increased if the water content reduced until fiber saturation point. Rilatupa et al (2004) [6] said that densification can improve the density of woof because the cell wall of wood is dense and contain a little hemicellulose on primary cell and middle lamela. The average value of density in Pulai densified wood and control were presented in Figure 3.
Mechanical Properties of Wood
Modulus of Elasticity (MOE)
The average value of MOE of Pulai densified wood was range between 45209.3277 kg/cm2 ~ 72345.48191 kg/cm2. The
best value was achieved on Pulai densified wood with compression temperature 180oC and compression time 60 minutes. Analysis of varian showed that temperature and compression time was significantly influenced the MOE of Pulai densified wood but the interaction between temperature and compression time didn’t give an influenced to
the MOE of Pulai densified wood. Densification process increased the strong
class of Pulai wood from class V to class IV. Wardhani (2005) [7] said that densification caused flattened cells, increasing the density and change the anatomical structure of wood. In addition to the presence of heat and compression with a certain time made the cell walls containing cellulose having a plasticier that caused permanent deformation. This condition caused mechanical properties of wood increase.
Amin and Dwianto (2006) [2] said that the increased value of MOE is also caused by the crystallization of cellulose molecules in the amorphous regions of microfibrils, and held together by lignin, which flows due to heating in the process of plasticizer during compression. If the timber subjected to external forces, like in the form of densification, the wood will change the dimension. Wood cells become flattened and the cell cavity volume is reduces. Wood cell structure becomes more dense, lignin not damage which increasing the strong of wood, reduce moisture content and increase the wood dimension stability. The average value of MOE in Pulai densified wood and control were presented in Figure 4.
Figure 3. Density of Pulai Densified Wood and Control
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Figure 4. Modulus of Elasticity of Pulai Densified Wood and Control
Modulus of Rupture (MOR)
The average value of MOR of Pulai densified wood was range between 459.5852 kg/cm2 ~ 512.7416 kg/cm2. The best value was achieved on Pulai densified wood with compression temperature 160oC and compression time 60 minutes. Analysis of varian showed that temperature and compression time didn’t influenced the MOR of
Pulai densified wood but the interaction between temperature and compression time was signifcantly influenced the MOR of Pulai densified wood. The average value of MOR in Pulai densified wood and control were presented in Figure 5.
Based on Den Berger classification (1921) as stated by Karnasudirdja et al (1978) [8], Pulai wood control was on class IV (396.1949 kg/cm2), after densification process was on class III (459.5852 kg/cm2 ~ 512.7416 kg/cm2). The combination between temperature and compression time caused the change of wood shape, reduce the water content and binding components of the cell, which increased the wood mechanical properties. Kamke (2006) [9] said that the increased of MOE and MOR on densified wood because the process made the cell structure more dense and crystalization on cellulose molecul in amorf and
microfibril area. Saranpaa (2003) [10] said that densification increase the density of wood and it is well known that most mechanical properties of wood are correlated with density. Wood with inadequate mechanical properties can be modified by various combination of compression, thermal and chemical treatments. Maximum Crushing Strenght (MCS)
The average value of MCS of Pulai densified wood was range between 187,2919 kg/cm2 ~ 240,4178 kg/cm2. The best value was achieved on Pulai densified wood with compression temperature 160oC and compression time 60 minutes. Analysis of varian showed that temperature and compression time significantly influenced the MCS of Pulai densified wood but the interaction between temperature and compression time was didn’t influenced the
MCS of Pulai densified wood. Based on Den Berger classification (1921)
as stated by Karnasudirdja et al (1978) [8], the value of MCS on Pulai wood control was on class V (158.1239 kg/cm2), and after densification process was on increase to class IV (187.2919 kg/cm2 ~ 240.4178 kg/cm2). The average value of MCS in Pulai densified wood and control were presented in Figure 6.
Figure 5. Modulus of Rupture of Pulai Densified Wood and Control
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Figure 6. Maximum Crushing Strenght of Pulai Densified Wood and Control
Kamke (2004) [11] said that temperature
and compression time has an effect on densification process. The highest compression temperature made the flattened of cell wall more faster and the longest compression time made the lower of water content in wood cell. This statement was similar on the result of this research. The best value on physical and mechanical properties was achieved on compression temperature 1800C and compression time 60 minutes.
Durability Properties of Wood
Result of the research showed that densification process was increased the durability of Pulai wood against subterranean termites C. curvignathus. Average value of termites mortality was 61.22% ~75.53% and the highest termites mortality value was on Pulai densified wood with compression temperature 180oC and compression time 60 minutes. Meanwhile on control wood the termites mortality was 25.54%. Average value of wood weight loss was 0.65% ~ 2.88% and the lowest wood weight loss was on Pulai densified wood with compression temperature 180oC and compression time 60
minutes. Meanwhile on control wood the wood weight loss was 4.21%. The average value of termites mortality and wood weight loss was shown on Figure 7.
Conclusion
Densification of Pulai wood increased the physical, mechanical and durability properties of wood. The best densification process for Pulai wood was on compression temperature 180oc and compression time 60 minutes. The compression temperature was significantly influence to the value of wood moisture content, MOE, MCS and thickness swelling but not significantly affect the density and MOR. Compression time was significantly influence to the value of wood moisture content, MOE and MCS but not significantly affect the density, thickness swelling and MOR. The interaction between compression temperature and compression time was significantly influence to the durability of Pulai wood against subterranean termites Coptotermes
curvignathus, on the value of density and MOR but not significantly affect the moisture content, thickness swelling, MOE and MCS.
Figure 7. Average value of termites Coptotermes curvignathus mortality and weight loss of Pulai
densified wood after three weeks exposure to termites
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Reference
[1] [1] British Standar. 1957. Methods of
Testing Small Clear Specimens of Timber. Serial BS 373. British standar Institution. London.
[2] [2] Amin Y dan Dwianto W. 2006. Pengaruh Suhu dan Tekanan Uap Air Terhadap Fiksasi Kayu Kompresi Dengan Menggunakan Close System Compression. Jurnal Ilmu dan Teknologi Kayu Tropis 4 (2) : 55-60.
[3] [3] Sulistyono. 2001. Studi Rekayasa Teknis, Sifat Fisis, Sifat Mekanis dan Keandalan Konstruksi Kayu Agatis
(Agathis loranthifolia Salisb) Terpadatkan. Tesis Program Pascasarjana, Institut Pertanian Bogor (Tidak dipublikasikan).
[4] PIKA. 1981. Mengenal Sifat-Sifat Kayu Indonesia dan Penggunaannya. Penerbit Kanisius. Yogyakarta.
[5] Haygreen JG dan Bowyer JL. 1989. Hasil Hutan dan Ilmu Kayu. Gadjah Mada University Press. Yogyakarta.
[6] Rilatupa J, Surjokusumo S, dan Nandika D. 2004. Keandalan Papan Lapis dari Kayu Damar (Agathis lorantimona Salisb) Terpadatkan sebagai Pelat Buhul pada
Arsitektur Konstruksi Atap Kayu. Jurnal Ilmu dan Teknologi Kayu Tropis 4 (1).
[7] Wardhani, I.Y., Surjokusumo S, Hadi Y.S. dan Nugroho, N. 2006. Penampilan Kayu Kelapa (Cocos nucifera Linn) Bagian Dalam yang Dimampatkan. Jurnal Ilmu dan Teknologi Kayu Tropis 4 (2) : 50 – 54.
[8] Karnasudirdja S, Ginoga B dan Rachman O. 1978. Klasifikasi Kekuatan Kayu Berdasarkan Hubungan Antara Ketegujan Lentur Patah dengan Sifat Keteguhan Kayu Lainnnya. Badan Penelitian dan Pengembangan Pertanian, Departemen Pertanian. Bogor.
[9] Kamke, F.A. 2006. Densified Radiata Pine for Structural Composites. Manderas Ciencia Technologia 8 (2):83-92.
[10] Saranpaa, P. 2003. Wood Density and Growth. In : Wood Quality and Its Biological Basis. Editor: J.R. Barnett and G. Jeronimidis, Blackwell Pub. Oxford, p 87-117.
[11] Kamke, F.A. 2004. A Novel Structural Composite from Low Density Wood. In Proceedings 7th Pacific Rim Bio-Composites Symposium, Nanjing, China, October 31- November 2, 2004. Vol 2. P 176-185.
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PRODUCTION OF WOOD VINEGAR FROM LABAN WOOD (Vitex pubescens
VAHL) FOR CONTROL SEED FUNGI OF PINE (Pinus merkusii JUNGH ET DE
VRIESE)
Wahdina*, Farah Diba, and Hasan Ashari Oramahi
Forestry Faculty, Tanjungpura University,
Ahmad Yani Street, Pontianak, West Kalimantan, Indonesia
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
The objective of this study were to production of wood vinegar from Laban wood (Vitex
pubescens Vahl) and to determine the wood vinegar to control seed fungi on Pine (Pinus merkusii Jungh et de Vriese). The optimum production of wood vinegar was conducted with Response Surface Methodology (RSM). These researches used box behnken design with two factors and consist of five levels. The carbonization temperatures of wood vinegar were 350oC, 400oC and 450oC. The concentrations of wood vinegar to control the fungi were 1, 2 and 3% (v/v). The fungus used was Aspergillus niger. The results from RSM analysis indicated that the optimum production of wood vinegar was achieved on pyrolysis temperature 450C, pyrolysis times of 90 minutes and moisture content of 15%. The wood vinegar has inhibited the fungi growth. The highest result was on wood vinegar with concentration 3% and carbonization temperatures 450oC. The average value of anti fungal efficiency was 100%. The growth rate of A. niger was decrease as well as increasing the concentration of wood vinegar. GCMS analysis showed that the mainly bioactive compound is acetic acid and phenol. Keywords: wood vinegar, antifungal, aspergillus niger, Laban wood, Pine wood
Introduction
The fungi associated with the seeds may cause the damage of the seeds and hence result in the loss of the viability of the seeds. Although fungicidal treatments have been used global to prevent and control fungi on seed, this treatment was limited by the concern about environment. Therefore, the search for less or non-chemical alternatives is an attractive research subject for fungi experts. The fungi associated with the forest tree seed may be recognized i.e. fungi invading the seeds at the stage when the seeds are still attached to the trees; fungi contaminating the seeds at the time after harvesting; fungi developing on the seeds during storage and shipmen, and soilborne fungi developing on the seeds when the letter had been sown in the seedbed. Some fungi associated with the forest tree seed were Aspergillus sp., Rhizopus sp., Penicillium sp., Fusarium sp., Botryodiplodia sp., Curvularia
sp., and Alternaria sp.. Wood vinegar is one of organic compound
which is a byproduct from charcoal production.
It is a liquid generated from the gas and combustion of fresh wood burning in airless condition. Raw wood vinegar has more than 200 chemicals, such as acetic acid, formaldehyde, ethyl-valerate, methanol, tar, etc. Utilization of wood vinegar has been used in several purposes such as industrial product, livestock, household and agriculture. Production and composition of wood vinegar influence numerous parameter like type of wood, moisture content of wood, temperature and time of combustion [1]. Response Surface Methodology (RSM) is a powerful and efficient mathematical approach widely applied in the optimization of process.
Some researcher have used wood vinegar to exhibited termicidal activities against Reticulitermes speratus [2] Coptotermes
curvignathus [3] fungicidal activity against sapstaining fungal, and Schizophyllum commune
[4]. According to Velmurugan et al. (2009) three wood vinegar extracts were tested against four sapstaining fungal samples to evaluate the inhibition range on sapstaining fungal growth. Based on this fact, it is necessary to develop the research about the use of wood vinegar as
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International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 101
antifungal to control forest tree disease. The objective of this research were to determine the optimum conditions of production of wood vinegar from Laban wood, to study species of fungi causing the most severe deterioration on forest tree seed disease, and to application of wood vinegar as an antifungal.
Materials and Methods
Preparation and Pyrolysis of Wood
Wood vinegar was made from burning wood meal from Laban wood. The material was collected from Pontianak Regency, West Kalimantan, Indonesia and converted into wood meals by a Willey mill with 40-60 mesh screens, and air dried to about 10, 12.5 and 15% of moisture content in Wood Workshop Laboratory, Forestry Faculty Tanjungpura University, Pontianak,West Kalimantan, Indonesia. This material was put into a closed reactor, and was heated up to the desired temperature of 350, 400, and 450C, pyrolysis times of 75, 90 and 105 minutes and moisture contents of 10%, 12.5% and 15% with 15 runs.
Experimental Design
RSM was applied to identify optimum levels of three variables of the pyrolysis temperature (x1), pyrolysis times (x2), and moisture contents of wood (x3) regarding of one responses (production of wood vinegar). The three factors and low, center, and high design point for RSM in coded and uncoded independent variables are listed (Table 1). The experiments design chosen for this research was Box and Behnken Design (BBD). BBD was possible to observe the interaction effect of the independent variables on the response. Experiments were carried out according to the design point with independent variables including pyrolysis temperature at 350C, 400C and 450C, pyrolysis times 75, 90 and 105 minutes and moisture contents of 10%, 12.5% and 15% with total of 15 experimental runs.
RSM was applied to analyze the effect of independent variables on response parameter (production of wood vinegar, %) by matching the responses studied (Y) using the second-order polynomial equation is:
Y=
k
i i j
jiijiii
k
i
ii xxxx1
2
1
0
(1)
where 0 i , ii and ij are the regression cofficients for intercept, linear, quadratic and interaction terms, respectively, and ix , jx are the independent variables [5]. To evaluate the prediction value was the optimum variable on formula maximum value, minimum value or saddle, we used kanonik analysis. Kanonik analysis is looking for the value of eigen from matrix B, the equation is:
Y = Yo + 1 W12 + 2 W2
2 + … + k Wk
2 (2)
If all the value of is positive then the result of graphic is minimum, if all the value of is negative then the result of graphic is maximum, but if value has positive and negative then the graphic was saddle [6].
Isolation and Identification of Fungi
Naturally infected seed samples of Pine tree (Pinus mercusii) were collected from Plantation Forest in Sanggau Regency, West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Fungi which grew from the seeds were transferred to agar media. They were then identified based on colonies produced on the culture media after 7 days incubation at 25oC.When identifying the fungi to species, the colonies were observed from the obverse and reverse sides. Based on spore and other characteristics, the fungi were then identified using reference to the morphological characteristics of fungi (Klich, 2002).
Table 1. The level of variable chosen for the Box-Behnken Design
Independent Variable Symbol Coded variable level
Low Center High -1 0 1
Pyrolysis temperature (oC) X1 350 400 450 Pyrolysis times (min) X2 75 90 105 Moisture contents of wood X3 10 12.5 15
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Efficacy test of wood vinegar
Efficacy test of wood vinegar as antifungal was carried out using agar media with various concentrations. Antifungal test was conducted according to Loman (1970) [9] in [7] , using Agar Block Test Methods. The media used was potatoes dextrose agar and concentration of wood vinegar was 1, 2, and 3% (v/v) from pyrolisis temperature 350, 400, and 450C. The liquid consist of a mixture of PDA and wood vinegar then put in petri dish. The fungi A. niger
was put in the center of petri dish and then incubation in culture room at 26.5oC. Resistance to decay fungi was evaluated as anti fungal efficiency (AFE) as follows:
AFE = %100)(
xGC
GTGC
(3)
Where: GC: diameter of fungal growth on control GT: diameter of fungal growth on treated media
agar GC-MS Analysis
Analysis of wood vinegar components were achieved by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) [8], model Shimadzu QP-210S (Shimadzu Manufacturing Co. Ltd, Kyoto, Japan) with capillary column (30 m x 0.25 mm inside diameter), injector temperature is 225C. The temperature in GCMS program starts from 50C until 225C and increase 10C per minute. The flow rate of helium was held at 88.3 mL/min, the MS was operated in electron ionization mode at 70 eV and the interface temperature was keep at 225C. The peak was confirmed by comparison with a standard in library data.
Results and Discussion
Production of wood vinegar from Laban
Wood
The optimization of production of wood vinegar was select on as the responses for the combination of the independent variables (Table 2). The optimum (stationer point) of wood vinegar was on pyrolysis temperature 450C, pyrolysis times of 90 minutes and moisture content of 15%. The production of wood vinegar varied on 33.87% to 39.23%. The optimum yield
of wood vinegar was 39.46%. Some factors contribute to the optimization production of wood vinegar, such as pyrolisis temperature, moisture content of the materials, pyrolisis times, and pyrolisis chamber [9]. Okutucu et al. (2011) [10] observed that wood vinegar from pistachio shell did not significantly change when the pyrolysis temperature was above 300oC. They obtained the maximum wood vinegar at the temperature between 500 and 600oC. Meanwhile Demiral and Ayan [11] also reported that the maximum yield of wood vinegar from grape bagasse was 27.60% and achieved at the final pyrolysis temperature of 550oC.
Islam and Beg (2005) [12] said that the
variation of percentage of wood vinegar yield was influence by temperature of pyrolysis. He found that at a lower temperature of 300oC the wood vinegar yield was lower than from higher pyrolysis temperature (450oC). But on pyrolysis temperature 500oC, the wood vinegar yield was lower than pyrolysis temperature of 450oC. The reason for the lower wood vinegar yield at lower temperature may be due to the fact that the temperature rise was not enough for complete pyrolysis to take place, thus yielding less wood vinegar product. On the other hand, at a higher temperature, there was a possibility of secondary decomposition reaction taking place.
Table 3 showed that the coefficient of determination value of the predicted models in this response was 0.89 indicated a relative good fit to predict these response variable. The variability nearly 90% in the response could be explained by the model. At the same time a low value of coefficient of variation (CV=3.03%) indicated a very high degree of precision demonstrated the results conducted was precise. Similar results were obtained by Sun et al. (2010) [14] stated that a very low of CV indicated a very high degree of precision and a good deal of reliability of the results of study.
Identification of Fungi
Fungi colony has a black colour and powdery. The hyfa was hyalin, conidiospora was round (globose until subglobose) with colour brown, vesicle also round and brown. The fungi has been identification as Aspergillus niger.
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Table 2. The Box-Behnken Design of the observed responses and predicted value for production of wood vinegar from Laban wood
Run X1 X2 X3 Production of wood vinegar (%) Observed Predicted
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 11 12 13 14 15
-1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
-1 1 -1 1 0 0 0 0 -1 -1 1 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 0 0 0
38.46 37.69 36.92 38.46 33.87 34.15 35.07 38.64 34.09 38.64 35.11 36.15 39.23 39.00 39.23
37.93 36.60 38.01 38.99 34.46 35.17 34.05 38.05 34.03 38.14 35.61 36.21 39.15 39.15 39.15
Table 3. Regression coefficients of the predicted quadratic polynomial model Sources of variation Coefficient of
polynomial Error t-value Pr>t
Intercept X1 X2 X3 X1 * X1 X2 * X1 X2 * X2 X3 * X1 X3 * X2 X3 * X3
39.15 0.62 -0.09 1.18 -0.92 0.58 -0.35 0.82 -0.88 -2.80
0.65 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.58 0.56 0.58 0.56 0.56 0.58
60.62 1.56 -0.22 2.98 -1.58 1.03 -0.61 1.47 -1.57 -4.81
0.00 0.18 0.83 0.03 0.18 0.40 0.57 0.20 0.18 0.00
Coefficient of variation = 3.03%, R2 = 0.89
Figure 1. Fungi Aspergillus niger
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Antifungal properties
An experiment of anti fungal activity of each wood vinegar has been carried out. In this experiment the influence of each wood vinegar on the relative growth of fungi was examined. The anti fungal efficiency of each wood vinegar was shown on Figure 2. Average anti fungal efficiency from all wood vinegar was range between 5 ~ 100%. Wood vinegar from Laban wood with concentration 3% was the highest anti fungal efficiency value.
When the pyrolisis temperature gets higher, the average antifungal efficiency was more higher. The growth rate of A. niger was decrease as well as increasing the concentration of wood vinegar. The different anti fungal efficiency of wood vinegar was based on the different of chemical compound on wood vinegar. It was shown by previous investigators that certain chemical compound plays some role in preventing the subsequent degradation of wood [13]; [14]. Wood vinegar mainly consists of phenolic and acetic acid. Phenolic components such as phenol, guaicol and cresol which are considered to act as biocidal agents might be
responsible for anti fungal properties of wood vinegar. In the investigations of Tongdeethare (2002) [15] demonstrated the results on the anti fungal effect of wood vinegar from bamboo on agriculture field. GC-MS Analysis
Result from GCMS analysis showed that wood vinegar contained of acetic acid, carbonyl derivatives, methyl alcohol, 2-propanone, 1-hydroxy, and phenol derivatives. The predominant component in wood vinegar was acetic acid. Table 4 showed the relative percentage quantities of the compounds identified by GCMS in the wood vinegar with pyrolisis temperature 4500C. Acetic acid has an activities as fungicidal and termiticidal [16]; [17]. Meanwhile 2-propanone,1-hydroxy- also known as acetol. This compound is a high value added for medicine synthesis [18]. Methyl alcohol and 2-propanone was used as antifungal [19]. Wood vinegar mainly consists of phenolic and acetic acid. Phenolic components such as phenol, guaicol and cresol which are considered to act as biocidal agents might be responsible for anti fungal properties of wood vinegar.
Figure 2. Anti Fungal of wood vinegar from Laban wood in different temperature of pyrolisis and
different concentration
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Table 4. Relative percentage quantities of the compounds identified by GCMS in the wood vinegar of Laban wood with pyrolisis temperature 4500C
No RT Wood Vinegar Compounds Area 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
2.210 2.746 2.835 3.151 3.580 4.957 5.539 9.902
12.001 12.319 13.268 13.499 13.687 14.401 14.843 14.933 15.365 15.600 15.684 15.938 16.260 17.492 17.838 19.850 20.267 21.804 23.355
Acetaldehyde 2-Propanone Methyl ester Furan, tetrahydro- Methyl alcohol 2,3-Butanedione Acetronitrile Cyclopentanone 2-Butanone, 3-hydroxy- 2-Propanone, 1-hydroxy 2-Cyclopenten-1-one 2-Methyl-2-cyclopenten-1-one 1-Hydroxy-2-butanone Acetic acid 2-Propanone, 1-(acetyloxy) 2-Furancarboxaldehyde 4,4-Dimethyl-2-cyclopenten-1-one Ethanone, 1-(2-furanyl) Butanoic acid 3-Methyl-2-cyclopenten-1-one 2,3-Dimethyl-2-cyclopenten-1-one Butyrolactone 2-Furanmethanol 1,2-Cyclopentanedione, 3-methyl Phenol, 4-methoxy Phenol Pentanal
0.22 5.13 0.63 0.11
19.66 1.07 0.51 0.80 0.56 7.42 2.42 1.57 1.74
39.73 1.17 0.32 0.26 1.03 1.60 3.49 1.01 1.85 3.80 0.94 0.65 1.65 0.66
Conclusion
RSM was used to determine the optimum process parameters that maximum of yield production of wood vinegar from Laban wood. Optimum production of wood vinegar was obtained at pyrolysis temperature 450C, pyrolysis times of 90 minutes and moisture content of 15%. The production of wood vinegar varied on 33.87% to 39.23%. The optimum yield of wood vinegar was 39.46%. Analysis GCMS on the wood vinegar resulted in that main chemical compound of wood vinegar from Laban wood consist of acetic acid, methyl alcohol, 2-propanone,1-hydroxy (acetol), carbonyl derivatives, and phenol derivatives. The wood vinegar with concentration 3% and pyrolisis temperature 450oC was a potential used for antifungal on Aspergilus niger.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to Directorate of
General Higher Education, Ministry of
Education and Culture Indonesia for funding this research in Program Hibah Bersaing Research.
Reference
[1] Apai W, Tongdeethare S. 2001. Wood
Vinegar the New Organic Compound for Agriculture in Thailand 4th Conference Toxicity Division, Department of Agriculture, 166-169.
[2] Yatagai M, Nishimoto M, Ohira KHT, Shibata A. 2002. Termiticidal activity of wood vinegar, its components and their homologues. J Wood Sci. 48: 338–342.
[3] Diba F, Oramahi H A. 2009. Antitermitic Activity of Wood Vinegar and Its Components. International symposium The 1st International Wood Research
Symposium. Bogor. [4] Oramahi H A, 2010. Component and Anti-
Fungal Efficiency of Wood Vineger Liquor Prepared Under Different Temperatures Condition. International Symposium The
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3rd
Regional Conference on Natural
Resources in The Tropics (NRTrop3). [5] Oramahi H A. 2000. Teori dan Aplikasi
Response Surface Methodology (RSM). 1st ed. Yogyakarta: Ardana Medya.
[6] Aslan N, Cebeci Y. 2007. Application of Box–Behnken design and response surface methodology for modelling of some Turkish coals. J Fuel. 86:90–97.
[7] Syafii, W and T. Yoshimoto. 1993. Extractives from some tropical hardwoods and their influences on the growth of wood decaying fungi. Indonesia Journal of Tropical Agricultural Vol 4 (2) 1993.
[8] Mun SP, Chang SK. 2010. Pyrolysis GC-MS analysis of tars formed during the aging of wood and bamboo crude vinegars. J Wood Sci. 56: 47-52.
[9] Bedmutha R, Booker CJ, Ferrante L, Briens C, Berruti F, Yeung KKC, Scott I, Conn K. 2011. Insecticidal and bactericidal characteristics of the bio-oil from the fast pyrolysis of coffee grounds. J of Analytical
and Applied Pyrolysis. 90: 224–231. [10] Okutucu C, Duman G, Ucar S, Yasa I,
Yanik J. 2011. Production of fungicidal oil and activated carbon from pistachio shell. J
Analytical and Pyrolysis. 91:140-146. [11] Demiral I, Ayan EA. 2011. Pyrolysis of
grape bagasse: effect of pyrolysis conditions on the product yields and characterization of the liquid product. J. Bioresource Technology. 102:3946–3951.
[12] Islam MN, Beg MRA. 2005. Pyrolytic oil from fixed bed pyrolysis of municipal solid waste and its characterization. J.
Renewable Energy. 30:413–420. [14] Sun Y, Liu J, Kennedy JF. 2010. Application of response surface methodology for optimization of polysaccharides
production parameters from the roots of Codonopsis pilosula by a central composite design. J Carbohydrate Polymers .80:949–
953. [13] Inoue S, T Hata, Y Imamura. 2000.
Components and Anti-Fungal Efficiency of Wood Vinegar Liqour Prepared Under Different Carbonization Conditions. Wood Research No 87 pp 34-36
[14] Lin H.C, Y. Murase, T.C.Shiah, G.S. Hwang, P.K.Chen, and W.L. Wu. 2008. Application of Moso Bamboo Vinegar with Different Collection Temperatures to Evaluation Fungi Resistance of Moso Bamboo Materials. Journal Fac Agr Kyushu Univ 53 (1), 107-113.
[15] Tongdeethare S. 2002. Wood Vinegar, the new Organic Compound for Agriculture. Kehakaset Journal 26 (9):96-101.
[16] Kartal SN, Imamura Y, Tsuchiya F, Ohsato K. 2004. Evaluation of fungicidal and termiticidal activities of hydrolysates from biomass slurry fuel production from wood. J Bioresource Technol. 95:41–47.
[17] Bilehal D, Li L, Kim YH. 2011. Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry analysis and chemical composition of the Bamboo-carbonized liquid. J. Food Anal.
Methods 2. DOI 10.1007/s12161-011-9194-4.
[18] Wang Z, Lin W, Song W, Yao J. 2010. Preliminary investigation on concentrating of acetol from wood vinegar. J. Energy
Conversion and Management 51:346-349. [19] Mohan D, Shi J, Nicholas DD, Pittman CU,
Steele PH, Cooper JE. 2008. Fungicidal values of bio-oils and their lignin rich fractions obtained from wood/bark fast pyrolysis. J. Chemosphere . 71:456-465.
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International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 107
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITE PRODUCTS FROM RICE HUSK
AND OIL PALM FROND FIBERS
Lilik Astari*, Firda Aulya Syamani, Sasa Sofyan Munawar
Research and Development Unit for Biomaterials, LIPI
Jl. Raya Bogor Km 46, Cibinong, Bogor, West Java, 16911
*Corresponding author: [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
Rice husk and oil palm frond are lignocellulosic agricultural by product that easily to find and low cost. This materials have a great potency to be utilized as composite products. Regarding to environmental issue, recycled polypropylene was occupied in this research. Rice husk and oil palm frond are processed with hammer mill and disk mill then sieved until pass through 80 mesh and 100 mesh. MAPP as coupling agent and recycled polypropylene also resized until 80 mesh. The ratio of fibers, rPP and MAPP were 40% : 58% : 2% and 30% : 68% and 2%. Targeted density was 0,8 g.cm-3, 14 cm in diameter and 3 cm of thickness. All the materials mixed and molded then hot pressed for 10 minutes, 1MPa and 185⁰C. Mechanical properties that investigated were flexural strength and tensile strength. Results show that the highest flexural strength is 40% rice husk-rPP composite and the highest tensile strength is 30% OPF-rPP composite.
Keywords: Rice husk, oil palm fronds, composite products, mechanical properties.
Introduction
The possibility of using recycled materials in the development of composites is very attractive, especially with respect to the large quantity of wood fiber/plastic waste generated daily. Wastepaper can meet all the requirements in order to replace inorganic fillers in thermoplastic composites. Advantages associated with bio-composite products include lighter weight and improved acoustic, impact,and heat reformability properties – all at a cost less than that of comparable products made from plastics alone. In addition,these composites may possibly be reclaimed and recycled for the production of second-generation composites [1]. From a technical point of view, these bio-based composites will enhance mechanical strength and acoustic performance, reduce material weight and fuel consumption, lower production cost, improve passenger safety and shatterproof performance under extreme temperature changes, and improve biodegradability for the auto-interior parts [2]. .
Recently, recycled polypropelene (rPP) easily found due to the abundance of plastic waste and the awareness to reuse those waste. Combining cellulose fibers with post-consumer waste plastic is more economical than using fiber for composites with
thermoset phenolic resins [4]. The need for materials unharmfu l to the body and yet having appropriate properties has increased due to a lack of resources and increasing environmental pollution, thus, composites prepared from recycled materials are actively being sought after [6]. The cost of producing composites comprising natural products such as lignocellulosic materials as the reinforcing filler and thermoplastic polymer as the matrix polymer is quite low. Furthermore, these materials can easily be obtained from waste products and have a minimal effect on the environment, due to their biodegradable properties ; thus, in recent years, the emphasis has increasingly been placed on these composites, which may well play a major role in resolving some of the pressing environmental issues with which we are confronted in the future [7].
The objective of this research is to investigate the mechanical a properties of composites product which are comprises with fully recycled materials : oil palm fronds flour, rice husk flour and recycled polypropylene.
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Methodology
Materials
Materials used in this research are fiber from oil palm fronds, Rice Husk, MAPP as coupling agent and recycled polypropelene. Equipments used are ring flaker machine; hammer mill; disc mill, 40, 60 and 80 mesh sievers, hot press machine and universal testing machine.
Method
Fiber Preparation
Rough fiber from oil palm fronds were processed using ring flaker, hammer mill and disc mill. Fibers from OPF then sieved into passed through 80 mesh. The dust-form of rice husk were gained from the mill of rice supplier, the dust-form of rice husk then sieved into 80 mesh also. MAPP and rPP also resized into smaller particle.
Composite Production
Composite were made in circular mold with target of density was 0,8 g.cm-3, 3 mm thickness and 14 cm in diameters. There are three ratio between fiber : matrix (rPP) : MAPP apply in this research. The ratio are ; 30%: 68%:2% ; 40% : 58% : 2% and 50%:48%:2%. The materials were mixed well then molded in circular form. Mixed materials then hot pressed for 10 minutes, 1 MPa at temperature 185⁰C. Triplet of WPCs were made for every treatment.
Testing
Testing for composite products were tensile strength, (according to ASTM D-638), flexural (ASTM D-790). Mechanical testing were conducted with Shimadzu Universal Testing Machine.
Result and Discussion
Flexural Strength
Flexural strength which is known by Modulus of Rupture (MOR) is an indication for the strength or ability of composite products to resist the deformation under load. Diagram 1. Shows the modulus of rupture (MOR) among the tested samples.
From the diagram 1. known that 40% rice husk formula has the highest value of flexural strength with about 19,69 MPa, inconsiderably different shown by 30% rice husk with 16,50 MPa flexural strength. Significantly different is
shown by the third formula which approxymately 8,84 MPa. The same trend also perform by OPF-rPP composite formula, where the lowest flexural strength is form 50% natural fiber contain and the highest values are from 40% natural fiber contain. Diagram 2. shows that the highest MOR value of OPF-rPP composite products is 13,85 MPa and the lowest is 11,87 MPa. It is also clearly seen that from overall composite products, utilization of rice husk results the highest and also the lowest flexural strength.
Diagram 1. Flexural Strength of Rice Husk-rPP
Composites
Diagram 2. Flexural Strength of OPF-rPP
Composites
Tensile Strength Tensile strength is a parameter to determine
the force that required to pull materials or composites or tensile strength can be define as maximum stress that a material can withstand while being stretched or pulled before necking, which is when the specimen's cross-section starts to significantly contract. Diagram 3. below give the information regarding tensile strength of rice husk–rPP composite, the highest valur is
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still from the 40% rice husk, but the lowest is from 30% rice husk.
Diagram 3. Tensile Strength of Rice Husk-rPP
Composites
The differences between every formula is considerable except the first to the third formula which only different about 0,17 MPa. Values of tensile strength of OPF-rPP composite are illustrate in Diagram 4. In OPF-rPP composites, the highest tensile strength is from 30% loading fiber while the lowest is from 50% fiber. The case of decreasing the value of tensile strength as the filler amount increase also reported by Hattotuwa [3] as the filler loading increased, thereby increasing the interfacial area, the worsening interfacial bonding between the hydrophilic filler and hydrophobic matrix polymer decreased the tensile strength, which nevertheless remained within acceptable levels. In addition, Yang [7] mentioned that generally, the tensile strength of the composites decreased with incre sing filler loading , due to the poor interfacial bonding between the filler and the matrix polyme r. This poor bonding causes increased microvoids in the composites, which resu ts in increased water absorption, however the quantity of water absorbed is negligible compared with the water absorp ion of wood- based composites and solid woods.
Diagram 4. Tensile Strength of OPF-rPP
Composites
From the diagrams its clearly seen that value of tensile strength are lower than value of flexural strength. The differences probably caused by the orientation of the short fibers. Ramaraj [5] mentioned that in case of tensile test the force applied is parallel to the direction of fiber orientation, while in the case of flexural strength, the force applied is perpendicular to the fiber orientation.
Conclusion
Mechanical properties of composites made from OPF-rPP and rice husk flour-rPPare various. The highest flexural strength was obtained from composites with 40% rice husk flour with the value around 19,69 MPa while the highest value of tensile strength gained from composite products with 30% OPF and the value is approxymaely 7,34 MPa. The investigation of mechanical properties from rice husk flour-rPP and OPF-rPP composite products that processed by injection molding are compulsory to conduct in order to compare with compression molding process. Morphological investigation shows that compression molding process did not presents the best methods to produce fibers-thermoplastics composites.
References
[1] Ashori, A and Amir Nourbaksh. 2009. Characteristics of wood–fiber plastic composites made of recycled materials. Waste Management 29 (2009) 1291–1295.
[2] Ashori, A. 2008. Wood–plastic composites as promising green-composites for automotive industries!. Bioresource Technology 99 (2008) 4661–4667.
[3] Hattotuwa G, Premalal B, Ismail H, Baharin A. 2002. Comparison of the mechanical properties of rice husk powder filled polypropylene composites with talc filled polypropylene composites. PolymTesting ;21(7):833–9.
[4] Hettinga, S. 1997. Recycled wood: the ideal filler for plastic. In Proc. of Use of Recycled Wood and Paper in Building Applications. Proc No. 7286. Forest Products Society. Madison WI. Pg82-83
[5] Ramaraj, B. 2007. Mechanical and Thermal Properties of polypropelene/Sugarcane Bagasse Composites. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, Vol 103, 3827-3823
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[6] Yang H-S, Kim H-J, Son J, Park HJ, Lee BJ, Hwang TS. 2004. Rice-husk filled polypropylene composites; mechanical and morphological study. Compos Struct 2004;63(3):305–12.
[7] Yang H-S, Kim H-J, Son J, Park HJ, Lee BJ, Hwang TS. 2006. Water absorpti on behavior and mechanical properties of lignocellulosic filler–polyolefin bio-
composites. Composite Structures 72 (2006) 429–437
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to acknowledge the assistance during the research process to Mr. Sudarmanto and Mr. Ismadi.
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RECYCLING RUBBER WOOD WASTE MATERIAL
(Hevea brasiliensis Will) FOR EXTERIOR WALL
IN MINIMALIST GREEN HOME AS AN ADAPTATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE
USING OTTV ANALYSIS
Dany Perwita Sari* and Sukma Surya Kusumah
Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), INDONESIA
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
Climate change nowadays was the biggest issues of this century. Building sector was responsible for almost half of all the greenhouse gas emissions annually. However, Indonesia has blessed with resources of all kinds. A continuing abundance of forest resources has, since the earliest settlers, encouraged using wood to build housing. Today, wood as an aesthetic material in minimalist home for exterior, becomes a celebrity in Indonesia. The first research with Overall Thermal Transfer Value (OTTV) can prove that the minimalist home whose wall has covered by hardwood could reduce the thermal resistance up to 3.703 Watt/m2. In another side, wood price is higher than before because of the wood supply in Indonesia become less and less. Rubber wood, one somewhat fast growing species of hardwood, generally used for plywood because of it mechanical properties as same as Teak wood. However, their wastes are used for firewood. Using wood wastes of Rubber wood as a wall cover (exterior) could proves that the minimalist home design, adapted from aboard, has become energy efficient home that can reduce the climate change effects.
Keywords: minimalist green home, recycling rubber wood waste material, saving energy, OTTV
Introduction
Minimalist styles in architecture already exist in 20th century which design for simpler housing in limited land use[1]. Minimalist styles firstly design for house which simpler residential spaces and furnishings emerged. During The World War, German (1907), founding minimalist as “industrial design” which terms
realism, fuctionalism, and modern fuctional style. This style ended with the power takeover by Nazis and movement immigrated to the United States. Frank Lloyd Wright was one of Minimalist Design’s pioneer in United States.
His design merges berween minimalist and nature even climate. Frank always said his style is Organic Architecture which dominates with horizontal line. In Indonesia, Architecture Minimalist already exist form the adaptation of Architecture Tropic and Arcitecture Traditional Indonesia such as Jenki Style (Figure 1).
Nowadays, especially in Urban Area, limited land, increased building material cost and expensive construction for housing are becomes the major issues. Minimalist architecture becomes one alternatif design. In another side, sometimes, Designer was oblivious to include human comfort. Using Air Conditioner and lighting almost every hour in a day becomes the consequences. Almost half of all greenhouse gas emissions annually which is lead to climate change are recognizing from the Building Sector. U.S. energy consumption shows that 48% of all the U.S. energy is produced by architectural consumption. In China, almost 1/3 of energy consumption is caused by buildings[2]. Buildings are among the physical artifacts that society produces with the greatest longevity (50-100 years). Most of high rise buildings in urban and rural areas have become estranged and totally divorced from nature[3]. Most structures are designed to be isolated from their surrounding environment.
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Figure 1. Jengki Style House in Baranangsiang, Bogor
Source: writer private documents Tabel 1. Minimalist style using insulator material for exterior wall
Minimalist Design Data
Petate Grass Building Location Designer Exterior material Source
: Cuernavaca, Mexico : REC architects : petate (biodegradable dried plants material that is commonly used on roofs)
: inhabitat
Green-Roofed Brazilian Home Location Designer Exterior material Source
: Brazil : Studeo Arthur Casas : Cumaru hardwoods : inhabitat
The Bamboo Curtain House Location Designer Exterior material Source
: Singapore : Eco-id Architects : Bamboo : archdaily
Eco Sustainable House Location Designer Exterior material Source
: Paris, France : Djuric Tardio Architects : wood panel : archdaily
Minimalist Design in Tropical Climate’s
weakness is those building can not survive to tropical climate. In conjunction from that, users for minimalist house design in tropical climate usually using Air Conditioner and lighting almost day and light, wasting energy. Some designer thought, minimalist desaign was failure in tropical climate. Architect and building material scientist looking for new method for reducing the heat flow from the sun to inside the house. One of popular way is giving exterior layer to the wall. Some material are using for this exterior layer, for example wood and sometimes other degradable material likes petate
(Table 1). There are two adventages using this method, first reduce the radiation from the sun to save the energy consumtion which means reduce merover hold up climate change. This is one of method which merge minimalist design with environment to adapt with climate change, which popular as Minimalist Green Home.
Nowadays, many designer and building material scientist are using wood for exterior layer in housing. Wood exterior layer has high value in aesthetic. Wood also used as insulator for solar radiation to reduce heat transfer inside the house. The wood helps provide some insulation[4]. Wood is one of material which hard
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to conduct heat althougn brought close to the other hot objects. Therefore, nowadays wood becomes costly and rare. Using rubber wood waste material is one of the solutions to reduce the material cost using waste material which more environtment friendly. Design of building envelopes will affect the energy requirements for cooling and heating. Overall Thermal Transfer Value (OTTV) and Roof are control measures to cut down heat gain at building envelope and to reduce cooling load of the building[5]. Since 1979, the building control regulations had stipulated that all air-conditioned buildings must be designed to have an OTTV of not more than 45 W/m2. This research was continous from previous research which show the differences OTTV value in different house layer[6]. Previous research is use for the basic calculation for this research. The aim of this research is looking for the best design for Minimalist House in Tropical climate for saving the energy as an adaptation in climate change.
Material and Research Method
Selection of wood for Wall Cover
Rubber wood waste was chosen as wall cover wood of Minimalist Green Home due to it’s potential for substitution of wood from
natural forest as raw materials of forest product industry, such as plywood industry. Based on data of Direktorat Jenderal Perkebunan[7], rubber tree plantations to be replanting around 125,000 ha or 4% of the total area of rubber tree plantations in Indonesia. If each hectare of plantation is expected to produce 50 m3 of logs that can be processed into sawn timber[8], therefore, that area will be acquired 6.25 million m3 of logs, sourced from smallholders (87%),
plantation countries (6%), and private estates (7%)). Riau, South Sumatra and Jambi were the three provinces that have the largest area of old rubber tree plantation in Sumatra that should be replanting, each of 23.907 ha, 20.317 ha, and 19.012 ha[7].
Utilization of Rubber wood as raw material for plywood because of it wood was one of the fast-growing timber species (harvest approximately 8-10 years). Moreover, rubber wood has the appearance of the relatively bright fiber, wood has a density similar to oak (Quercus sp.), Acasia mangium (0.61), ramin (0.63), and mahogany (0.61)[11][12] Rubber wood has good dimensional stability similar to the shrinkage of teak wood, which is 1.77 to 3.05% from wet to air dry condition in the radial and tangential direction and smaller than Ramin wood[9][10]. Rubber wood included in a wood strength class II-III, the equivalent of Ramin wood, Perupuk, Acacia, Mahogany, Pine, Meranti, Durian, Ketapang, keruing, Sungkai, Gerunggang, and Nyatoh[9][11][12]
The process of peeling logs into veneer in the plywood production, leaving waste in the form of log core (center core) can be seen at Figure 1. The wood waste only used as fuel in the production process of plywood. Utilization of rubber wood waste (Log Core) as house minimalist component will increasing added value of rubber wood waste and more efficient than utilized non wood waste.
Data Collection
This research using one-story house and modify from tropical style to minimalist (Figure 3). Some house data are continuous from early research5.
Rubber Wood’s Log Core
Microscopic of cross section (mag. 10x)
Ficture 2.Ilstration of rubber wood waste (Log Core) and wood microscopic view of cross section
114 ISSN 2088-9127
BASIC STYLE; TROPICAL HOUSE
MINIMALIST STYLE WITH BRICK WALL
MINIMALIST STYLE WITH RUBBER
WOOD WALL Figure 3. Tropical style house that modify become Minimalist Home layered with brick wall and
rubber wood wall
Some assumption and limitations for this research are: Sample are tropical house (from early
research [6]) which modify and simulate become minimalist house with brick wall and rubber wood wall.
Sample location at Cibinong Science Centre (CSC), Cibinong, Bogor which already used as residence at south west area (geographical location: 1060 51’24.34”
EastLongitude and 60 29’11.76”
SouthLatitude). Sample is a couple houses. Sample using wood exterior layer in all side
the wall execpt in Northeast side for aesthetic.
Roof and Floor effects are not be calculated for this research.
From SNI 03-6389-20006, curtain inside the house are not be calculated.
Research only calculated at June 22 and December 22 at 07.56 to 17.56. June 22 is the hottest climate in a year for tropical climate and December 22 is the coldest climate in a year for Tropical climate.
Installation of wood on the minimalist house walls used dowel from rubber wood.
Other specifics data can be seen at Table 2 and Table 3 below:
Table 2. Minimalist House using Brick The House Detail Information Explanation House Style Minimalist Adress Komplek Lipi, Cibinong Science Centre (CSC), Cibinong, Bogor Level One floor House area 36 m2 Wall area 23.65 m2 Outside and Inside wall layer Cement+sand 0.012 m Middle wall layer Brick 0.115 m Concrete 0.139 m Window Clear Glass 3 mm (SC=0.4) Window and door frame Hard wood
MODIFY
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International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 115
Table 3. Minimalist House using Rubber Wood The House Detail Information Explanation House Style Minimalist Adress Komplek Lipi, Cibinong Science Centre (CSC), Cibinong, Bogor Level One floor House area 36 m2 Wall area 23.65 m2 Outside wall layer Rubber wood 0.015 m Middle wall layer Brick 0.115 m Inside wall layer Cement+sand 0.012 m Concrete 0.139 m Window Clear Glass 3 mm (SC=0.4) Window and door frame Hard wood
Result and Discussion
U, TDEK and SC Value Calculation
U is thermal transmittance of opaque wall (1). The thermal transmittance or U of a construction is defined as the quantity of heat that flows through a unit area of a building sector under steady-state conditions in unit time per unit temperature difference of the air on either side of the section. It is expressed in W/m2
oC and is given by:
TotalRU
1
(1)
where: Rtotal = Total thermal resistance and given by = i iR
TDEK is equivalent temperature difference for wall (oC). U and TDEK value are come from cutting section all house material (wall, wood, concrete) except clear glass. SC is shading coefficients of fenestration. In OTTV formula, the solar factor has been derived from the annual average of solar radiation (June 22 and December 22) transmitted through a 3mm clear glass window. This ratio is a unique
characteristic of each type of fenestration system and is represented by the equation:
T
DLEKHARI
IA
IAIASC
)( (2)
where: SCDAY = SC value at June 22 and Dec 22 AEK = exposed area of window IL = direct sun radiation A = window area
where : A = AEK + AS AS = shaded area of window
ID = diffused radiation IT = total radiation where :IT = ID + IL U, TDEK and SC calculation result for Minimalist Green Home are shown in Table 4 below.
WWR Value Calculation
Window to Wall Ratio (WWR) is fenestration area or gross area of exterior wall. WWR in northeast area is not calculated because of couple house. WWR value calculation result can be seen at Table 5.
Table 4. U, TDEK dan SC value for Minimalist Green Home
Concrete Brick wall Rubber wood wall
Wood frame
Window and door
panel
Clear Glass 3mm
U (W/m2.K)
3.85 2.841 2.278 1.003 1.901 5.99
TDEK (K) 10 10 10 15 15 - SC - - - - - 0.4
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Tabel 5. WWR value for Minimalist Green Home Northwest Southeast Southwest
Window area 1.83 0.66 0.22 Anvelope wall area 23.65 22.29 19.109
WWR 0,077 0,030 0,021 OTTV Value Calculation
OTTV is a control measure to cut down heat gain at building anvelope and to reduce cooling load of the building. Buildings must be designed to have an OTTV of not more than 45 W/m2. For a fenestration at a given orientation, the formula is given as below: OTTVi = [UW x (1-WWR)] x TDEK + (SC x WWR x SF) + (Uf x WWR x ∆T) (3) where: OTTVi = OTTV value for each orientation
(northwest, southeast, southwest) (Watt/m2)
= the altitude of the sun UW = thermal transmittance of opaque wall
cahaya (Watt/m2.0C) TDEK= equivalent temperature difference for
wall (0C) SC = shading coefficients of fenestration SF = sun radiation factor (Watt/m2) Uf = thermal transmittance of fenestration
(Watt/ m2.0C) ∆T = differences temperature between interior
and exterior (50C)
The general form of OTTV equation for externall walls looks like this:
n
i i
n
i ii
A
OTTVAOTTV
1 0
1 0 )( (4)
Where : Aoi = Total exterior wall area (m2). This area
includes glass and wall. OTTVi=OTTV value for each orientation
(northwest, southeast, southwest) (Watt/m2) (3)
OTTV value calculation result between Minimalist Green Home using Brick Wall and Rubber Wood Wall can be seen at Table 6.
Table 6. OTTV Value in Minimalist Green Home
Brick wall
Rubber wood wall
OTTV1 northwest;(W/m2)
28.842 25.087
OTTV2 southeast (W/m2)
29.077 24.410
OTTV3 southwest (W/m2)
32.542 25.552
OTTVTOTAL (W/m2) 30.027 26.324 Minimalist Green Home (Table 6) has an
OTTV of not more than 45 W/m2 (Table 6). This building design is already follow Indonesian Government’s standart, SNI 03-6389-20006. Glass area and total area ratio (WWR) at Minimalist Green Home which using Brick wall is smaller and reduce the solar radiation which come from window (Table 7), this is one of the reason why OTTV value less than 45 W/m2.
Table 7. WWR Ratio between glass area and total area
Glass area
Total area
Northwest WWR 1 12 Southeast WWR 1 22 Southwest WWR 0.2 19
Canopy 1m along, which is used as
aesthetic and shade from the sun, has giving major influence at SC value. OTTV value less than 45 W/m2 also because of house orientation which longways from northeast to southwest. These positions are not directly to the sunlight. Table 6 also shown that, OTTV value at Rubber Wood Wall is smaller than OTTV value at Brick Wall in the amount of 3.703 W/m2. This result has proven that using rubber wood as exterior wall layer at minimalist house can reduce the OTTV (Graph 1 and Graph 2) value which means reduce the waste of energy for cooler and lighting.
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International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 117
Graph 1. OTTV Value result in each wall direction
Wall Cover Material:
1 : Brick2 : Rubber Wood
Symbol:
: Total OTTV Value
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
OTT
V V
alu
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Wall Cover Material:
1 : Brick2 : Rubber Wood
Symbol:
: Northwest : Southeast : Southwest
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
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alu
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Wall Cover Material
Graph 2. OTTV Total Value result at Minimalist Green Home
Wall Cover Material:
1 : Brick2 : Rubber Wood
Symbol:
: Total OTTV Value
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
OTT
V V
alu
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Wall Cover Material
Wall Cover Material:
1 : Brick2 : Rubber Wood
Symbol:
: Northwest : Southeast : Southwest
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
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22
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Wall Cover Material
Conclusion
Recycling rubber wood waste material (Havea brasiliensis Will) as heat insulator at exterior wall is one of solution to utilize waste material and saving energy as an adaptation in Climate Change. Furthermore, using waste material, this can reduce the forest damage which is one of the biggest oxygen producers as maintain the atmosphere. Minimalist Green Home is more than cheap material (using waste material) but also environtment friendly and modern.
From the calculation result above, design of building envelopes before construction are really important to reduce waste energy for cooling and lighting. There are some recommendations before build Minimalist House at Cibinong area: Calculate carefully opening area (WWR
window) and total WWR area. Simulate the SC value. Usually, in Tropical
climate, SC value related with canopy. Using canopy is the best as long as not reduce the lighting and change the house’s
style.
Recycling rubber wood waste material is better than buy one piece of wood as wall exterior layer. More cheap, more aesthetic, and more environtment friendly.
Planning the building anvelope using OTTV, especially wall (the biggest part of house), are very important. Giving wood as exterior layer can reduce OTTV value 3.703W/m2. Keep in mind that 4W/m2 is able to illuminate an area of 2.7m2 bedroom with high ceilings 3m2. Green home designs does not always means
using degradable material such as plant, grass or rebuild all entire material using vernalucar design. Green home designs means reduce the waste energy with exploit natural earth resources (waste material, wind, solar, rain) of any style, efficiency. This is called the adaptation of climate change.
References
[1] Anja Llorella Oriol, 2006, New Minimalist
Houses, Collins Design and LOFT Publications, Spain, 2006
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[2] Bin, C., Hong, J., 2009, Development and Strategies of Building Integrated Wind Turbine in China. Proceedings of the
International Conference in Sustainability
in Energy andBuildings, part 2, pp. 71-78, Springerlink.
[3] Kang-Pyo Cho, Seung-Hwan Jeong, Dany Perwita Sari, 2011, Harvesting wind energy from aerodynamic design for building integrated wind turbines, International
Journal of Technology (2011) 3, 189-198. [4] Mangunwijaya, Y.B. 1997. Pengantar
Fisika Bangunan. Djambatan, Jakarta. [5] Badan Standarisasi Nasional, 2000,
Konservasi Energi Selubung Bangunan pada Bangunan Gedung. SNI 03-6389-
2000. [6] Dany Perwita Sari, 2009, Analisis Sistem
Pembayangan pada Rumah Tinggal di Cibinong Science Centre, Widyariset: Edisi
Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam, Vol.12 No.2 (2009), ISSN 1411-7932.
[7] Direktorat Jenderal Bina Produksi Perkebunan, 2002, Statistik Perkebunan Indonesia: Karet, Direktorat Jenderal Bina
Produksi Perkebunan, Jakarta.
[8] Djajapertjunda, S. dan D. Nasution, 1989, Kemungkinan pembangunan industri kayu karet di Sumatera Utara, hlm. 381−392,
Prosiding Lokakarya Nasional
Pembangunan HTI Karet, Medan, 28−30
Agustus 1989. Pusat Penelitian Perkebunan Sungei Putih, Medan.
[9] Boerhendhy, I., N. Hadjib, R.M. Siagian, A. Gunawan, dan M. Lasminingsih, 2001, Karakteristik mutu dan sifat kayu karet klon anjuran dan harapan. hlm.1−26. Prosiding
Lokakarya Nasional Pemuliaan Karet, 5−6
November 2001. Pusat Penelitian Karet, Medan.
[10] Budiman, S, 1987, Perkembangan
pemanfaatan kayu karet. Sasaran 1(4): 5−9. [11] Seng, O.D, 1951, Perbandingan berat dari
jenisjenis kayu Indonesia dan pengertian beratnya kayu untuk keperluan praktek. Laporan No.46 Balai Penyelidikan
Kehutanan, Bogor [12] Sutigno, P. dan A.F. Mas’ud, 1989,
Alternatif pengolahan kayu hutan tanaman industry karet. hlm. 259−269. Prosiding
Lokakarya Nasional HTI Karet, Medan, 28−30 Agustus
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International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 119
THE DISTRIBUTION OF Gonocephalus SPECIES (REPTILIA, IGUANIA,
AGAMIDAE) ON SUMATRA, INDONESIA
Yunfika Rahmi1*, Mistar Kamsi2, Jimmy A. McGuire3, David P. Bickford4 and Djoko T. Iskandar1
1 School of Life Sciences and Technology, Institut Teknologi Bandung, 10, Jalan Ganesa, Bandung
40132, Indonesia. 2 Sumatran Orang Utan Conservation Program, 51/74, Jl. KH. Wahid Hasyim, Babura, Medan 20154
Indonesia. 3 Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California at Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
4 Raffles Museum for Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore.
*Corresponding author: [email protected]; [email protected]
Abstract
We studied an agamid lizard genus, Gonocephalus (Kaup, 1825), characterized by having an angled head at the supraciliary region bordered with the eyes. It is distributed in the Sundaland and Southeast Asia, known from South Indochina in the North and the larger Sunda Island in the South, extending to the Philipines in the East. In this study, it is found that G. grandis specimens from Borneo have different color pattern compared to those from Sumatra. To confirm these findings, a thorough examination of all specimens of genus Gonocephalus had been performed at Laboratory Biosystematics, SITH ITB. The examination was carried out by measuring morphological data and meristic characters. The data were analyzed using Discriminant Analysis (DA) to determine the composition of the genus Gonocephalus group and Mann-Whitney test to compare species in the genus Gonocephalus. The results of discriminant analysis showed three axes which have eigenvalues greater than two. Axes 1 and 2 showed the best compotition group of each species in genus Gonocephalus. The results showed that composition of Gonocephalus is clustered based on crest characters. Gonocephalus kuhlii, G. doriae, G. chamaeleontinus, G. borneensis and G. liogaster have
the nuchal crest is directly linked with the dorsal crest. In the other hand, G. grandis, G. klossi, and G.
megalepis, all three have a gap between dorsal and nuchal crest. The results also showed that G.
borneensis and G. doriae from Sumatra and Borneo specimens are grouped together in the same cluster. The Mann-Whitney test results showed that populations of G. borneensis and G. doriae from Sumatra are identical to those from Borneo. This study confirmed that G. doriae and G. borneensis are present on Sumatra for the first time, hence expand the distribution of the two species. The results also showed new distributional record of several species within the genus.
Keywords: Gonocephalus, Sumatra, Borneo, Java, new locality record
Introduction
Agamid lizards of the genus Gonocephalus Kaup, 1825, are known as angular or square head lizards based on the presence of curved eyebrow and bony ridge between the eyes and nostrils (Manthey and Schuster, 1996). The first ever described species of this genus is Iguana
chameleontinus (Laurenti, 1768). Gonocephalus has characteristics which differs from other agamid genera, such as the absence of a spine in the neck area such as Acanthosaura and Calotes, hornlike structure as in Aphaniotis, Harpesaurus, Hylagama, and
Thaumatorhynchus, spreadable skin membrane with extremely elongated rib as in Draco, prehensile tail as reported for Cophotis. However Gonocephalus has a shoulder fold similar to Bronchocela, Dendragama, Lophocalotes, Phoxophrys, and Pseudocalotes, and also has a visible tympanum described also for Broncocela, Dendragama, Lophocalotes, and Phoxophrys (Manthey and Denzer, 1991). At present, the genus Gonocephalus (sensu stricto), comprised of 17 species and is restricted to Southeast Asia (Uetz and Hallerman, 2012). Gonocephalus (sensu lato) is distributed from Indochina to Philipines and Indo-Australian
120 ISSN 2088-9127
Archipelago (Boulenger, 1885; Bourret, 1943; Wermuth, 1967 in Ananjeva and Dujsebayaseva, 1996).
In Indonesia alone, Gonocephalus can be found on Sumatra, Borneo and Java. Up to present, there are seven species of Gonocephalus on Sumatra, six species on Borneo and two species on Java (de Rooij, 1915). As already known, the herpetological fauna of Sumatra is still poorly known and recent herpetological collections have been infrequent (Inger & Iskandar, 2005; Teynié et al., 2010). Relative to other Sunda islands, the herpetofauna of Sumatra has been understudied (Iskandar and Erdelen, 2006) and accurate distribution patterns of Gonocephalus in Sumatra remains unknown.
On that basis, we analyzed Gonocephalus specimens from Java, Sumatra, and Borneo in the Biosystematics Laboratory, School of Life Science and Technology, ITB. We studied further specimens collected from Sumatra, which are morphologically similar to Gonocephalus borneensis, and G. doriae from Borneo, as G. borneensis and G. doriae are previously known as endemic species from Borneo. In the analysis, we compared specimens to a broader range of samples of Gonocephalus
from Java, Sumatra, and Borneo to reveal the exact distribution of each species in those regions.
All Gonocephalus specimens used in this study is stored in the Laboratory of Biosystematic, School of Life Sciences and Technologi, ITB or Museum Zoology, School Life Sciences and Technology ITB. A total of 88 specimens were used in this study. Of these, 72 specimens were collected from Sumatra, 14 specimens were from Borneo, and two specimens from Java. Materials and Methods / Experimental
Measurements on morphological characters were taken using calipers accuracy to nearest 0.05 mm, except for tail length which was measured with a measuring tape. Meristic characters were examined using naked eyes accept for juvenile specimens or specimens who have small scales were examined using binocular microscope. Measurement method for morphological and meristic characters are slightly modified from those described by Ota and Hikida (2000), Hallerman (2000), Hallerman and McGuire (2001), and Siler et al. (2010). Abbreviations used are as follows : SVL
= Snout-Vent Length, TL = tail length, HL = Head Length, HW = Head Width, HD = Head Deep, SL = Supralabial, IL = Infralabial, M = Number of scales row around midbody, HLL = Hind Limb Length : consist of Humerus (Hu), Radius-Ulna (RaUl), and Hand (with claw), FL = Foot Length (with claw), FLL = Forelimb Length : contain of Femur (Fe), Tibia-Fibula (TF), and Foot (with claw), FIL-FVL = Finger I-V Length (without claw), TIL-TVL = Toe I-V Length (without claw), SHL = Snout-Hindlimb Length, AGL = Axila-Groin Length, D.Orbit = Diameter of horizontal orbit, D.Tympanum = Diameter of Tympanum, TW = Tail Width, TD = Tail Depth, MBW = Midbody Width, MBD = Midbody Depth, END = Eye-Nostril Distance, ESL = Eye-Snout Length, FIS-FVS = Finger I-V subdigital, TIS-TVS = Toe I-V subdigital, number of canthus rostralis scales, number of mid ventral scales consist of mental to cloaca and chest to cloaca, number of mid dorsal scales, number of rows tail keeled scales, ventral scales, number of nuchal, dorsal, nuchal-dorsal crest, crest gap, number of tubercle in dorsal or in throat, ratio of TL and SVL, HW and HL, HLL and SVL, HLL and FL, HD and HL, HD and HW, AGL and SVL, SFL and HL, TW and TL, TD and TL FL and SVL, Foot and SVL, Toe and SVL, MBW and MBD, D.orbit and D.tympanum, Hu and RaUl, Fe and TF, End and Snl.
The results of morphological and meristic measurements were statistically analyzed by Discriminant Analysis (DA) using SPSS 17.0 software and Canoco for Windows 4.5. Discriminant Analysis is a method to tests significant differences in characteristic between communities delimited by classification (Ludwig and Reynold, 1988). This analysis is used for several purposes, for example to classify cases into several groups using a discriminant prediction equation, test the theory by observing whether cases were classified as predicted or not, investigate differences among the groups, and determine the most parsimonious way to distinguish among groups. Both morphology and meristic data were standardized using z-score method because each uses different measurement unit (Rachmansah, 2009). The variables were analyzed with Canoco program in order to find out which have significant contribution to classification, based on the variable of each eigenvalue. Subsequently, the data will be analyzed using discriminant analysis.
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Afterward, a graphical overview of discriminant analysis, each group of sample are plotted in two discriminant functions, the horizontal and vertical axes as the first two functions. This graph showed the similarity of specimens within group (Zahuranec, 2000).
Univariate statistic analysis using Mann-Whitney test method was also carried out to compare one species to another. Results and Discussion
The statistical analysis of all (88) specimens was performed using DA on 49 parameters. The results showed that among 49 parameters, only nine variables and three discriminant functions have eigenvalues that were greater than two. For this study we used only the first and second axes, the first discriminant function has 81.5 % of the discriminating ability to separate groups and the second accounts for 10.6 %, as they covered more than 92.1% of the whole data (100%) which means the rest of the discriminant functions were only complementary to the data distribution pattern in the analysis. These first and second discriminant function were used as axes in distribution pattern
Table 1. showed each of discriminant function has variables, which are important for
genus Gonocephalus clustering. From each function, the highest value is considered to have greater discriminating power, was shown in bold. From those seven discriminant function, the first and second discriminant function had eigenvalue greater than two than the others.
From the total of seven discriminant functions, the best group composition structure of each species in the genus Gonocephalus was obtained when using discriminant function one and two as axes in the scatter plot. The combine-group scatter plot showed that the first discriminant function is plotted on the horizontal axis and second on the vertical axis. According to the vertical line, G. klossi, G. megalepis, and
G. grandis were located on the left side of this vertical line, while G. borneensis, G. liogaster,
G. doriae, G. kuhlii, and G. chamaeleontinus are placed on the right side. The first discriminant function distinguished G. borneensis, G.
liogaster, G. doriae, G. kuhlii, from G.
chamaeleontinus from G. klossi, G. megalepis, and G. grandis. Generally, the group composition of genus Gonocephalus could be derived from crest (continued or separated crest) and used to separate between the group of G.
klossi, G. megalepis, and G. grandis; and G.
borneensis, G. liogaster, G. doriae, G. kuhlii, and G. chamaeleontinus (see figure 1).
Table 1. The first nine extracted Variables loading and seven functions obtained through discriminant
analysis based on 49 morphological and meristic variables of Gonocephalus species.
Va
riab
les
Functions
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Nuchal-dorsal crest 0.878* 0.125 -0.118 -0.041 -0.213 -0.058 -0.091
Nuchal -0.417 0.430* 0.010 -0.041 -0.164 0.092 -0.406
tubercles at jaw 0.188 0.296 0.814* 0.341 -0.167 -0.047 0.075
IL 0.039 -0.106 -0.199 0.534* 0.010 0.172 -0.019
HLL/FL 0.071 0.307 -0.261 0.215 0.603* -0.071 0.337
TIL -0.025 -0.090 0.198 -0.216 0.377* -0.374 -0.048 Head tubercles -0.067 -0.259 0.291 -0.280 0.198 0.591
* 0.184
HLL/SVL 0.010 0.448 0.149 -0.162 0.488 0.537* -0.132
mental until cloaca -0.114 0.361 -0.065 -0.327 -0.342 .094 0.441*
Notes: Pooled within-groups correlations between discriminating variables and standardized canonical discriminant functions. Variables ordered by absolute size of correlation within function. *Largest absolute correlation between each variable and any discriminant function
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Figure 1. Scattered plot diagram using first and second functions as axes showing the group
composition in the genus Gonocephalus based on morphometrical ratio and meristical values.
Figure 1. also showed G. borneensis and G.
doriae from Sumatra and Borneo were clustered in the same group. These results showed that G.
borneensis and G. doriae from Sumatra are identical to those from Borneo based on morphometric and meristic data.
The univariate statistics such as Mann-Whitney test was used to compare morphological and meristic data of two different species or populations in this study. After Mann – Whitney test that was performed between the species on the right cluster in Figure 1. the outcome showed significant differences between G. liogaster and G. borneensis; also among the species G. doriae, G. chamaeleontinus, and G.
kuhlii. The results of Mann-Whitney test referred to the degree of similarity and dissimilarity between species. Table2. shows some characters, which contribute to similarity based on 49 informative characters from Canoco and nine characters from DA. Table 2. showed the higest similarity between two species in the genus Gonocephalus was scored 47, between G.
klossi - G. chamaeleontinus and G. klossi - G.
kuhlii. Based on morphological description, both of them has different characters which distinguish with each others however measurements of morphological and meristic
character s showed that both of them have overlapping values. However, G. klossi - G.
chamaeleontinus and G. klossi - G. kuhlii have close relationships because the typical diagnostic features of species and scales-based both of nuchal and dorsal crest are not similar (Manthey and Denzer, 1991). This is relationship concern to chamaeleontinus-group and megalepis-group, as in the relationship between G. megalepis – G. chamaeleontinus, G.
klossi - G. chamaeleontinus, and G. klossi –
kuhlii (see figure 2.). The relationship between G. klossi - G. grandis, G. megalepis – G.
liogaster, G. liogaster – G. chamaeleontinus, G.
borneensis – G. doriae, G. borneensis – G.
chamaeleontinus are not in accordance with the conclusion of Manthey and Denzer (1991). They concluded that G. grandis has a close relationship with G. semperi and bellii-group with robinsoni-group. It is conceived that this work used a number of different set of characters compared to the work of Manthey and Denzer to differentiate Gonocephalus and the high intraspecific variations are not powerful to differentiate species within the genus (see table 2.).
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Figure 4.3 Relationship among group of Gonocephalus (based on Manthey and Denzer, 1991)
Table 2. Similarity and dissimilarity of group of genus Gonocephalus
(according to Manthey and Denzer, 1991)
The species from genus of Gonocephalus almost has same characters or only few characters which differs each other especially the species which have close relationship with other species in genus of Gonocephalus as in G.
borneensis - G. liogaster, G. doriae - G.
chamaeleontinus, and G. klossi - G. megalepis. This is one of reasons of why identification of species in the genus Gonocephalus is sometimes difficult. The characters used to differentiate between one species and another, however, might not be applicable to differentiate this same species with the remaining members of the same genus (Ramadhan, 2011).
Table 3. also showed overlapping data of nine variables from result of DA. These results show that nine variables did not contribute an important role in showing a close relationship with each other. The more parameters were used to determine a relation of one species with the other species, the higher precision of that relationship.
The results of univariate statistics and morphological observation also showed that there is no difference between G. doriae from
Sumatra and Borneo. The same results applied to G. borneensis as well. Based on the previous statements, G. borneensis and G. doriae were also found in Sumatra (aside Borneo).
It is well known that the Sundaland are united and separated several times in the geological history. However, the Islands Western of Sumatra is separated in a much older period. This fact indicate that a species also occur in the Mentawai might be even older than the Sunda Islands. Several islands such as Pagai, Siberut and Sipora are once linked. Nias and Mentawai were linked to Sumatra following the Pini-Tanah Masa islands. In the other hand Simeulue has Banyak Islands a landbridge. Only Enggano was never virtually in contact with Sumatra. Judging from the wide distribution of G. chameleontinus in the whole Sundaland and in the Mentawai, this species is expected to occur when Sundaland is still a single landmass (Hall, 1998). Gonocephalus liogaster might occur together with G. chameleontinus as they occur in the Mentawai. This distribution might date back to the Miocene (Hall, 1998). In the other hand, G. doriae and G. borneensis, their
124 ISSN 2088-9127
occurrence in the Sundaland should dated back at least to the last glaciation where Java is already separated, but landbridge existed between Sumatra and Borneo (Hall, 1998). However, the differences in dorsal coloration pattern of G. grandis might indicate that it has a wider genetic variation and might indicate older stock in the Sundaland compared to the two other species.
Gonocephalus kuhlii occurs on Java and Sumatra, is supposed to follow the Strait Makassar watershed. In the other hand, G. bellii is recorded from Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo. It probably migrates following the same path as for Ansonia and Leptolalax as these two amphibian genera are specious in both land masses, but very badly represented or absent on Sumatra (Iskandar and Mumpuni, 2004; Iskandar and Colijn, 2000; Grismer, 2006; Inger, 1999). Their distribution is probably linked to the East Mekong watershed.
Gonocephalus beyschlagi and G. megalepis are found in several widespread areas in Sumatra. Other species such as G. klossi and G.
lacunosus, each evolved independently on Sumatra, but only occurs in a very restricted range, are probably younger compared to G.
beyschlagi and G. megalepis. Gonocephalus
myobergi evolve on Borneo and G. robinsonii on the Malayan Peninsula might evolve independently as for example G. klossi or G.
lacunosus, but can also be as old as G.
beyschlagi (Manthey, 2010). Local extinction might play an important
role in Gonocephalus speciation. It is well known that Sumatra has the highest number of species and in particular many of them have a very restricted distribution. We expect that volcanic eruption of the 33 volcanoes in Sumatra might account for local barrier. Most Sumatran volcanoes erupted incessantly during the Miocene, Pleistocene up to present. First, a high number of individuals might be wiped out from a given locality and producing bottle necking. That means a reduction of genetic variability and the unexpected appearance of a rare variation. In the other hand, a vast area will be burned out and serve as land barrier to prevent a given population to roam from one place to another. Volcanoes do not exist in Borneo and Peninsular Malaysia is the most plausible explanation that only few species
inhabited that island and only one species is considered as endemic (Uetz and Hallermann, 2012). This information shows that G.
borneensis and G. doriae could be found at Sumatra Island.
Gonocephalus borneensis
Referred specimens: Ten juvenile females, one juvenile male (JAM 09856), and two adult females specimens. The specimens are Sumatra (JAM 09856, JAM 09860, JAM 09864, JAM 00853, JAM 09862 from Kabupaten Deli Serdang; 0140, 0489, 505, 506, 550 from Aceh; Borneo (1024 from Hulu Kapuas, Kalimantan Barat).
Variations: juveniles of Gonocephalus
borneensis from Sumatra has a longer body compared to specimens from Borneo, but those from Borneo have a longer tail; largest, widest, and deepest head (supraciliary border higher); the ratio of diameter of orbit and tympanum is longer; and a slighty longer snout.
Gonocephalus chamaeleontinus
Referred specimens: A juvenile female, one adult male, and one adult female. Specimens are JAM 09202 from Kabupaten Bengkulu, Sumatra; JAM 10641 from Desa Bulasat, Kecamatan Pagai Selatan, Kabupaten Kepulauan Mentawai, Propinsi Sumatra Barat; and TGS 0004 from Tanggamus, Sumatra. Gonocephalus doriae
Referred specimens: Two juvenile females, two adult males, and six adult females. Specimens are from Sumatra (JAM 11110, JAM 11111 from Desa Haloban, Pulau Tuanku, Kecamatan Pulau Banyak, Kabupaten Aceh Singkil, Propinsi Nangroe Aceh Darussalam; JAM 10684 from Desa Bulasat, Kecamatan Pagai Selatan, Kabupaten Kepulauan Mentawai, Propinsi Sumatra Barat; 507, 508, 640 from Aceh; and an unnumbered specimen). Borneo (819 from Ketapang, Kalimantan; 1260, 1229 from Katingan, Kalimantan Tengah).
Variation: Adults from Sumatra have a shorter body and longer tail; a larger, wider, and deeper head (supraciliary border higher); the ratio of diameter of orbit and tympanum is smaller; and a slighty longer snout compared to those from Borneo.
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International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 125
Table 3. Similarity between speciies based on 49 (below diagonal) and nine (above diagonal) variables of Gonocephalus based on Mann-Whitney test.
G.
klo
ssi
G.
meg
ale
pis
G.
lio
ga
ster
G.
bo
rnee
nsi
s
G.
do
riae
G.
cha
ma
eleo
nti
n
us
G.
kuh
lii
G.
gra
nd
is
Sim
ilari
ties
(9
pa
ram
eter
s)
G. klossi 8/9 4/9 3/9 3/9 9/9 4/9 4/9
G. megalepis 44/49 3/9 2/9 4/9 5/9 5/9 3/9
G. liogaster 31/49 40/49 8/9 4/9 7/9 4/9 5/9
G. borneensis 25/49 16/49 46/49 5/9 6/9 2/9 3/9
G. doriae 30/49 20/49 37/49 41/49 9/9 5/9 2/9
G. chamaeleontinus 47/49 39/49 40/49 38/49 46/49 8/9 5/9
G. kuhlii 47/49 30/49 32/49 31/49 39/49 40/49 3/9
G. grandis 39/49 25/49 32/49 25/49 22/49 5/49 25/49
Similarites (49 parameters) Notes: The orange highlighted squares indicated two pairs of species with highest degree of similarities based on the statistic test, but different in the observed morphological characters. While the green highlighted ones referred to the pair of species where the test results according to morphological characters.
Gonocephalus grandis
Referred specimens: Twenty juvenile females, eight adult males, and six adult females. The specimens are Sumatra (grandis 1-4, 6800 from West Sumatra; 498, 639, 593 from Aceh,; JAM 09236 from Kotamadya Padang,; JAM 09769 from Deli Serdang,; JAM 10263, JAM 10121, JAM 10120 from Desa Madula, Kecamatan Gunung Sitoli, Kabupaten Nias,; JAM 11178 from Desa Haloban, Pulau Tuanku, Kecamatan Pulau Banyak, Kabupaten Aceh Singkil, Propinsi Nangroe Aceh Darussalam; JAM 09584, JAM 09582, and JAM unnumber from Cagar Alam Rimbo Panti, Kabupaten Pasaman, Propinsi Sumatra Barat; JAM 09770 from Kabupaten Deli, Sumatra; JAM 10213 from Desa Lili’uso, Kecamatan Lolofutimoi,
Kabupaten Nias, Propinsi Sumatra Utara); Borneo (1001 from Kapuas Hulu, Kalimantan; RMBR 00869, RMBR 00839, RMBR 00721, Baobao 15, D 410, G. 38, Baobao 23, 15638, Bal 0124, CAMP 35.7 from Kalimantan; KR 0438 and KR 0435 from Karimata, Kalimantan; 1201 from Murung Raya, Kalimantan; and 939 from South Kalimantan).
Variations: Male and female of Gonocephalus grandis differ in nuchal and dorsal crest and pattern of dorsal scales. Females of Gonocephalus grandis have a black stripe from dorsal to eyes. The variation both of Gonocephalus grandis from Sumatra and Borneo especially for those of females is
Gonocephalus grandis from Sumatra has a black pattern rounded on the dorsal and black stripe from nuchal and below the nuchal up to the eyes. Gonocephalus klossi
Referred specimens: Two adult males are identified as a Gonocephalus klossi. The specimens are RMBR 00341 and RMBR 00318 from Bengkulu, Sumatra.
Gonocephalus kuhlii
Referred specimens: Three juvenile females and two adult females. Specimens are from Sumatra (JAM 10550, JAM 110711, and JAM 10682 from Desa Bulasat, Kecamatan Pagai Selatan, Kabupaten Kepulauan Mentawai, Propinsi Sumatra Barat); and Java (kuhlii1 and kuhlii2 from Cibodas, West Java).
Variations: Gonocephalus kuhlii from West Java has nuchal crest overlap at the base, broad, rounded ventrals often in the chest, underside of the thigh with smooth scales and G. kuhlii from East Java has nuchal crest scales overlap only slightly or small space separated, narrow at the base, slightly keeled or ventrals scales, underside of thighs keeled scales with strongly curved up (Manthey and Denzer, 1993). Gonocephalus liogaster
Referred specimens: Three juvenile females and four adult males. The specimens are
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Sumatra (G. liogaster and 198 from Sipetang, Tapanuli Utara); Borneo (RMBR 00788 from West Kalimantan; 1065 from Kapuas, West Kalimantan; KR 0206 from Karimata, 882 from Ketapang, West Kalimantan; and 1215 from Murung Raya, Central Kalimantan).
Gonocephalus megalepis
Referred specimens: A juvenile female (JAM 00860), five adults males, and five adult females. The specimens are JAM 00860 from Deli Serdang,Sumatra; 0265, 0266, 0268, and 313 from Solok, Sumatra; 0476 and unnumbered from Sumatra; RMBR 00340, RMBR 00362, RMBR 00339, RMBR 0267 from Bengkulu, Sumatra.
Key to Gonocephalus species occuring in the Sunda Island.
1. a. Supracilliary border strongly raised………………………………………… (2) b. Supracilliary border normally raised……………………………………….. (3) 2. a. Dorsal crest spine much lower than nuchal, isosceles triangle shape of nuchal
crest ventral scales keeled; and short snout………………............... G. kuhlii
b. Dorsal crest spine much lower than nuchal, lanceolate shape of nuchal crest; ventral scales smooth; and short snout…………………………………………
G.
chamaeleontinus c. Dorsal crest spine almost high as the nuchal, sickle shape of nuchal crest;
ventral scales smooth; and sligthly longer snout……………………………… G. doriae
3. a. Separate crest (there is gap scales which separated both of nuchal and dorsal crest)………………………………………………………………………….
(4)
b. Continuous crest (nuchal and dorsal crest are not separated from each other)………………………………………………………………………….
(8)
4. a. Nuchal crest above the base scale rows at the beginning very low…............. (5) b. Nuchal crest above the base scale rows at the beginning high………………. (6) 5. a. Base of dorsal crest spine has variable scales sizes…………………............. G. lacunosus b. Base of dorsal crest spine composed of more or less uniform scales………... G. megalepis 6. a. Dorsal scales uniform, no tuberculate scale at edge of jaw…………............. (7) b. Dorsal scales unequal and enlarge scales distributed, small tuberculate scales
present at edge of jaw…………………………….......................................... G. klossi
7. a. Dorsal scales uniform in size and small, no enlarged dorsolateral…………... G. grandis b. Dorsal scales uniform and large (almost equal with ventral scales), body with
enlarged, geometrical dorsolateral scales forming an oblique rows……………………………………………………………………………
G. mjoebergi
8. a. Ventral covered with smooth scales…………………………………............. (9) b. Ventral covered with keeled scales………………………………….............. (10) 9. a. Ventral scales smooth, head scales large, equal, keeled; tubercles at the throat
absent………………………………………………………………….. G. liogaster
b. Ventral scales smooth, head scales large, unequal, keeled; many tubercles present at the throat……………………………………………………………
G. beyschlagi
10. a. Ventral strongly keeled, a black blotch on gular sac, tubercles at the throat absent, and dorsal scales with many enlarge scales, irregular distributed……………………………………………………………………..
G. bellii
b. Ventral scales keeled, no coloration on gular sac, throat with many tubercles and dorsal scales with a few enlarge scales, regular distributed………………………………………………………………………
G. borneensis
Conclusion
From the usage of DA, crest can be used to separate species within the genus Gonocephalus. In Gonocephalus kuhlii, G. doriae, G.
chamaeleontinus, G.borneensis and G. liogaster
the nuchal crest is directly linked with the dorsal crest, G. grandis, G. klossi, and G. megalepis has a gap between dorsal and nuchal crest. Also,
confirmed the finding that G. borneensis and G.
doriae are found on Borneo and Sumatra.
Acknowledgment
Gilang Ramadhan and Ramadhani Eka Putra, Ph.D for taught and give me advice in statistical analysis; Angga Rachmansah and Samantha Vivia for your help in English writing
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International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 127
corrections, discussion, and review about this manuscript; Andri Irawan, Adisty S.M, Leonard R. Aditya, Umilaela for taught me about herpetology and shared a lot of experience with you; Ahliana Afifati Sani and Arni Rahmawati F.S for being my besties; and all of my friends for support and a lot of happiness with you. Thank you very much.
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International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 129
FERMENTATION OF HEMICELLULOSES BIOMASS FOR MANNANASE
PRODUCTION FROM Aspergillus ustus BL5
Ahmad Thontowi, Nanik Rahmani and Yopi*
Research Center for Biotechnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI)
Jalan Raya Bogor Km. 46, Cibinong, 16911
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
Palm kernel and copra cake have contained high hemicelluloses (mannan) which could be
hydrolyzed to produce monosaccharide and oligosaccharides by endo- and exo-type mannanase. This biomass was utilized as carbon source for mannanase production from Aspergillus ustus BL5. The result of fermentation process with 100 mL flask media showed that copra cake provided more cell growth and mannanase activity. Aspergillus ustus BL5 gave maximum mannanase activity when grown in liquid mineral medium containing 0.5% and 1% (w/v) each of palm kernel and copra cake as carbon and nitrogen sources, respectively at pH 6.0 and at 30°C. Mannanase enzyme have been produced by using air-lift fermentor 2 L scale at that optimum conditions and analysis of the crude enzyme from the supernatant showed the maximum mannanase activity at 72 hours time incubation with 5.34 and 7.01 U/mL for palm kernel and copra cake, respectively. Aspergillus ustus BL5 were capable produced monosaccharide and oligosaccharides types during the fermentation process and this is indicated that Aspergillus ustus BL5 could produce 2 types of mannanase. Keywords: hemicellulose, waste biomass, bioprocess, fungi, saccharides
Introduction
Lignocelluloses are the main component of plants cell wall. Lignocelluloses consist of lignin, cellulose and hemicelluloses. Hemicelluloses can be collected based on the type of saccharide in its main chain become the xylan, mannan, galactan and arabinan [1]. In the plant, the mannan content approximately between 15-20% (dry weight) in the soft wood (Gymnospermae), and only about 5% in the hard wood (Angiospermae) [2]. Mannan in the nature in form of β-mannan (only consist of the mannose), galactomannan (consist of mannose and galactose) which any abundant in the cereals, such as palm kernel, copra and coffee [3.4] and glucomannan (consist of mannose and glucose) abundant in the type of potato such as porang and asparagus [5]. Mannan is the important component in pulp industry, paper, feed and food [6]. For food application, oligosaccharide production is the potential industry. This saccharide was produced when the mannan was hydrolysis by endo-mannanase (EC 3.2.1.78). Oligosaccharide was utilized by Bifidobacterium in the intestine specifically and also use as additive sugar for food [7]. Hydrolysis of mannan for some application can
be done by using β-mannanase, β-D-manosidase, β-D-gluctosidase and β -D-galactosidase which produce mannose, glucose, and galactose [8]. Besides that, mannanase enzyme was used for some needed, such as bleaching of powder of wood (pulp) in paper industry [9,10], mannooligosaccharida production for functional food ingredient [11,12], increasing supply of feed [13], added aroma, taste and decreasing of coffee extract consistency and application in the oil and gases company [14,15]. Microorganism that produce mannanase enzyme, such as bacteria [16,17] and fungi [12,18,19,20,21]. Some of chemical and physical factor was needed by microorganism to growth and produce mannanase enzyme [22]. Physical factor are pH, temperature and osmotic pressure. Carbon source and nitrogen are the chemical factor that influenced its growth. The information of their factor was important for preparation of mannanase enzyme production with the big scale. Some of mannan was used as carbon source for microorganism growth. The mannan sources, such as locust beam gum [18], guar gum [23], konyaku powder [24] and copra powder [25]. Although, there are still not any data that showing the best carbon source for
130 ISSN 2088-9127
microorganism growth. Copra is one of source with the high content of mannan [26]. Usually, this mannan source is the waste and seldom to utility. In this research, we use Aspergillus
ustus BL5 for mannanase enzyme production. This strain was isolated from Ciater hot spring, Bandung. It has been known capable to produce of mananase enzyme with the best substrate in the palm kernel and copra cake [27]. The information of substrate concentration and optimum condition for their production still not yet been known. In other to, in this research we report the growth optimal condition and mananase enzyme production from Aspergillus
ustus BL5 by using air-lift fermentor.
Materials and Methods / Experimental
Microorganism
Aspergillus ustus BL5 which used in this research was collection from Biocatalyst and Fermentation Laboratory, Research Center for Biotechnology.
Cell growth optimation in produce of
mananase enzyme (erlemeyer scale)
We have been done optimization substrate concentration, temperature, and pH of the fermentation to determine the condition of the growth microbes in producing mananase. Aspergillus ustus BL5 was grown in mineral medium containing mannan best substrate (copra kernel cake and copra cake) at several concentrations. The composition of the mineral medium was used consist of mannan substrates, 0.05% yeast extract, peptone bacto 0075%, (NH4)2SO4 0.14%, KH2PO4 0.2%, 0.03% MgSO4.7H2O, CO(NH4)2 0.03%, 0.03% CaCl2, FeSO4. 7H2O 0.0005%, 0.00016% MnCl2.7H2O, ZnSO4.7H2O 0.00014%, 0.0002% and CoCl2 in 500 mL. Aspergillus ustus BL5 was grown in 150 mL liquid mineral medium containing the source manan in erlenmeyer 300 mL. Fermentation have been done three replications. Inoculant was incubated in an incubator shaker at room temperature for 6 days and performed sampling every 24 hours. As for the determination of pH, temperature and length of incubation, growth of isolates was performed using the same medium, but do the treatment at various temperatures (30-40°C) and pH (5-10). We have been observed of cell growth by using the spectrophotometer at 660 nm and mannanase enzyme activity [28] with modified.
Mannanase production in fermentor scale
The fermentation process have been done by using mineral medium with a composition as previously mentioned, 1900 mL liquid fermentation medium with palm kernel cake 0.5% and copra cake 1%. The fermentation have been done for 104 hours in air lift fermentor scale 2 L with the conditions of a temperature of 30 ° C, pH 6, and aeration 1.5 VVM (volume pervolume per minute). The parameters was observed cell growth by spectrophotometer λ = 660 nm and mannanase
enzyme activity.
Analysis of mannanase enzyme activity
Mannanase enzyme activity was measured by the method [28] with modified. Manan used as a substrate solution (locust bean gum) 0.5% in 20 mM citrate phosphate buffer pH 7.2. Mannose produced was detected by DNS method [29]. A total of 0.5 mL of enzyme solution plus 0.5 mL of substrate were incubated at room temperature for 30 minutes. 1.5 mL DNS was added (dinitrosalisilic acid), and heated in boiling water for 15-30 minutes and cooled on ice for 30 minutes. Spectrophotometer readings have been done at 540 nm. One unit of enzyme activity is the amount of enzyme that can produce 1 mol mannose in one minute. Mannanase enzyme activity was measured with the method [27] by modified. Manan used as a substrate solution (locust bean gum) 0.5% in 20 mM citrate phosphate buffer pH 7.2.
Results and Discussion
The best substrate for Aspergillus ustus BL5 to produce mannanase enzymes are copra and palm kernel [27]. Copra has been reported to contain a high manan. In addition, the substrate have been known to have a fat content seventy times higher, but when it was compared with other mannan source just has the carbohydrates fourth (Guar Gum and Konjac flour) [21].
Substrates concentration optimum
Carbon is an essential component for the growth of microorganisms besides the water. The type and concentration are central to the determination of the optimal medium for the production of metabolites by microorganisms. The result our previous studies informs that Aspergillus ustus BL5 capable to grow and
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produce mannanase enzymes on palm kernel and copra as carbon source [27]. In this study, we tried several concentrations of palm kernel and copra for mannanase enzyme production. Aspergillus ustus BL5 produce mannanase enzymes was highest on the third day of incubation, with the concentration of palm kernel and copra respectively 0.5 and 1% (Figure 1). Maximum growth on the third day was also reported by [21]. At these concentrations, the activity reached 3.72 and 6.64 mananase U/mL for palm kernel and copra. This research shows that the fungus was better able to grow and produce mannanase enzymes in copra than palm krenel. Other researchers have been also reported that the best growth of Aspergillus [21] and Bacillus sp. KK01 [25] to produce mannanase by using copra as a substrate. This could be explained that copra has high mannan content [26]. As for the ratio mannose: galactose in LBG and guar gum, respectively 4:1 and 2:1 [30]. The ratio of glucose: mannose in Konjac is 6:1 [31] and mannose: galactose in copra is 14:1 [32]. Based on this research, the copra has the highest content of mannan, its which induces microorganisms to more mananase producing. Even the copra containing proteins and some other elements have been removed. This is what gives reason copra substrate capable of being the best than any other source [33]. The use of mannan commercial sources such as LBG, guar gum and konjac flour as a substrate is not economical for large-scale production mananase. The use of copra will increase of economic value, such as for the production of enzymes mananase.
Production optimum pH of mannanase
enzyme
This isolate has a range of growth at pH 5.0-9.0. Aspergillus ustus BL5 grew optimum at pH 6.0 to produce the mannanase enzyme by using substrate copra and palm crenel (Figure 2). As the pH above still showed activity, although it was lower than pH 6.0. Fermentation to produce mananase by using palm crenel with Saccharoplyspora flava 76 also showed insignificant changes in pH during the process. pH during fermentation ranged between 5.57-6.90 [34]. Study about fungi grow and metabolic on some pH have been carried out. pH higher was required during the early stages of fermentation to facilitate spore germination. It was described by [21], that in the beginning the pH value will drop and then will increase significantly. This increase was caused by the accumulation of organic acids (such as citric acid) during fermentation.
Optimum temperature of mannanase enzyme
production Aspergillus ustus BL5 grows optimally at
30 ° C in an mannanase enzyme producing by using copra and palm kernel substrates (Figure 3). The activity of mannanase enzyme at 40 and 50◦C was law. Reduced activity of mananase as
rising temperatures was caused by the denaturation of the enzyme. It is proved that Aspergillus ustus BL5 grow up and optimum produce mannanase enzymes at room temperature. Similar results were the same as Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus [35]. Different results was reported to other fungi have an optimum temperature at 50°C [12,36].
Figure 1. Mannanase enzyme activity Aspergillus ustus BL5 which grow in come concentration of
substrates palm kernel (A) and copra (B)
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Figure 2. Optimum growth pH Aspergillus ustus BL5 in mannanase enzyme production by using
substrates palm kernel (A) and copra(B) Mannanase enzyme production 2L scale
Several studies state that the solid fermentation to produce the enzyme more advantageous than liquid fermentation. The advantages was that did not require sophisticated facilities, the need for aeration and agitation low, low cost, and ease the processing [37]. However, in this study the mannanase production well done by using liquid medium. The selection of this process was carried out with consideration of the fermented liquid was easier to control the environmental conditions (aeration, temperature, and pH). Appropriate environmental condition was essential in the production of the enzyme to the maximum [17]. Based on the data information optimum growth conditions Aspergillus ustus BL5 mananase in producing enzymes, we have done enzyme production in the media mananase 2L scale by using air-lift fermentor. The concentration each substrates (palm crenel and copra) respectively were 0.5 and 1%, pH fermentation media 6.0 and processes have been done at room temperature for 104 hours. We have done observed cell growth, mananase activity and saccharide products were formed during fermentation. Cell growth increased slowly to
48 hours and reach peak growth at the 72. Similarly with mananase enzyme activity follows the pattern of cell growth. The results of samples analysis showed that mannanase enzyme activity of air-lift fermenter was obtained at the 72 with 5.34 and 7.01 U/mL, respectively when grown in palm kernel and copra (Figure 4). This was strengthens our assumption that the production of mannanase enzymes using substrates copra was higher than palm kernel.
Conclusion
From this research, we could conclusion that optimum substrates concentration Aspergillus ustus BL5 in produce mannanase was 0.5% for palm kernel and 1% for copra. The highest mananase activity in the both substrates was reached in pH 6.0 and fermentation temperature 30oC. Mananase production by using air lift fermentor 2 L scale in its condition capable to produce mananase at 72 hours, with each activity at palm kernel and copra was 5,34 and 7,01 U/mL. Thus, the best substrates for mannanase production by Aspergillus ustus BL5 was copra.
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Figure 3. Growth optimum temperature Aspergillus ustus BL5 in produce mannanase enzyme by using
substrates palm kernel (A) and copra (B).
Figure 4. Mannanase enzyme production by Aspergillus ustus BL5 in substrates palm crenel (A) copra
(B) by using airl-lift fermentor 2L. (●) the cell growth (○) Mannanase activity.
Acknowledgment
We gratefully acknowledge to DIKTI for their research grant in this study.
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[9] Gubitz GM, Lischnig T, Stebbing D, & Saddler JN. 1997. Enzymatic removal of hemicellulose from dissolving pulps. Biotechnol Lett.19(5):491–5.
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[11] Chandrakant P & Bisaria VS. 1998. Simultaneous bioconversion of cellulose and hemicellulose to ethanol. Crit Rev
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Ögel ZB, & Biely P. 2004. Purification and characterization of two forms of endo-β-1,4-mannanase from a thermotolerant fungus, Aspergillus fumigatus IMI 385708. Biochimi Biophys Acta 1674: 239-250.
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CELLULOSIC BIOMASS FOR OLIGOSACCHARIDES PRODUCTION
Yopi*, Nanik Rahmani, Awan Purnawan, Ahmad Thontowi and Apridah C. Djohan
Research Center for Biotechnology, Indonesian Institute of Science
Jalan Raya Bogor Km. 46, Cibinong, 16911
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
Utilization of cellulosic biomass is mainly focus on biomaterial and feedstock production. Recently, several types of cellulosic biomass are becoming the candidate of carbon source for the second generation of bio-fuels and food precursor production. In Indonesia, cellulosic biomass is abundant and outside the human food chain. The advances of glycoscience and glycotechnology provide high benefits in the production of various oligosaccharides which known can be utilized as a functional food, from non-food biomass such as cellulosic biomass. Using cellulase and hemicellulase enzymes derived from cellulolytic and hemicellulolytic microbes, analysis the degradation of cellulosic biomass such as palm kernel cake which contains high hemicellulose and commercial cellulose showed that several types of oligosaccharides was formed. Based on this result, Biodiversity of biomass in Indonesia could be utilized as substrate to produce a new type of oligosaccharides which is potential as functional food. Waste biomass from industrial of plantations, agriculture and forest products in Indonesia containing carbohydrate of hemicellulose, particularly waste from the production of palm oil, copra and coffee, can be used for the production manno-oligosaccharides. Therefore, cellulosic biomass from bamboo and others could be used for cello-oligosaccharides production. Keywords: polysaccharides, saccharification, plantation, bioprocess, fermentation
Introduction
Development of oligosaccharides production recently not only for sweetening, but also as a functional food component [1]. Glycotechnology and glycosciences development was increasing the value of the oligosaccharides function in food and pharmaceutical industries. In the 1970s, the development of oligosaccharides began, research on tertiary function of oligosaccharides such as the effect of improving the microflora in the intestine, the effects of high mineral absorption, increased immunity, anti-allergy and anti-aging. The application of the some types oligosaccharides production are also applied [2]. In these oligosaccharides production, all can not be separated from the use of enzymes and the oligosaccharides industry is the combination of the invention from several types of enzymes like amylase family which is have function in the production of oligosaccharides and technical production progress (bioprocess) [3].
Since Japan establish the Foshu programs (Food for specified health use) in 1991, the
development of oligosaccharide production rose rapidly. Approximately 340 types of functional food in Japan, for about 50% of the component containing of oligosaccharides. The production of oligosaccharides increases accordance with higher market demand attention associated with the body health. Indonesia needs to this functional food component is predicted to be higher, therefore the development be expected to produce oligosaccharides that have not been marketed such as mano-oligosaccharides and cello-oligosaccharides by utilizing biomass in Indonesia. Table 1 shows the main source, production reaction, the enzyme that used in the reaction and the types of oligosaccharides which are produced. Around 30 types of oligosaccharides have been developed and produced, but some of them such as manno-oligosaccharides was derived from the carbohydrate hemicellulosa manan have not produced and it still in the early stages of research.
Japanese researcher group was successfully patented mano-oligosaccharides from coffee grounds with an emphasis on function as a prebiotics [4,5]. Mannan
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hemisellulosa waste biomass from the palm oil and copra has been applied mostly for livestock feed [6], but it has low efficiency because of the high fiber content. The utilization cellulosa fiber from waste biomass to produce the oligosaccharide serves as functional food components and have high economical value will be attractive research object. The first thing to do is to gather basic information conducted with sellulase enzyme family, especially mannanase enzyme that is important in carbohydrate degradation process of hemisellulosa mannan.
Mannanase have been widely produced by mannolytic microbes such as bacteria Bacillus pumilus [7], Caldocellum saccharolyticum [8] and Sptreptomyces spp. The utilization of mannanase is not limited only for food industry but also for the application that useful for bleacing processes in the paper industry, pulp and petroleum recovery.
There are several reports of mannanase-producing microbes in Indonesia, such as microbial Eupenillium javanicum [9,10, 6], which has been applied in the improvement of palm kernel cake for animal feed. In order to
utilize cellulose biomass waste and hemisellulosa have been implemented the screening and the analysis of microbes enzyme-producing and hemisellulase cellulase from local isolates [11,12]. This paper will explain the process of oligosaccharides production by using those mannolytic isolates with coconut palm biomass and hemisellulosa porang mannan from tubers that are common in Indonesia.
Materials and Methods
1. Materials and microbes Biomass that used is palm kernel cake and
mannan flour from porang tuber. Palm kernel cake from PT. Indofeed is produced from oil palm industry. The content of mannan as references is about 20 ~ 40% of the total weight. Mannan flour from porang tuber (Amorphophallus muelleri blume) obtained from PT. Ambico L.td, Surabaya. Actinomycetes strains of bacteria isolates from the collection of BTCC (Biotechnology Culture Collection)-LIPI.
Tabel 1. Sources of oligosaccharides, enzymes and process production xylan, mannan and cellulose
are the candidate of material for new type of oligosaccharides production
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2. Biomass fermentation by mannolytic
microbial
Nitrogen source that used was 1% locust bean gum mannan/porang tuber/coconut/palm cake with the composition of the media such as yeast extract 0.05%, bacto pepton 0.075%, (NH4)2SO4 0.14%, KH2PO4 0.2%, MgSO4.7H2O 0.03%, CO(NH4)2 0.03%, CaCl2 0.03%, FeSO4.7H2O 0.0005%, MnCl2.7H2O 0.00016%, ZnSO4.7H2O 0.00014 %, CoCl2 0.0002%. Inoculant was incubated in a shaker incubator for 3-5 days according to the conditions optimum enzyme production for each isolate. Sampling was done every day. Samples were centrifuged at a speed of 7000 rpm for 10 min, the supernatant (crude enzyme) were analyzed for enzyme activity by using DNS method and content of oligosaccharides by TLC method. The mannanase crude enzyme will be used for further reaction of substrate to produce oligosaccharides. 3. The enzyme reaction and mannan
substrates
50 µL enzyme solution was treated with 200 mL substrate locust bean gum / palm kernel cake / flour porang tuber for 24 hours with varying the sampling time at the 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 24. Each 1% substrate concentration used was dissolved in water and homogenized at 100 ° C. Mananase crude enzyme solution that will be used form the fermentation between mannolytic isolate and coconut cake substrate as a source of the biomass. Samples were analyzed by TLC with standard mannose, mannobiose, mannotriose, mannotetraose, mannopentaose, manoheptaose. 4. Mannanase enzyme activity assay
Mananase enzyme activity was measured by the modified method. Mannan used as a substrate solution (locust bean gum) 0.5% in 20 mM citrate phosphate buffer pH 7.2. Mannose produced detected by DNS method [13]. Amount 1 mL of the supernatant added 1 ml of substrate and incubated at room temperature for 30 min. Then add 3 mL DNS (dinitrosalicylic acid) and heated in boiling water for 15 min. Spectrophotometer analysis done at wavelength = 575 nm. One unit of the mannanase activity was defined as the amount of enzyme liberating 1 µmol of mannose per minute under the above condition.
5. Product analysis by chromatography
thin layer method
Fermentation products were detected by TLC on HPTLC silica gel 60 F254 TLC sheets (Merck), Prepare the sample that will be tested through the centrifuge process (10,000 rpm, 4ºC and 5 minutes). All samples were applied in equal quantities (15-20 µL) on the sheet and dried, then resolved with a solvent mixture such as n-butyl alcohol: Acetic acid: water (2:1:1) as a solvent a mobile phase. After the mobile phase reach final line the silica gel plate were dry in the acid chamber for 15 minutes, subsequently spray it with developed solution anilin hydrogen pthalat and for apperaring the hidden spot, silica gel were heated on the hot plate surface in 15-30 minutes. Spots that appear as compared to controls or standards and calculated as a Rf-value.
Results and Discussion
Biomass fermentation in the production of
mannanase enzymes
This paper reported the results of fermentation biomass palm kernel cake with 5 types of bacteria isolates producing mannanase enzyme. The results of the oligosaccharide products analysis from fermentation process for 5 days and sampling every 24 hours is shown in Figure 1. Five isolates microbes that used from collection BTCC is an actinomycetes type. The main product of isolate 17 and isolate 20 is a monosaccharide but oligosaccharides unformed from the results of TLC analysis. This indicates that mananase enzyme produced an exo-type enzyme which able to degrade from the end of bond. Therefore, isolates 26, 70 and 76 show the results of the oligosaccharides formed. Especially the isolates 76 which is produce oligosaccharides with diverse sizes. These results are similar to the results of enzyme activity assays mannanase fermentation results shown in Table 2, which is an enzyme produced using palm kernel cake (PKC) and locust bean gum (LBG) as a commercial substrate. From five isolates, only isolate 76 that had high activity. This suggests that the isolate 76 producing ekstraselluler enzymes actively, other isolates were more predictable production of intracellular enzymes. Overall the activity of an enzyme that is produced when using palm kernel cake substrate is smaller than pure
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mannan, but they are relatively cheap if it will produce the enzyme by using those biomass.
Using of crude mannanase enzyme produced by isolate 76 from the fermentation with Locust bean gum and palm kernel cake, then analyzed the enzyme reaction with substrate mannan flour from porang tubers that have high glucomannan content. TLC results showed that product that produce by using mannanase enzyme with locust bean gum and palm kernel cake has the same oligosaccharides product (Figure 2).
By using the same sample for HPLC analysis. The Sample from enzyme reaction by original isolate with flour mannan substrate can produce oligosaccharide with several product such as disaccharides size, trisaccharides and pentaosa (Figure 3A). Enzymes from fermented
locust bean gum produces monosaccharides in addition to three different types of oligosaccharides (Fig. 3B). There is a slight difference in migration time showed that oligosaccharide structures formed different saccharide standards. The size of oligosaccharides formed by comparison with a standard saccharide dominated by monosaccharides (glucose and mannose), disaccharides and trisaccharides. There was also pentasaccharides and oligosaccharides that have large size. Reaction time, reaction conditions (temperature, pH), the quality and quantity of enzyme that used and the concentration of the substrate greatly affect to oligosaccharide products production. Need the optimization process in order to obtain the better results.
. Figure 1. Analysis of oligosaccharides production during fermentation process using palm kernel cake
with several types of mannolytic bacteria (strain no. 17, 20, 26, 70 and 76) . Standard M : Mannose
Tabel 2. Comparison of enzyme activity produced by 5 isolates selected with locust bean gum and
palm kernel cake as a carbon sources No. Kode Mannanase Activity (U/ml)
Isolate Isolate Locust bean Mannan Palm kernel cake
70 ID05-A0260 0.001 0.012
20 ID05-A0291 0.008 0.004
26 ID05-A0323 0.004 0.009
17 ID04-0724 0.061 0.011
76 ID04-0555 0.191 0.116
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Figure 2. TLC from reaction mannanase enzyme ~ substrate mannan flour. M: mannose, M3:
mannotriosa, 1-2. native enzyme isolated from BKS, 3-4. Enzymes that used produced with coconut palm and locust bean gum mannan. Enzyme-substrate reaction: 50 mL enzyme solution was mixed with 100 mL mannan substrate dissolved at 50 ℃. Reactions were performed on a shaker incubator at 50 ℃ for 24 hours.
A
MV
-5.00
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
30.00
Minutes
1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00 11.00 12.00 13.00 14.00 15.00
4.0
39
4.3
62
4.8
91
5.9
38
7.9
10
9.5
41
B
MV
-5.00
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
30.00
Minutes
1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00 11.00 12.00 13.00 14.00 15.00
4.0
63
4.3
52
4.8
95
7.9
08
9.5
36
13.9
29
Figure 3. Profile oligosaccharides formed from the reaction of the enzyme ~ substrate 10 mL sample
volume, speed of 1 mL/min, RI detector A. the enzyme reaction with palm kernel cake and flour mannan substrates B. the enzyme reaction with locust bean gum enzyme and flour mannan substrate
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To check the stability of the oligosaccharides product, the reaction enzyme ~ substrate given 2 treatments is to be heated at 100 ℃ for 15 minutes and in the autoclave. From the analysis by TLC showed no significant changes. Oligosaccharides formed by the degradation process of flour mannan did not break down into smaller saccharides and relatively more stable to heat. In general, oligosaccharides have properties that vary depending on the structure and amount of monosaccharides. Applications in the field of food depends on the characteristics. Required oligosaccharides in considerable amount to see these characteristics.
Conclusion
Cellulose and hemicellulose biomasses can be degraded by enzymatically process into oligosaccharides that were predicted has function as a functional food components. Type of oligosaccharide depends on the base material and the enzymes that used. Palm kernel cake and porang tuber both contain of high heteromanan that can be degrade by the mannanase enzyme become manno-oligosaccharides that are new type of oligosaccharides which is can be developed in the future. Biomass based on cellulose and other hemicellulose can be used as ingredients for functional food production. Biodiversity of microbes enzyme-producing is very high, combination between local enzymes and local biomass is expected to provide a more efficient and better product.
Acknowledgment
The research was funded by Competitive research program 2009. We thank Biotechnology Culture Collection (BTCC) for providing the potential bacteria used in this study.
References
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CHEMICAL PROPERTIES AND SUGAR RELEASED OF SENGON
(PARASERIANTHES FALCATARIA (L) NIELSEN) STEM AND BRANCHWOOD
Ika Wahyuni1*, Danang S. Adi1, Yusup Amin1, Sukma S. Kusumah1, Teguh Darmawan1, Wahyu Dwianto1, Takahisa Hayashi2
1Research and Development Unit for Biomaterials, Indonesian Institute of Sciences,
INDONESIA 2Department of Bioscience, Tokyo University of Agriculture, JAPAN
*Coresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
An analysis of wood chemical properties such as extractive alcohol-benzene, lignin, holocellulose and -cellulose of Paraserianthes falcataria (L) Nielsen (Sengon) stem and branchwood have been investigated. This study is also concerned on the sugar released for ethanol production from Sengon branchwood. In this regard, sample of breast-height stem and the first branch of the tree with 10 cm diameter were analyzed by using Mokushitsu Kagaku Jiken Manual standard. The sugar released from enzymatic saccharification of woods was determined using Nelson-Somogyi method. The result showed that the amount of extractive alcohol-benzene, lignin, holocellulose, and -cellulose for Sengon stem were 4.3, 21.1, 77.3, and 52.2 % respectively. While for branchwood, the corresponding values were 3.6, 25.7, 74.7, and 42.1 % respectively. It was also observed that enzymatic saccharification of Sengon branchwood after 48 h released only 9.8 mg of sugar, which was lower than the result of its corresponding stem. Keywords: Sengon, stem, branchwood, chemical properties, sugar released.
Introduction
Fast decline of timber resource and more demand on maximizing use of all material in a tree are now making it necessary to wood industry to look for innovative ways of using forest residue such as small wood, branchwood, and stumps. Recently, the utilization of forest harvesting residues especially branchwood has not been popular. It is commonly utilized as fuel-wood. However, its suitability to be utilized as material for other wood based products i.e. wood ethanol, pulp and paper, and particleboard should not be neglected. For those application, quantitative data on the chemical composition of wood species are often desireable. Browyer et al. [1] noticed that the properties of branchwood are different with stem. According to Berrocal
et al. [2], there are variations in chemical composition of P. radiata associated to tree age that should be observed in order to select suitable material for ethanol production. Therefore, it is important to study chemical properties of different part of wood regarding the concept of whole tree and biomass utilization.
Sengon is known as one of fastest growing wood species in Indonesia with specific gravity of 0.30 g/cm3. The tree is useful not only as timber material but also in the production of pulp and paper. It is expected to be one of the most useful tropical tree species in terms of biomass in industrial forests. Previous study shows that the sugar released of Sengon stem from enzymatic hydrolysis or saccharification process after 48 h was about 29 mg/100mg of wood meal [3]. This study is part of Wood-Based Ethanol Production Project,
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where we used branchwoods for raw materials. Since there is difference in chemical properties of Sengon stem and branchwood, the sugar released from the hydrolysis may also be different. Therefore, the objectives of this research are to study the difference on chemical properties of Sengon stem and branchwood and their sugar released, regarding the utilization of Sengon as material for ethanol production.
Materials and Methods
Sengon tree was gathered from Cianjur, East Java. The branchwood sample used in this research was the first branch of the tree and having a diameter for about 10 cm, as shown in Figure 1. The chemical composition analysis and branchwood enzymatic saccharification were done in Research and Development Unit for Biomaterials LIPI.
The specimens for determining the chemical composition of wood were collected by milling flakes of stem and branchwood into sawdust that would be able to pass a No. 40 sieve and retained on a No.60 sieve. The chemical properties of
stemwood and branchwood with respect to the relative amount of extractive percentage that soluble in alcohol-benzene solvent, holocellulose, α-cellulose, and lignin, was quantitatively analyzed from the sawdust by using Mokushitsu Kagaku Jiken Manual (2000) [4].
The enzymatic sacharifictaion was conducted through hydrolisation of wood meal by commercial cellulase [3]. A commercial cellulase preparation (Meicelase, Meiji Seika, Tokyo, Japan) derived from Trichoderma viride was used to digest the meal samples. About 100 l of the supernatant was collected at 6, 24, and 48 h after the start of hydrolysis and used for sugar analysis. The quantity of sugar released was estimated as reducing sugar by the Nelson-Somogyi method [5].
Results and Discussions
The results of chemical properties and sugar released of Sengon stem and branchwood were shown in Table 1.
Figure 1. Sample preparation procedures.
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Table 1. Chemical properties and sugar released of Sengon stem and branchwood. Parameter Stem Branchwood
Extractives Content Ethanol-Benzene (%) 4.3 3.6 Lignin (%) 21.1 25.7 Holocellulose (%) 77.3 74.7 -cellulose (%) 52.2 42.1 Sugar released (mg/100 mg) 29[3] 9.78 Moisture content (%) 13. 3 14.04
Table 1 showed that there were
differences between chemical composition of Sengon stem and branchwood. The result noted that the ethanol-benzene extractives content from branchwood (3.6%) was lower than from the coresponding stem (4.3 %). It was likely due to the proportion of mature wood in stem was higher than in branchwood. According to Rowell [6], heartwood contains more extractive than sapwood. The value of extractive content in Sengon stem and branchwood are appropriate with the range of extractive content in wood which is about 1 – 10% [7]. However, this small amount of extractives could not be neglected. Since, it would give affect in wood properties and ethanol production.
According to the results, it could be observed that holocellulose and -cellulose amount in Sengon branchwood (74.7 and 42.1%) were lower than those from the stem (77.3 and 52.2%). Conversely, lignin content from branchwood (25.7 %) was higher compare to the lignin from the stem sample (21.1 %). As previously mentioned, the proportion of mature wood in stem might be higher than in branchwood. Generally, mature wood would have higher amount of fiber cell wall that consist of cellulose. According to Bowyer et al. [1], cellulose content increase as proportion of dry weight of the cell wall along with the increasing of secondary cell wall thickness. Hence, mature wood generally contains more cellulose and less lignin compared to juvenile wood [6].
In hardwood, holocellulose is total carbohydrate fraction of wood that consists of cellulose and hemicellulose. It is gained after delignification process [8]. Based on
the reference, if any wood had high content of -cellulose, it might have higher hemicellulose. In this study, the result showed that branchwood had lower content of -cellulose (42.1 %). Therefore, Sengon branchwood may have lower amount of hemicellulose. However, further research is needed regarding this hemicellulose content to ensure the wood composition.
Levels of enzymatic saccharification of Sengon stem and branchwood were also measured. Table 1 showed that after 48 h, Sengon branchwood released only 9.8 mg of sugar per 100 mg meal, which was lower than the result of its corresponding stem (29 mg/100mg). We assumed that it was due to higher lignin and hemicellulose content in Sengon branchwood. The presence of lignin and hemicellulose inhibits the contact of cellulase enzymes to cellulose, and hence reducing the efficiency of the hydrolysis [9]. In saccharification, lignin acted as inhibitor, preventing the digestible parts of the substrate to be hydrolyzed. According to Studer et al. [10], sugar release depended on both lignin content and lignin composition. Hemicellulose could also act as recalcitrant component in ethanol production because it is intercalated with cellulose. It is also mentioned by Chandra et al. [11], that the mean pore size of the substrate will increase by removing hemicellulose, and hence cellulose will be easier to be accessed and hydrolyzed.
Overall, Sengon can be suitable tree species for ethanol production since the chemical properties of Sengon branchwood were comparable to its coresponding stem. However, the utilization of Sengon branchwood as raw material will give lower cellulosic ethanol production. Since
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branchwood have higher lignin content than the stem, thus ultimately will increase the processing cost.
Conclussion
The chemical properties of Sengon branchwood are different with its coresponding stem. Holocellulose, -cellulose, and extractive that soluble in alcohol-benzene content of Sengon branchwood are lower than those from stem, while lignin content in branchwood is higher. Major wood chemical properties that affect the enzymatic saccharification are cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Wood with higher lignin content will be more difficult to be hydrolized, and hence the enzymatic saccharification of Sengon branchwood released only 9.8 mg of sugar, which was lower than the result of its corresponding stem. The result of chemical analysis of Sengon branchwood as presented in this report suggests that they can also be a potential source for ethanol production.
Reference
[1] J.L. Bowyer, J.G. Haygreen, R. Schmulsky, 2003, Forest Products and Wood Science: An Introduction. Fourth Edition, Iowa State Press, USA.
[2] A. Berrocal, J. Baeza, J. Rodriguez, M. Espinosa, J. Freer, 2004, Effect of tree age on Pinus radiata D. Don chemical composition, J. Chil. Chem. Soc (49) N 3: 251-256.
[3] R. Kaida, T. Kaku, K. Baba, M. Oyadomori, T. Watanabe, S. Hartati, E. Sudarmonowati, T. Hayashi, 2009, Enzymatic saccharification and ethanol production of Acacia mangium and Paraserianthes falcataria wood, and Elaeis guineensis trunk, J. Wood Sci. (55) 381-386.
[4] Mokushitsu Kagaku Jiken Manual, 2000, Japan Wood Research Society Publisher.
[5] M. Somogyi, 1952, Notes on sugar determination, J. Biol. Chem (195) 19-23.
[6] R. Rowell, 2005, Handbook of Wood Chemistry and Wood Composite, CRC Press.
[7] Soenardi, 1976, Sifat-sifat Kimia Kayu, Yayasan Fakultas Kehutanan, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta.
[8] D. Fengel, G. Wegener, 1995, Kayu:
Kimia, Ultrastruktur, Reaksi-reaksi.
Terjemahan HarjonoSastrohamijoyo.
Yogyakarta: Gajah Mada University
Press. [9] P. Alvira, E.T. Pejó, M. Ballesteros,
M.J. Negro, 2010, Pretreatment technologies for an efficient ethanol production process based on enzymatic hydrolysis: A review, Bioresource
Technology (101) 4851-4861. [10] M. H. Studer, J. D. DeMartini, M. F.
Davis, R. W. Sykes, B. Davidson, M. Keller, G. Tuskan, C. E. Wyman, 2011, Lignin content in natural Populus variants affects sugar release, PNAS (108) 6300-6305.
[11] R. P. Chandra, R. Bura, W. E. Mabee, A. Berlin, X. Pan, J. N. Saddler, 2007, Substrate pretreatment: the key to effective enzymatic hydrolysis of lignocellulosics, Adv Biochem Eng Biotechnol. (108) 67-93.
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PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANT GROWTH PROMOTING BACTERIA : PHOSPHATASE,
CELLULASE, AND AUXIN PRODUCTION
Helbert*, Senlie Octaviana, Anggita Sari Praharasti, Suprapedi
Research and Development Unit for Biomaterials, LIPI
Jl. Raya Bogor Km 46, Cibinong, Bogor, West Java, 16911
*Corressponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
Composition of Plant growth promoting bacteria (PGPB) determine the effectiveness of bio-fertilizer. This study focused on physiological testing of Pseudomonas, Lactobacillus, Azotobacter and Rhizobium. Its activity tested on Pikovskaya medium (phosphate dissolution), carboxymethyl cellulose medium (hydrolysis of cellulose) and Tryptophan medium (auxin production). All six isolates have activity in phosphate dissolve, cellulose hydrolysis and auxin production. Phosphatase activity linear with phosphate produced levels, followed by pH decrease of media. Rhizobium has the highest activity on auxin production. While cellulose hydrolysis activity of Pseudomonas and Lactobacillus increased after 5th day. Thus, the six isolates could potentially be used as PGPB bio-fertilizer agent.
Keywords: PGPB, phosphatase, cellulase, and auxin
Introduction
Bio-Fertilizer is a product of soil microbes
beneficial activity as a provider of nutrients, enhancing the availability of nutrients, plants pest control, decomposition of organic material and humus former[1]. Ramirez and Mellado[2] states members of the Azospirillum, Azotobacter, Bacillus, Burkholderia, Enterobacter, Klebsiella and Pseudomonas genus is a member of the Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria (PGPB) that are reliable as bio-fertilizer. According to Yuwono[3], bio-fertilizer manufacturing started from isolation and selection of beneficial soil microbes.
Microbes were cultured in laboratory conditions using artificial media and selected by their activity. Selected strains were tested in the field scale, to determine whether these strains can increase the growth and crop production. If the strain is effective in increasing crop yields, next step is to large-scale production by fermentation process, harvested and packed for commercial purposes. Bio-fertilizer research has been done[4,5,6,7] and known to increase the fertility of the soil therefore enhance agricultural production. Kundu and Gaur[4] showed a combination of phosphate solubilizer bacteria (Bacillus polymixa and Pseudomonas striata) with nitrogen-fixing (Azotobacter chrococcum) on wheat plants, increase crop production two to
five times. In addition, Lestari et al.[8] proved that the production of IAA by members of the genus Azospirillum strains affect root development, improve the productivity of wheat crop and reduce nitrogen fertilizer needs up to 35%. Thus, members of the Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria (PGPB) can be developed for bio-fertilizer and expected to reduce chemical fertilizer usage in agricultural activity. Six bacterial isolates used in this study were members of Pseudomonas, Lactobacillus, Azotobacter and Rhizobium. The aim of this study was to determine the potential of these microbes as bio-fertilizer agents, mainly ability to dissolve the phosphate, producing growth hormone (IAA) and degrade cellulose.
Method
Microbes used in this study were members of the genus Pseudomonas, Lactobacillus, Azotobacter and Rhizobium, obtained from the collection of Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI). Six bacterial isolates were grown on Pikovskaya medium comprising (g / L): (5) CA3 (PO4) 2 (0.27) NH4NO3 (0.2) KCl (0.1) MgSO4.7H2O (0.001) MnSO4.6H2O (0.001) FeSO4.7H2O and (0.1) yeast extract. Phosphate Solubilize Bacteria (PSB) measured its phosphatase ability to dissolve tricalcium phosphate, the measurement of dissolved
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phosphate and a decrease in pH[9]. Phosphatase activity was measured by taking 1 ml of culture in a 2 ml eppendorf tube and centrifuged for 5 minutes (6000 rpm, 40 °C). Mixture of 50 ml supernatant, 50 ml phenyl phosphate and 50 ml distilled water incubated in bio shaker 37° C for 10 minutes. After 10 minutes, 160 ml reagent mixture was added and incubated again. Phosphatase activity was measured using a spectrophotometer (λ 880 nm). If the color
change to blue then the microbes has phosphatase activity. The measurement of dissolved phosphate is similar to the phosphatase measurement, but without the addition of phenyl phosphate. Auxin production was measured by Salkowsky test[10]. The strains that able to produce IAA can be detected by the medium color change to pink[11]. Microbial colonies were inoculated into 1/5 NB media. After 3-4 days of incubation, a total of l00 ml of culture was inoculated into 5 ml tryptophan medium consisting of (g / L): (0.204) tryptophan, (5) glucose and (0.025) yeast extract. A total of 1.5 ml culture medium on tryptophan was added 1 ml reagent Salkowsky, vortex and incubated for 30 minutes. IAA produced was measured by spectrophotometer (λ
530 nm). Cellulase activity was measured by growing them on carboxymethyl cellulose medium (CMC) consisting of (g / L): (10) CMC (5) KH2PO4 (0.5) (NH4) 2SO4 (0.2) MgSO4.H2O (0, 5) yeast extract (0.01) FeCl3.6H2O (0.01) MnSO4. Two ml samples were taken and centrifuged (6000 rpm, 4 ⁰ C) for 5 minutes. Supernatant separated from the pellet as the enzyme source (crude enzymes). 0.5 ml of the supernatant, added with 0.5 ml 1% CMC substrate, and then homogenized with a vortex, incubated in bio shaker for 1 hour at 40⁰C. Supernatant mixture was added 0.2 ml of DNS,
and heated for 7 minutes. The color change was measured by spectrophotometry (λ 540 nm
absorbance). If the sample shows a color change to red brick then the microbes are able to hydrolyze cellulose or having cellulase activity. One unit of enzyme activity is the amount micromole of product produced per minute per milliliter of suspension[12].
Results and Discussion
Phosphorus (P) is one important element for plant growth and metabolism which distributed in nature, content varies depend in soil type but generally low[13].
Results showed that bacterial strains members of Pseudomonas, Lactobacillus, Azotobacter and Rhizobium capable on dissolving phosphate, as indicated by clear zones around colonies on pikovskaya medium (Figure 1). This result is consistent with Farhat et al.[14] which states that phosphate solubilize bacteria (PSB) can be grown in certain basic medium with insoluble phosphate compound as the sole source of phosphate. If the medium is suspended in agar, the strains that capable on dissolving the phosphate can be determined by the formation of clear zones around colonies.
Plants very depend on the PSB activity for phosphate availability, because this group able to solubilize unavailable inorganic phosphate into available organic phosphate to plants and other soil microbes[15]. Phosphate plays an important role for energy transfer (ATP), photosynthesis (NADP), material of genetic material (DNA / RNA), cell formation, cell membrane and organ formation in the cell (phospholipid), the development of the fine hair roots and strengthens plant resistance against pests and diseases[16].
Figure 1. Bacterial isolates Solvent Phosphate (BPF) which marked a clear zone around the colony
() on Pikovskaya Medium
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Phosphatase activity linear with phosphate produced and followed by a decrease in pH (Figure 2). PH decrease was caused by the secretion of organic acids (ie: lactic acid, glycolic acid, fumaric acid, citric acid, tartaric acid and succinic acid) by the PSB. Furthermore, in the medium, organic acid bind metals from inorganic phosphate compounds and break the bond of some form of phosphate[17] Orthophosphate compound is reacted with ammonium molybdate to form complex compounds of ammonium phospomolibdat
marked color change from clear to blue. According to Farhat et al.[14] the secretion of organic acids such as gluconate acid is directly controlled by the glucose oxidation pathway via membrane bound quinoprotein glucose dehydrogenase (GDH). This enzyme requires pyrroloquinoline quinine (PQQ) as cofactor, which involves six gene operon PQQ is pqqA, B, C, D, E and F. Thus, PBS plays an important role in soil as a phosphate supply agencies for growth and metabolism of plant and also for other organisms activity.
Figure 2. Phosphatase of Phosphate Solubilize Bacteria () showed a positive reaction (A)
phosphatase activity (B) and available phosphate concentration (C)
A
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Some microbes play an important role in enhancing plant growth through production of growth promoting hormones such as IAA and gibberellin[18]. Auxin which is also called indole acetic acid (IAA) is one type of hormones that stimulate plant growth by increasing cell differentiation[19]. According to Anton and Prevost[20] in plant tissues, IAA produced in almost all parts, especially in the actively divide cells and enhance the extension of cell function by interfering with cell wall metabolism. However, plant still requires input of IAA from IAA-producing microbes in the rhizosphere. Spaepen et al.[21] states that the IAA-producing microbes potentially involved in several physiological processes of plants by inserting the IAA to plants enhance the number of root hairs and lateral roots of plants. In laboratory scale, auxin-producing microbes can be grown in a medium containing tryptophan. The results showed members of the genus Pseudomonas, Lactobacillus, Azotobacter and Rhizobium are able to produce auxin as indicated by the pink color of the tryptophan medium (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Salkowsky reaction of Auxin
Producing Bacteria, () pink color showed a positive reaction
Auxin production activity from the six
bacterial isolates was shown in Figure 4. Auxin production by rhizobium USA is the highest compare to the other. Biosynthesis of IAA assisted by IAA oxidase enzyme and can be stimulated in the presence of tryptophan derived from root exudates or damaged cells[20].
Tryptophan has been recognized as a physiological precursor of auxin biosynthesis in both plants and microbes, and this precursor contains active compounds that stimulate the growth of the rhizosphere and Endophytic micro biota[21]. From the same source, the biosynthesis of IAA by bacteria involves many metabolic pathways such as indole-3-acetamide (IAM) pathway, indole-3-pyruvate (IPyA), tryptamine (TAM), tryptophan side-chain oxidase (TSO) and indole-3-acetonitrile (IAN).
According to Kochar et al.[22] IPyA pathway is one of IAA production often used by rhizosphere bacteria. Two stages is involve in this pathway, first, oxidative decarboxylation of tryptophan by Try-2-Monooksigenase (TMO) which produces IAM. Next, IAM hydrolyzed to IAA by IAM-hydrolase enzyme (IAH). This two enzymes are encoded by iaaM-iaaH genes. Thus, phosphates solubilize bacteria which capable to produce Auxin are a potential microbe.
This study also tested microbes’ cellulolytic
activity to hydrolyze cellulose into glucose monomers, and usage of cellulose as a carbon and energy source. Cellulose is a polymer of glucose with un-branched β-1, 4 bonds, and is a major polysaccharide found in plants. Cellulose is insoluble in water and difficult to degrade due to glucose monomers connected by bonds β-1, 4. This bond can be broken down by cellulases that only secreted by cellulolytic microbes[23,24,25]. This study showed that members of the genus Pseudomonas, Lactobacillus, Azotobacter and Rhizobium able to hydrolyze cellulose, indicated by clear zones around colonies on CMC medium (Figure 5). According to Sutedjo et al[26], the presence of cellulolytic microbes can be detected by the addition of Congo Red indicator of 3 ml on CMC medium and incubated for 24 hours. The existence of clear zones around colonies of bacteria showed that bacteria are able to degrade cellulose.
Cellulase activity from 6 isolates remained constant during the 6 days of observation. However, cellulase activity by Pseudomonas increased after day 4 of incubation and Lactobacillus after day 5 (Fig. 6).
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Figure 4. Production of the hormone auxin by auxin Producing Bacteria Isolates on Tryptophan
Medium for 3 days of observation.
Figure 5. Cellulose degrading bacteria isolates marked clear zone around the colony () on Medium
CMC
Figure 6. Activity of cellulase by cellulose degrading bacteria isolates during the 6 days of observation
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In principle, degradation process of cellulose involves three synergistically types of enzymes, namely: (i) endoglucanase or 1,4-β-D-glucan-4-glucanohydrolases or CMC-ase, randomly hydrolyze the 1,4-D in- glycosidic of glucose. The results of this reaction is rapid shortening of the polymer of glucose, followed by reducing sugar increased slowly, (ii) exoglucanase, including 1,4-β-D-glucan glucanohydrolases (cellodextrinases) and 1,4-β-D-cellobiohydrolases (cellobiohydrolases), hydrolyze cellulose chain ends, freeing glucose (glucanohydrolases) and selobiosa (cellobiohydrolase), (iii) β-glucosidases or β-glucoside glucohydrolases, hydrolyze dissolved cellodextrin and selobiosa into glucose[27,28]. Thus, in addition the six microbial isolates had phosphatase activity, auxin-producing and cellulase activity.
Conclusion
Six bacterial isolates members of the genus
Pseudomonas, Lactobacillus, Azotobacter and Rhizobium have Phosphate dissolving activity, auxin production and hydrolyze cellulose. Therefore, this six microbes could be used as an bio-fertilizer agents
Reference
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[2] Ramirez, L.E & J.C. Mellado. 2005. Bacterial Biofertilizer. In : Siddiqui Z.A. PGPR : Biocontrol and Biofertilizer. The Netherlands : Springer. 143-157.
[3] Yuwono, N. W. 2006. Pupuk Hayati Edisi 2 . Yogyakarta : UGM.
[4] Kundu, B. S & A C. Gaur. 1980. Establisment of Nitrogen Fixing and Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria in Rhizosphere and Their Effect on Yield and Nutrient Uptake of Wheat Crop. Plant Soil. 57 : 223 -230.
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[7] Saraswati, R & Sumarno.2008. Pemanfaatan Mikrobia Penyubur Tanah sebagai Komponen Teknologi Pertanian. Iptek Tanaman Pangan. 3 (1) : 42-58.
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[9] El-Azeem, S. A. M. ABD, T. A Mehana & A. A. Shabayek. 2007. Some Plant Growth Promoting Trait of Rhizobacteria Isolated from Suez Canal Region Egypt. African
Crop Science and Conference Proceedings. Volume 8. pp 1517-1525.
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M. Monteiro. 1988. Analysis of Indole-3 Acetid Acid and Related Indoles in Culture Medium from Azospirillum Lipoferum and Azospirillum Brasilense. Applied and
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dari Tanah Hutan Taman Nasional Bukit
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[14] Farhat, M. B, A. Farhat, W. Bejar, R. Kammon, K. Bouchaala, A. Fourati, H. Antoun, S. Bejar & H. Chouayekh. 2009. Characterization of Mineral Phosphate Solubilizing Activity of Serratia
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[18] Song, O. R, S. J. Lee, Y. S. Lee, S. C. Lee, K. K. Kim & Y. L. Choi. 2008. Solubilization of Insoluble Inorganic Phosphate By Burkholderia cepacia DA23 Isolated from Cultivated Soil. Brazilian
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EFFECTS OF BIO-FERTILIZER AND VESICULAR-ARBUSCULAR
MYCORRHIZA (VAM) APPLICATION ON GROWTH AND PRODUCTIVITY OF
SWEET-CORN CROP (Zea mays Saccharata)
Anggita Sari Praharasti*, Ari Kusumaningtyas, Helbert, Suprapedi
UPT. Balai Penelitian dan Pengembangan Biomaterial LIPI Jl. Raya Bogor Km. 46, Cibinong-Bogor 16911
*Corressponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
Increased productivity of sweet corn intensification can be done, either with the use of Bio-fertilizers and bio-material microorganisms. The study aimed to investigate the effect of the use of Bio-fertilizers and vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae (VAM) has been conducted through the 'acculturation' farmers planting culture, with the added value in the form of the use of bio-fertilizer and mycorrhizae. Using 50% of the dose of chemical fertilizer combined with bio-fertilizer (compost bio) standard dose. The use of VAM conducted with various doses (2 grams; 4gr; 6gr; 8gr/plant, and control). Plants were given the application of mycorrhizae (VAM) which mixed with compost cover the planting hole. The results are tested by statistical analysis to know the effects of Bio-fertilizer and VAM then identify a good dose to enhance the growth and productivity of sweet corn. The use of Bio-fertilizer and VAM 8 g/plant increased the diameter of cob corn consumption reached 10.45%, 1.94% of root weight and 2.2 % of root length. Increase of seed yield reached 4.49% for stover weight, and 13.95% for clean seed sorted results.
Keywords: Bio-fertilizer, vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae (VAM), growth and productivity. sweet corn (Zea Mays saccharata)
Introduction
Indonesia's food needs is more and more increasing, as evidenced by the rise of the development of functional foods as a substitute for rice which is the staple food of most people. One of the functional foods that we know is corn (Zea mays L.). In Indonesia, maize is the second most important commodity crop after rice. By order of the World's staple food, maize ranks the 3rd after wheat and rice. Regional Madura, corn are used as a staple food.1 Rapid development of food processing boost the raise of corn productivity which is needed to meet market needs. Type of maize which is an excellent prospect of others is sweet corn (Zea Mays saccharata). Besides its easy cultivation it is also has a short harvest time.
The use of microorganisms as biological soil fertility agents and providers of various positive compounds for the growth of plants is blooming nowadays. Determination of the type, the number of microorganisms and biological proper additional compounds, is a key to fulfilling the intensification of agriculture, such as crops. Besides intensification, increased
productivity can be done with the extension, but the longer the more limited availability of agricultural land by the presence of large land conversions. In maize, one of the intensification efforts to increase productivity is through the use of mycorrhizae (VAM) to extend the function of the roots in the ground so that can increase the absorption of nutrients, macro and some micro nutrients. Urgency of corn as a source of functional food and soil conservation through the use of biological materials motivates this research.
Productivity of sweet corn could not meet market’s demand. Total requirement of sweet
corn seeds are 500-600 tons in 2011. Indonesia still imports 250 tons. While as many as 41.66% -50% or 250 tons-350 tons produced by locals.2 It can be said that 50% of sweet corn are imported, while the result of the excessive use of chemical fertilizers increase poor nutrient for maize farmland. To meet the internal needs of the country, sweet corn productivity needs to be improved, one of them is the use of bio-fertilizer (compost bio) accompanied by the use of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza (VAM).
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Mycorrhiza is a symbiotic association between the roots form of higher plants and certain fungal mycelium. Corn is a great infected plant by mycorrhizae. Based on the structure of the body and how the infection of host plants, microbes can be classified into two major groups namely ectomycorrhizae and endomycorrizae, while the type of its transition is called ectendomycorrhizae. Mycorrhizal growth influenced by the relatively high temperature, low soil moisture content (dry land), the relatively high soil pH, high organic matter, and high intensity light. Several species of mycorrhizae (VAM) is known to be able to adapt to zinc contaminated soil, but should be avoided from the use of fungicides because can reduce growth and colonization and the mycorrhizae ability to absorb P.3
Host plants utilize fungi as food, benefits to host plants include increased root surface effectively increases by the effective absorption of nutrients (phosphorus particles) and water, root function becomes more widespread, tolerance to drought and heat increases, the contribution of soil nutrients becomes more available, and infection by disease organisms is inhibited.4 Clarified by Sastrahidayat (1995)5 the effect of VAM among others are: (1) a high ability to increase the absorption of water and nutrients, especially P. (2) To act as a patron for the pathogen biological roots. (3) More resistant drought stress, acidity, salinity, heavy metal toxicity in soil. (4) Increasing the production of the hormone auxin which works to increase the elasticity of the cell walls and prevent or slow the aging process of root. This mycorrhizae affects the growth of better and high production. Thus will produced high-quality corns in quality and quantity.
External hyphae of mycorrhizae networks will expand the field of water and nutrient uptake. In addition, the size of the hyphae which is finer than root hairs allows hyphae penetrates into the pores of the soil even small (micro) so that hyphae can absorbs water on the low soil conditions.6
Reciprocal relationships between mycorrhizae fungi to host plant bring positive benefits for both (symbiosis mutualism). Therefore inoculation of mycorrhizae fungi can be considered as Bio-fertilization, both for food crops, plantation, forestry, and greening crops.7 Arbuskula mycorrhizae fungi’s symbiosis can
increase P uptake in the nursery. However, to take advantage of high symbiosis it is important
to know the optimum condition of symbiosis. Arbuskula mycorrhiza’s symbiosis with plants is
greatly influenced by the level of nutrients, inoculum dose, and fertilizers. Dose of inoculum can effects the effectiveness of inoculation. Compared with spores as inoculum, mixed propagule form spores, infected roots, and external hyphae can infect faster in time.8
In terms of the nutritional needs of sweet corn, nitrogen fertilizer is key in order to increase production. The recommended dose of Nitrogen fertilizer for sweet corn crops is high enough by the amounts of 200 N kg/ha.9 Absorptions of N by corn plants are last for growth. Therefore to get good results the nutrient of Nitrogen in the soil should be reasonably available during the growth phase.10
Generally, corn can grow well on Ultisol soil. Judging from its range, Ultisol has the potential for development of maize cultivation. But Ultisol utilization for corn cultivation faces various obstacles, such as low levels of fertility and pH and also high Al saturation. This soil is also low in content of macro nutrients such as P, N, K, Mg, and content of micro nutrients such as Zn, Mo, and Pb.11 Availability of micro nutrients (Cu and Zn) in soil solution is relatively high at low pH , and most of these cations are in exchangeable form and in the organic fraction.12
This study aims to determine the effectiveness of the use of bio-fertilizer in the form of compost with a combination of the use of mycorrhizae. The objective of this study is the known of the influence of mycorrhizae along with bio-fertilizer, in terms of growth rate and increase in productivity of sweet corn. The use of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae (VAM) coupled with biological compost could be expected to increase the productivity of maize. The higher dose of VAM alleged higher the value of the corn crop productivity.
Materials and Methods
The study was conducted through the use of demonstration plots at PT. Sang Hyang Seri, Sukamandi on December 8th 2011-March 14th 2012. The soil structure on a demonstration plot was silty clay, with the percent sand, silt, and clay, respectively for 2%, 49%, and 49%. As test plants used corn in varieties named Superbee. The compost which was used as a cover to drill the pre-filled ears of corn were branded as MegaRhizo biological compost produced by PT THS Govarindo Lestari with supervision from
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Biomaterials Research and Development Unit - LIPI. Compost mixed with mycorrhizae brands Miza Plus in various doses. Fertilization is done 3 times that is at 12 DAT (days after planting), 22 DAT, and 35 DAT. Used 100 kg / ha of Urea Prill Fertilizer, NPK Blue Eagle (20:8:6) and (16:16:16) in the amount of 100 kg / ha, and Phosphate Plus 75 kg / ha. Control of pests and plant diseases overcome by spraying insecticides, also the application of Carbofuran and Herbicides. Spraying insecticides done 3 times at 12 DAP, 22 DAP and 35 DAP; giving Carbofuran done 2 times at 15 DAP and 22 DAP; giving herbicide done 1 time in 15 DAP. Spraying insecticides for the first stage and the third were using Dursban, while in the second stage were using Marshal. Giving of Carbofuran use Furadan 3G, while giving herbicide use herbicides Calaris.
Demonstration Plots Experiment
Tillage done in the demonstration plots by mixing soil with 2 tons / ha of compost. The planted area which was used in this demonstration plot was 1500 m2, divided into 10 plots with the size of each plot was 3 m x 50 m. Corn planting distance is 25 cm x 70 cm. Each plot contained 1250 plants. Plants were given the application of mycorrhizae mixed in to compost cover with 4 variations of treatment and 1 control. Each treatment using 2 plots, so each treatment area was 2 x 3 m x 50 m. Observations on corn conducted every 1 week at once to determine growth. At consumption harvest time (± 70 DAP) conducted data retrieval of cobs, biomass, and roots condition. At the seeds harvest (± 97 DAP) conducted data retrieval of stovers and peels.
Experimental Design
This trial is a Single-Factor Experiment and done with completely randomized design, which a full range of treatments arranged randomly, so that each unit of experiment has an equal chance in getting any treatment and any differences were found the experimental units with the same treatment is considered as the experimental error. In this experiment used 4 treatments and 1 control, with 3 replications. Treatments used were without mycorrhizae (P0.1 and P0.2), 2 g/hole mycorrhizae (P1.a and P1.b), 4 g/hole
mycorrhizae (P2.a and P2.b), 6 g/hole mycorrhizae (P3.a and P3.b), and 8 g/hole (P4.a and P4.b). Lay-out of the experiment shown in Figure 1 below.
Parameters observed in this research include: Growth: plant height, number of leaves, leaf width, stem diameter, number of cobs; Consumption Harvest: number of cobs, cob length, cob diameter, cob weight (with cover), cob weight (without cover) , number of grains per cob, grain weight per cob, weight of 100 grains; Seeds Harvest: stover weight, peel cob weight, dried cob weight, wet shelled weight, dried shelled weight, weight of clean seed sorting results; Biomass plants: wet crop weight (with cobs), wet crop weight (without cobs), dried crop weight; root: root weight, root length. Data analysis and observations were analyzed statistically. The statistical test which has been used was a form of statistical analysis ANOVA test at 5% confidence level to determine whether there is significant difference between treatments. If the test results significantly different from the ANOVA then followed by Post Hoc test such as LSD and Tukey's test for equal variances assumed and Tamhane's T2 test for equal variances not assumed.13
Results and Discussion
The data obtained through observation processed statistically with SPSS 16.0. Based on descriptive statistics, homogeneity of variance and ANOVA test was known whether there was many effects of Bio-compost fertilizer biological using in standard dose (2 tons / ha) combined with variation dose of VAM (2g/plant, 4g/plant, 6g/plant, 8g/plant, and control). The combinations have shown the significant effect to cob diameter. Table 1 shows that the highest average diameter of cob was the treated mycorrhizae 8 g/plant, with a value of 6.636 cm. Table 2 presents that the Sig. <0.05 which is 0.00, expressed that it is not the same variant. Further test / Post Hoc Test (Table 3) using the Tamhane T2, which is not assumed to be homogeneous variants (Equal variances not assumed).13 The ratio of the difference suggests that treatment of 8 g/plant (P4) has the highest value and significant than others to value significance of 0.024; 0.036; 0.001 (Sig. <0.05).
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Figure 1. Experimental Lay-out of Bio-fertilizer and VAM Effectiveness test for corn crops
Table 1. Descriptives of Cob Diameter
N Mean Std.
Deviation Std. Error
95% Confidence Interval for Mean
Minimum Maximum Lower
Bound Upper Bound
Control 50 6.0080 1.20697 .17069 5.6650 6.3510 2.95 10.00 2 g/plant 50 5.6700 .83520 .11811 5.4326 5.9074 3.50 7.00 4 g/plant 50 5.9300 .67204 .09504 5.7390 6.1210 4.75 7.50 6 g/plant 50 6.4660 1.67656 .23710 5.9895 6.9425 4.00 11.30 8 g/plant 50 6.6360 1.43740 .20328 6.2275 7.0445 4.00 10.00 Total 250 6.1420 1.26491 .08000 5.9844 6.2996 2.95 11.30 Table 2. Test of Homogenity of Variances Cob Diameter
Levene Statistic df1 df2 Sig. 7.304 4 245 .000
Table 3. ANOVA Cob Diameter Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 31.735 4 7.934 5.301 .000 Within Groups 366.664 245 1.497 Total 398.399 249
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Table 4. Post Hoc Test Multiple Comparison Cob Diameter Tamhane
(I) Dose of Mycorrhizae
(J) Dose of Mycorrhizae
Mean Difference (I-J) Std. Error Sig.
95% Confidence Interval Lower Bound Upper Bound
Control 2 g/plant .33800 .20757 .678 -.2582 .9342 4 g/plant .07800 .19537 1.000 -.4851 .6411 6 g/plant -.45800 .29215 .723 -1.2967 .3807 8 g/plant -.62800 .26544 .183 -1.3888 .1328
2 g/plant Control -.33800 .20757 .678 -.9342 .2582 4 g/plant -.26000 .15160 .609 -.6947 .1747 6 g/plant -.79600* .26489 .036 -1.5611 -.0309 8 g/plant -.96600* .23510 .001 -1.6432 -.2888
4 g/plant Control -.07800 .19537 1.000 -.6411 .4851 2 g/plant .26000 .15160 .609 -.1747 .6947 6 g/plant -.53600 .25544 .334 -1.2765 .2045 8 g/plant -.70600* .22440 .024 -1.3548 -.0572
6 g/plant Control .45800 .29215 .723 -.3807 1.2967 2 g/plant .79600* .26489 .036 .0309 1.5611 4 g/plant .53600 .25544 .334 -.2045 1.2765 8 g/plant -.17000 .31231 1.000 -1.0650 .7250
8 g/plant Control .62800 .26544 .183 -.1328 1.3888 2 g/plant .96600* .23510 .001 .2888 1.6432 4 g/plant .70600* .22440 .024 .0572 1.3548 6 g/plant .17000 .31231 1.000 -.7250 1.0650
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
In addition to significantly affect the number of cobs, giving a combination of fertilizer also affects root weight and root length, shown with a significance value (Sig. <0.05), which is 0.005 for root weight and 0.18 for root length (Table 5 and Table 6 ). Corn crop by giving Bio-fertilizer and VAM have averaged the highest root length, which is equal to 30.2 cm, with the average root weight 20.48 grams. Ratio to control (no treatment) was increased cob diameter, root weight, and root length, respectively for 10.45%, 1.94%, and 2.2%. Simultaneous with that expressed by Marschner6, external hyphae networks of mycorrhizae will expand the field of water and nutrient uptake, thus making the roots tend to grow longer. Treatment of 8 g / plant predominantly has the highest average of all treatments to the value of 41 cm for the cob length, 450 g for cob weight (with cover), 310 grams for cob weight (without cover), and 198.92 g for grain weight per cob.
In the weekly observations of plant height and number of leaves (Figure 2), it appears that the maximum plant height was the treatment P4 (8g/plant), which was at week 11, with a value of 224.24 cm. As for the leaf growth (number of leaves) was in maximum at P4 treatment (8g/plant), which was at week 6, was counted 13 pieces. Even the fluctuations of numbers of leaves were still relatively stable compared to other treatments. There were still green leaves founded in the later weeks of observations. Size of hyphae which was finer than hairs of roots was because of the mycorrhizae use, it can possibly hyphae could infiltrate into the pores of the small (micro) of soil so that hyphae can absorbs water on very low soil conditions6, so there is still plenty of green leaves found even closely to the harvest time.
Productivity of consumption sweet corn which has given Bio-fertilizer combination with VAM can be seen in Figure 3. Figure 3 shows the average value of the length and diameter of cob, where it appears that treatment of 8 g/plant
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relatively has longer cob with a larger diameter than the other treatments, respectively 29.7 cm and 6.64 cm. In line with the growth chart in Figure 2, the sweet corn fed Bio-fertilizer application and VAM 8 gr/plant gave the best
response in terms of growth whether when observed on a weekly basis on the vegetative growth phase and also the production of sweet corn after harvested.
Table 5. ANOVA Root Weight Root Weight Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 1356.644 4 339.161 3.760 .005 Within Groups 22098.931 245 90.200 Total 23455.575 249
Table 6. ANOVA Root Length Root Length Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 338.030 4 84.508 3.327 .018 Within Groups 1143.175 45 25.404 Total 1481.205 49
Figure 2. Chart of Sweet Corn Growth with Bio-fertilizer and VAM Applications
Figure 3. Dimension of Sweet Corn Cob with Bio-fertilizer and VAM Applications
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Data retrieval productivity (stover yield) was also done during the period of seeds harvest. Figure 4 shows the value of the harvested seeds, they were stover weight, peel cob weight, dried cob weight, wet shelled weight, dried shelled weight, and clean seed sorting results. Treatment of VAM 8g/plant gives the highest yield at the amount of 163 kg stover weight and the clean seed weight of 49 kg sorting results.
Conclusion
The results of statistical analysis of plant growth variables Sweet Corn (Zea Mays saccharata) showed that the application of Bio-fertilizer and vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae (VAM) gave significant effect on the cob
diameter, root weight, and root length of Sweet Corn plant. Treatment of biological-compost Bio-fertilizer in standard dose of 2 tons/ha combined with the use of VAM 8 g/plant produces a higher average number of cobs, cob length, cob weight, number of grains per cob and grain weight per cob than the untreated (control) and the use of lower doses of VAM. The use of Bio-fertilizer and VAM 8 g/plant can increase the diameter of cob corn consumption reached to 10.45%, 1.94% of root weight and 2.2% of root length. Furthermore, the combined use of these doses may also increase seed yields harvest reached to 4.49% for stover weight and 13.95% for clean seed sorting results.
Figure 4. Productivity of Sweet Corn in Harvest Time
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Reference
[1] Prihatman, Kemal. 2000. Sistim Informasi Manajemen Pembangunan di Perdesaan, Proyek PEMDA BAPPENAS. Jakarta.
[2] http://regionalinvestment.bkpm.go.id/newsipid/id/displayberita.php?in=259&ia=0, accessed on April 11th 2012.
[3] http://warsitotti.files.wordpress.com/2012/01/mikoriza.pdf, accessed on April 11th 2012.
[4] Foth, H. D., 1991. Dasar-Dasar Ilmu Tanah. Edisi Ke-Tujuh. Gadjah Mada University Press, Yogyakarta.
[5] Sastrahidayat, I. R., 1995. Studi Rekayasa Teknologi Pupuk Hayati Mikoriza. Dalam:
Buku III Makalah Sidang-Sidang Bidang Ilmu dan Teknologi. Prosiding Kongres Ilmu Pengetahuan nasional IV, Jakarta 1-15 Sept 1995. LIPI join with Dirjen Dikti, Depdikbud and Forum Organisasi Profesi Ilmiah. Page 101-128.
[6] Marschner, H., 1992. Mineral Nutrition of Higher Plants second edition. Academik Press, Cambridge.
[7] Killham, K., 1994. Soil Ecology. Cambridge University Press.
[8] Widiastuti, H., E. Guhardja., N. Soekarno., L. K. Darusman, D. H. Goenardi., S. Smith., 2002. Optimasi Simbiosis Cendawan Mikoriza Arbuskular Acaulospora Tuberculata dan Gigaspora Margarita pada Bibit Kelapa Sawit di Tanah Masam. Menara Perkebunan, Bogor.
[9] Kresnatita, Susi; Koesriharti; dan Santoso, Mudji. 2004. Pengaruh Pemberian Pupuk Organik dan Nitrogen Terhadap Pertumbuhan dan Hasil Tanaman Jagung Manis. Unibraw. Malang.
[10] Sutoro, Y., Soelaeman dan Iskandar, 1988. Budidaya Tanaman Jagung. Balai Penelitian Tanaman Pangan Bogor. Badan Penelitian dan Pengembangan Pertanian. Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Tanaman Pangan. Bogor.
[11] Notohadiprawiro, T. 1990. Farming Acid
Mineral Soils for Food Crops: an
Indonesian Experience. Dalam: E.T. Craswell and E. Pusparajah (eds). Management of Acid Soils in the Humid Tropics of Asia. ACIAR. Monograph. No. 13: 62-68.
[12] Sims, J.T. and H. Patrick. 1978. The
Distribution of Micronutrient Cations in
Soil under Condition of Varying Redox
Potential and pH. Soil Sci Soc Am J. Vol 42: 258-262.
[13] Pratisto, Arif. 2004. Cara Mudah Mengatasi Masalah Statistik dan Rancangan Percobaan dengan SPSS 12. PT Elex Media Komputindo, Kelompok Gramedia, Anggota IKAPI, Jakarta.
[14] http://www.mail-archive.com/[email protected]/msg09680.html, accessed on April 11th 2012.
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BIOVILLAGE CONCEPT FOR COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT:
CASE STUDY IN TEMIANG VILLAGE - RIAU BIOSPHERE RESERVE AREA
Endang Sukara1, Wahyu Dwianto2*, Fitria2, Sukma S. Kusumah2,
Teguh Darmawan2, Haris Gunawan3
1Vice Chairman, Indonesian Institute of Sciences
2Research and Development Unit for Biomaterials, Indonesian Institute of Sciences 3Ecology and Environment Laboratory, Department of Biology, Riau University
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
Biovillage is a good development concept to accomplish vision - mission of Indonesia’s Long-term (2005-2025) and Medium-term (2010-2014) Development Plan as well as Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) mission, expected to give both short-term and long-term solution in facing area/national issue by developing strategic knowledge. This concept puts human and natural resources as valuable assets used as major capitals to generate the economy of the area. This community empowerment plan toward integrated bio-conservation village concept will be implemented at Temiang Village located in the above biosphere reserve peatland whose peat swamp forest has been damaged even its forest cover has been completely altered. The aims of this study are (1) to increase the attention and awareness of the people of Temiang Village in Giam Siak Kecil – Bukit Batu (GSK – BB) Riau Biosphere Reserve Area of the importance of maintaining and preserving the natural ecosystem of tropical peat swamp forest; and (2) to attract participation and develop the skills of the community in Temiang Village in the perspective of preserving the tropical peat swamp forest ecosystem. The target of this research is to build a conservation village model where the local community can preserve the natural environment of the tropical peat swamp forest ecosystem and utilize the local natural resources smartly and sustainable together with an increase of their socio-economic life.
Keywords: Biovillage concept, community development, Temiang Village, Riau Biosphere Reserve
Area.
Introduction
Biovillage concept was started from interdisciplinary biotechnology international dialogue organized by M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation [4]. In 1992, the concept of ecotechnology arose and in the dialogue of 1993, Biovillage has been recommended as a model to develop Job-Led Economic Growth with the concepts of pro-poor, pro-women and pro-nature with technology and public policy oriented.
The word ‘Bio’ means living. The term
Biovillage indicates concern for all living organisms in the village - including human beings as well as natural resources such as soil, land, water and biodiversity. Biovillage proposes a human centered approach.
Biovillage is aimed to overcome rural development problem related to the optimum utilization of natural resource and the increase
of rural community prosperity through the creation of market for bio-products produced by the rural community. Biovillage involves basic changes from unskilled to skilled labor, increase of added value of prime products with the use of environmentally sustainable technology and service.
Biovillage components comprise of (1) social mobilization, (2) community based group/ institution development, (3) planning for biovillage activities, (4) training and capacity building, (5) monitoring and evaluation, (6) biovillage council, networking and linkages.
The Biovillage model of sustainable and equitable human development is based on the principles of natural resource conservation and utilization, social equity and economic well being. The disadvantaged group can overcome poverty if they are enabled to earn their living through assorted livelihood opportunities based on on-farm, non-farm and aquatic resources by
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optimum utilization of the limited resources. This can be achieved through skill and knowledge empowerment.
Biovillage adopts the following approach: (1) it keeps the resource for poor people at the center, (2) holistic planning is kept in mind and encompassing all relevant aspects of people’s
lives and livelihoods, (3) it focuses on people’s
strength, (4) various decisions are taken to address the needs of different sections in the society like the elderly, women, ethnics, youths, labors, etc., (4) promotes rights/entitlements related to social status, properties and resources.
Biovillage model of development focuses mainly on: (1) enabling the community to understand the potentials of sustainable natural resource management, (2) introducing various livelihood opportunities in farm, nonfarm and sea side sectors blending traditional knowledge with frontier technology, (3) building grassroot institutions such as self-help groups (SHGs), federations, farmer or fishers’ clubs and
biocouncils to take up the development initiatives under the framework of biovillage (Figure 1).
The objectives of the Biovillage programme can be achieved through imparting knowledge, skill, information and organizational empowerment to rural
communities, with priorities being accorded to women specific eco-technologies based on the blend of modern technologies with traditional wisdom and knowledge. It strengthens the capacity of the rural community to blend sustainable natural resource management with livelihood security through economically feasible, socially acceptable, ecologically viable and gender sensitive interventions. The approach encourages a value addition process within the system, to generate sustainable ecojobs and income in the village. Bioreserve Conservation Of Giam Siak Kecil
– Bukit Batu
Biosphere area is divided into three zonations, i.e. (1) core area, (2) buffer zone; and (3) transition area (Figure 2). Post-congress of world biosphere conservation in Madrid 2008, biosphere area management consists of three activities (Figure 3), i.e: (1) conservation of biodiversity (ecosystems, species, genes) by Ministry of Forestry, (2) research and monitoring in a world network by research institutions and universities, and (3) development for a sustainable future by local government, private sectors and community.
Figure 1. Paradigm of Biovillage Development [4].
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Figure 2. Zonation of Biosphere areas [4].
Figure 3. Management of biosphere area [4].
The core zone of Biosphere reserve Giam
Siak Kecil – Bukit Batu (GSK – BB) covers an area of 178,722 Ha, buffer zone of 222,426 Ha and transition area of 304,123 Ha. The concept that incorporates conservation and sustainable economic development is needed for managing the area. Some priority actions that can be performed are: (1) bring together the vision and mission of the stakeholders through socialization, (2) form biosphere area management, (3) perfection of mangement plan: National Committee for Man and Biosphere (MAB) Indonesia has arrange a management plan for biosphere conservation of GSK-BB 2009-2013 supported by Ministry of Forestry, Province Government of Riau and Sinar Mas Forestry, (4) research and development, (5) community empowerment, (6) area protection from illegal logging, encroachment, poaching, forest fire, illegal trade, etc.
Some recommendations on the development of biosphere reserve of GSK – BB in order to gain benefit from its potential for community prosperity are: (1) tourism industry: local people tradition, (2) clean-water supply,
(3) bio-energy, (4) breeding of freshwater fish, (5) natural honey, (6) agroforestry, (7) gaharu-based industry, and (8) breeding of labi-labi [4].
Blend of local and modern knowledge will accelerate industrial development process based on biodiversity which will enable competition in domestic and global market. The expected future values of biosphere reserve of GSK – BB are (1) to be a model for sustainable management of peat-swamp forest in Indonesia, (2) to be a research center of peat-swamp forest (regional research center for peat-land forest), (3) to be a model for area management partnership with private sectors, and (4) to be a model in the development of ecological services (eco-tourism and carbon trade). The Challenge Of Development Of Biovillage
At Temiang Village
This Biovillage will be developed at Temiang Village, biosphere reserve of GSK – BB, Riau. The reasons behind this decision are (1) this village is located adjacent to wildlife conservation of Bukit Batu, (2) some of its
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people depend their lives on the area by fishing at local river and have some area planted with rubber trees. Besides, by deciding GSK – BB as a biosphere reserve, many researchers will visit the wildlife conservation through Temiang Village as the entry point to the area [2].
Temiang Village has been developing since hundreds of years ago. The village is located at Bukit Batu Municipality, Bengkalis Regency, Riau Province and lies adjacent to wildlife conservation of Bukit Batu. This village is located 5 hours land-travel from Pekanbaru and 2 hours land-travel from Dumai. (Figure 4).
The population of Temiang Village in 2010 is 1328 people (305 households), consists of 691 men and 637 women. This number has increased by 53 people compared to previous year with 1275 people (297 households), consists of 653 men and 622 women. The increase of the population has to be concerned since the village has limited area. Without education on the importance of the existence of conservations surrounding the village, ultimately an increase in population will lead to the village area expansion to the area of wildlife conservation of Bukit Batu.
Besides the increase of population, education sector also needs to be concerned. In this village, most of its people have poor education that affects employment opportunities in the village. Therefore, skill and knowledge enhancement for the community is needed.
Nowadays, composition of the community consists of 50% Malays and 50% Javanese with prime occupations are fisherman, rice farmer, oil-palm farmer and stock breeder. This village also has potential traditional handcraft such as mat, basket and tray made of pandanus plant whose market is still local. Unfortunately, the
society cooperation at the village is not working properly to accelerate local trade.
Related research and development activities that have to be done shortly are : (1) biodiversity and its potential, (2) biofuel, (3) hydrology and water usage arrangement, (4) peat-swamp management, (5) development of appropriate technology, (6) carbon cycle and trade, (7) ecotourism. Meanwhile, rural area development activities consist of: (1) application of appropriate technology based on existent natural resources, (2) eco-education and nature awareness – public awareness industry, and development of any potential biodiversity [4].
Seedling Of Meranti Bakau At Temiang
Village
Based on the results of the exploration of Biosphere Reserve of GSK – BB conducted in 2009 together with Tokyo University of Agriculture (Department of Bioscience, Graduate School of Agriculture), it was found out that Meranti Bakau (Shorea uliginosa Foxw.) has a good potential to produce high yield bio-ethanol where the amount of resulted sugar derived from its cellulose hydrolysis is 52.6 mg per 100 mg of wood meal [1]. This finding is promising since Sengon wood – the wood that has been investigated can give quite a high yield of bio-ethanol compared to many other wood species- can only produce 30.0 mg sugar per 100 mg of wood meal (Kaida et al. 2009). Therefore, seedling effort is highly needed if it is to use Meranti Bakau as bio-ethanol feedstock due to its status as an endangered species (Shorea uliginosa Foxw. listed in: IUCN 2010 - IUCN Red List of Threatened Species).
Figure 4. Temiang Village at biosphere reserve GSK – BB, Riau [5].
The 2nd
International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere▪Bandung▪2012 165
Research activities that will be conducted are in search of suitable mechanism to perform empowerment actions targeting the people of Temiang Village at GSK – BB [3]. These actions are expected to influence their socio-economic life as far as maintaining natural ecosystem of tropical peat swamp forest and will be achieved through: 1. Short term efforts:
1.1. Local fish breeding. 1.2. Utilization of Bintangur seed as
biodiesel feedstock. 1.3. Development of peatland ecology
tourism (eco-tourism). 2. Long term efforts:
2.1. Seedling of Meranti Bakau (as a potential bio-ethanol feedstock) and rare species that make up peat swamp forest ecosystem, such as Ramin (Gonystylus bancanus), Punak (Tetrameristra glabra), Balam (Palaquium spp), Suntai (Palaquium spp), Bintangur (Callophylum spp), Resak Rawa (Vatica rassak), Durian Hutan (Durio carinatus), and Jangkang (Xylophia havilandii). These actions are executed through: 2.1.1. Stocking and collecting seeds
using various methods. 2.1.2. Development of infrastructure
and facilities for seedling and cultivation such as building a research shelter.
2.2. Re-plantation of some rare wood species back into their habitat (reintroduction) in order to accelerate the restoration of abandoned illegal logging area of peat swamp forest and enhance the natural condition of tropical peat swamp forest ecosystem through correct preparation and plantation location.
This effort of seedling of Meranti Bakau is
also done with the assistance of Dr. Haris Gunawan from University of Riau. He has been doing intensive researches on peat swamp forest in Riau Biosphere Reserve with the partners
from Kyoto University, Japan. He empowered the society by establishing Kelompok Masyarakat Peduli Hutan (KMPH) at Temiang Village and also set up an organization called Center for Tropical Peat Swamp Restoration and Conservation (CTPRC Indonesia) in 2005. The founding of CTPRC is fully supported by a number of Indonesian’s colleagues including
local and national level of parliament members, environment consultants, environmental activist, researchers, lecturer and others. Currently it is almost 135 persons already joined in this center including a few persons from foreign countries and village forest community groups.
References
[1] Dwianto, W., Fitria, H. Gunawan, T. Hayashi. 2011. Meranti bakau as a Potential Wood Species in Riau Peat Swamp Forest. Proceeding of the International Workshop on Sustainable Management of Bio-resources in Tropical Peat-swamp Forest, MAB Indonesia, Cibinong, July 19, 2011, 151-157.
[2] Dwianto, W. Pemberdayaan Masyarakat
Desa Temiang di Cagar Biosfer Giam Siak
Kecil – Bukit Batu Dalam Rangka
Pembibitan Meranti Bakau. 2012a. Presented at Kick-off Seminar Biovillage, Cibinong, April 2, 2012.
[3] Dwianto, W., H. Gunawan, L. Edy, L.N. Hamidah, K. Rauf, Syahimin, D.Y. Kusumaningrum, Fitria, S.S. Kusumah. 2012b. Village Community Development Plan at Giam Siak Kecil - Bukit Batu Biosphere Researve Peatland Towards LIPI Concept of Bio-village. Proceeding of the 14th International Peat Congress, Stockholm-Sweden, June 3-8, 2012.
[4] Sukara, E. 2012. Biovillage Concept. Presented at Kick-off Seminar Biovillage, Cibinong, 2 April 2012.
[5] Surono, H. and C.P. Munoz. 2012. Upaya
Pemberdayaan Masyarakat di Cagar
Biosfer Giam Siak Kecil – Bukit Batu. Presented at Kick-off Seminar Biovillage, Cibinong, 2 April 2012.
SYMPOSIUM SCHEDULE
9:30 - 9:50 registration
9:30 - 9:50 coffee morning
9:50 - 10:00 Opening ceremony from Head of Research and Development Unit For Biomaterials
Presentation session 1 10:00 - 10:12 Dany Perwita Sari and
Sukma Surya Kusumah Recycling Rubber Wood Waste Material (Hevea brasiliensis Will) For Exterior Wall In Minimalist Green Home As An Adaptation Of Climate Change Using Ottv Analysis
10:12 - 10:24 Helbert, Senlie Oktaviana, Anggita Sari Praharasti
Psikology of Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria: Phosphatase, Cellulase and Auxin Production
10:24 - 10:36 Aah Ahmad Almulqu Study of Carbon Potency In Komodo National Park
10:36 - 10:48 Diah Anggraeni Jatraningrum
Patent Data Analysis and Innovation Trend In Air Pollution Control System
10:48 - 11:08 discussion Presentation session 2 11:08 - 11:20 Gibran Huzaifah Amsi El
Farizy & EndahSulistyawati Seedlings Performance of Indigineous Species With Fertilizer Addition and Weeding In Early Stage Reforestation In Mt. Papandayan Nature Reserves, West Java
11:20 - 11:22 Okta Noviantina & Endah Sulistyawati
Cultural and Practical Analysis of Forest Plant Resources In DayakTunjung Community At Kelekat Village, East Kalimantan
11:22 - 11:36 RidwanYahya Comparison Of Fiber Morphology Of The Branchwood Between Acacia
mangium and Paraserianthes falcataria As Raw Material For Pulp Manufacture
11:36 - 11:51 discussion
11:51 - 13:10 ishoma 13:10 - 13:50 poster presentation
Presentation session 3 13:50 - 14:02 Sidiq Pambudi & Endah
Sulistyawati Tree Inventory and Stock Carbon Measurement On ITB’s Ganesha Campus
14:02 - 14:14 Didi Tarmadi, Ikhsan Guswenrivo, Arief Heru Prianto, Sulaeman Yusuf
THE EFFECT OF Cerbera manghas (APOCYNACEAE) SEED EXTRACT AGAINST STORAGE PRODUCT PEST Sitophilus oryzae (COLEOPTERA: CURCULIONIDAE)
14:14 - 14:26 Anggoro Tri Mursito, Widodo, Anita Yulianti, Eki Naidania Dida, Djupriono, Fuad Saebani, and Syamsul Rizal Muharam
Hydrothermal Synthesis of Recycled K-Rich Ash (Obtained From Empty Fruit Bunch) and Its Application For Co2 Capture and Mineral Carbonation
14:26 - 14:41 discussion 14:41 - 15:30 break
Presentation session 4 15:30 - 15:42 Farah Diba The Effect of Temperature and Compression Time On Physical, Mechanical and Durability Properties of Pulai (Alstonia scholaris (L) Robert Brown) Densified Wood
15:42 - 15:54 Wahdina, Farah Diba, and Hasan Ashari Oramahi
Production of Wood Vinegar From Laban Wood (Vitex pubescens Vahl) For Control Seed Fungi of Pine (Pinus
merkusii Jungh Et De Vriese) 15:54 - 16:04 discussion
16:04 - 16:10 announcement best poster 16:10 - 16:20 closing