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Topic #5: Memory & Intelligence Created by Martin R. Cox Adapted from presentation package by Dean Richards Introductory Psychology Lecture Presentation Series Copyright 1999 by Allyn and Bacon All rights reserved.

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Page 1: Created by Martin R. Cox - HCC Learning Web

Topic #5: Memory & Intelligence

Created by Martin R. Cox

Adapted from presentation package by Dean Richards

Introductory Psychology Lecture Presentation Series

Copyright 1999 by Allyn and Bacon All rights reserved.

Page 2: Created by Martin R. Cox - HCC Learning Web

Processes of Memory

RetrievalEncodingPut into memory

Storage

Recover from memory

Hold in memory

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Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

Environment

Short Term

Memory Retrieval

Elaboration Long Term

MemorySensing

Sensory Memory

Attention

LossLoss

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Sensory Memory

• Visual sensory memory (the icon) • Auditory sensory memory (the echo) • Probably others as well

– Very large capacity– Very short duration:

• about 250 ms. for the icon• 1-2 sec. for the echo

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Short Term Memory (STM)• Limited capacity -- 7 plus or minus 2

chunksChunk: a meaningful unit

Examples: • A single letter (S)• A group of letters (FBI)• A group of words (Four score and seven years ago)

• Duration of 20-30 sec., due to limited capacity & interference

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Short Term Memory

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STM Storage• Increases with age

• Primarily due to increases in chunking ability with age

• Often phonetic

• Things that sound the same interfere with each other

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Displacement in STM

cheeseeggspeassyrupapplesflourmilk

eggspeassyrupapplesflourmilkbread

peassyrupapplesflourmilkbread

syrupapplesflourmilkbread

applesflourmilkbread

flourmilkbread

milkbreadbread

STM(7 slots) Lost from

STM

bread

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Long Term Memory (LTM)• Huge capacity• Potentially long duration (decades)• Organized by meaning

• Nondeclarative Memory (implicit memory): Memory for motor skills learned through practice (procedural memory) and responses learned through classical conditioning.

• Declarative Memory (explicit memory): Memory for facts & personal experiences

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Declarative Memory

• EpisodicMemory:Memory for personal events

• SemanticMemory:Memory for common knowledge &

meaning

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Remembering New Facts

• Easier for subjects you already know a lot about

• Difference probably due to opportunity for elaboration (relating, forming associations, imageries, organization, etc.)

• Elaborative rehearsal involves relating the new information to what you have already known.

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Latent Memory%

Lat

er R

ecal

led

Judgement RequiredLetter Size Phonetic Meaning

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Measuring Memory

Three measures typically used:

Recognition

Recall

Relearning

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Recall Memory

• Remembering in the absence of the item being remembered

• Usually the most difficult test

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Recognition Memory

• Recognizing material when it is seen

• Often, but not always, easier than recall

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Relearning

• Assessed by comparing time needed to relearn material to initial learning time

• May be the most sensitive test

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Forgetting

Rate of forgetting:

• fastest right after initial learning

• slower for more meaningful material

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Forgetting

Causes:• Failure to Encode• Consolidation Failure• Decay• Interference• Motivated Forgetting• Retrieval Failure

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Forgetting• Failure to Encode: Failing to put material into

LTM; Common in "forgetting" people's names

• Consolidation Failure: Loss due to organic disruption while the memory trace is being formed

• Decay: Fading of memory through disuse; Impossible to distinguish from permanent retrieval failure

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Forgetting• Interference: Confusion or entanglement of similar

memories

• Motivated Forgetting: Repression of memories, usually to avoid dealing with traumatic experiences. Suppression of memories occur at a conscious level, deliberately not to remember an unpleasant event.

• Retrieval Failure: Inability to find the necessary memory cue for retrieval; Sometimes temporary (tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon)

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Tip of the Tongue

• The feeling of being on the verge of recalling something

• Often you can say what letter it starts with, or how many syllables it has

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Reconstruction

Piecing memory together from a few highlights, then filling in details based on what we think should have happened

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Schemas

A schema is a general, stereotypical description of a highly familiar place or event (mall, fast-food restaurant, school, classroom, etc.)Schemas:

(a) help guide our actions,(b) help guide our memory,(c) may distort our perception and memory.

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Eye Witness Testimony

• Relies greatly on reconstructive memory

• Influential in trials

• Accuracy is variable

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Witness beliefs about their own testimony over time

Confidence

Accuracy

Low

er

Time

Hig

her

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Expertise

• Experts remember more details

• Probably due to use of elaborative encoding

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Hypnosis

• Increases rememberer's confidence & amount of inaccurate information

• Doesn't increase memory accuracy

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Factors Affecting Retrieval

• Serial Position

• Environmental Context

• State-Dependence

• Stress and Anxiety

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Serial Position Effect:Primacy Effect

• First items in a list are remembered better than items in the middle

• Probably due to greater odds of getting into long-term memory

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Serial Position Effect: Recency Effect

• The last items in a list are remembered better than items in the middle, if tested immediately

• Probably due to their still being in STM

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Environmental Context

• Becomes encoded along with the material being remembered

• Reinstating context often increases memory

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State-Dependent Memory

• Internal body states are encoded with memories

• Memories easier to retrieve when these body states are entered again

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Stress and MemoryPe

rform

ance

StressLow Moderate High

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Biology and Memory

• The hippocampus forms long-term declarative memories, important for transferring information from STM to LTM

• The frontal lobesImportant to recall of episodic memories

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The Hippocampus

Deep in the brain

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The Frontal Lobe

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Patient H.M.

Became unable to form new memories after surgical removal of the hippocampus

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Patient K.C.

• Cannot remember anything that ever happened to him

• His semantic memory is unimpaired

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Organic Memory Loss

• Unlike psychogenic amnesia, most recent memories lost first

• Earlier memories often retained

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Improving Memory

• Organization

• Spaced Practice

• Overlearning

• Recall practice (Reciting)

• Mnemonic devices

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Improving Memory

• Organization: Memory greatly enhanced by actively organizing material as it is learned

• Spaced Practice: Shorter practice sessions spaced widely apart; more effective than massed practice

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Improving Memory

• Overlearning: Practicing material well beyond the point needed to recall it for the moment

• Recall Practice (Reciting): Practicing recalling material rather than just rereading it; Especially useful for college material

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Improving Memory

• Mnemonic Devices:

– Strategies that can increase memory, esp. for material that is not easily organized;

– Impose an artificial structure on items that would otherwise be hard to remember

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Mnemonic Devices

• Method of LociInvolves pairing each thing to be remembered with one of an organized set of familiar locations

• The Peg-Word MethodConnecting each thing to be remembered in an interactive image with each item on a standard listExample list: One is a bun, two is a shoe, ...

Page 45: Created by Martin R. Cox - HCC Learning Web

Mnemonic Devices

• Acronyms:Representing each item with a single letter

that fits into a familiar word or phrase

Example: "all cars eat gas" for the spaces in the bass clef