Culturally responsive class-rooms specifically acknowledgethe presence of culturallydiverse students and the needfor these students to find rele-vant connections among them-selves and with the subject mat-ter and the tasks teachers askthem to perform.

Let’s repeat that: Culturally respon-sive classrooms specifically acknowl-edge the presence of culturallydiverse students and the need forthese students to find relevant con-nections among themselves and withthe subject matter and the tasksteachers ask them to perform. In suchprograms teachers recognize the differ-ing learning styles of their students anddevelop instructional approaches thatwill accommodate these styles. In lightof the value of culturally responsiveinstructional practices, schools and dis-

tricts need to support teachers in theirquest to learn about the use of thesestrategies (see box, “Our IncreasinglyDiverse Classrooms”). This article pro-vides guidelines for creating culturallyresponsive, inclusive classrooms.Teachers can use these guidelines withstudents from culturally and linguisti-cally diverse backgrounds in all kinds ofclassrooms, but particularly in inclusivesettings where general and special edu-cators work together to promote theacademic, social, and behavioral skillsof all students. First, teachers need totake an honest look at their own atti-tudes and current practice.

Conduct a Self-AssessmentMany teachers are faced with limitedunderstanding of cultures other thantheir own and the possibility that thislimitation will negatively affect theirstudents’ ability to become successfullearners. Hence, teachers must criticallyassess their relationships with their stu-dents and their understanding of stu-dents’ cultures (Bromley, 1998; Patton,1998). The self-assessment in Figure 1,based on the work of Bromley, 1998), isone tool teachers can use to examinetheir assumptions and biases in athoughtful and potentially productiveway.

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Creating CulturallyResponsive, Inclusive

Classrooms Winifred Montgomery

Many teachers arefaced with limitedunderstanding of

cultures other thantheir own and the

possibility that thislimitation will

negatively affect theirstudents’ ability tobecome successful

learners.

Figure 1. Diversity Self-Assessment

• What is my definition of diversity?• Do the children in my classroom and school come from diverse cultural

backgrounds? • What are my perceptions of students from different racial or ethnic groups?

With language or dialects different from mine? With special needs?• What are the sources of these perceptions (e.g., friends, relatives, televi-

sion, movies)?• How do I respond to my students, based on these perceptions?• Have I experienced others’ making assumptions about me based on my

membership in a specific group? How did I feel? • What steps do I need to take to learn about the students from diverse back-

grounds in my school and classroom?• How often do social relationships develop among students from different

racial or ethnic backgrounds in my classroom and in the school? What isthe nature of these relationships?

• In what ways do I make my instructional program responsive to the needsof the diverse groups in my classroom?

• What kinds of information, skills, and resources do I need to acquire toeffectively teach from a multicultural perspective?

• In what ways do I collaborate with other educators, family members, andcommunity groups to address the needs of all my students?

Source: Adapted from Bromley (1998).

Following self-assessment, teachersneed to take time to reflect on theirresponses (what they have learnedabout themselves) and make some crit-ical decisions regarding ways to con-structively embrace diversity and, thus,create learning environments thatrespond to the needs of their students.

Use a Range of CulturallySensitive Instructional Methodsand MaterialsIn addition to self-assessment, animportant component of effective cul-turally responsive classrooms is the useof a range of instructional methods andmaterials (Bromley, 1998). Teachersneed to use instructional methods thatare tailored to suit the setting, the stu-dents, and the subject. By varying andadapting these methods and materials,teachers can increase the chances thattheir students will succeed. The follow-ing are effective culturally sensitiveinstructional methods.

Explicit, Strategic Instruction

Explicit, strategic instruction shows stu-dents what to do, why, how, and when.An effective strategy is the think-aloudmethod, a procedure that takes advan-tage of the benefits of modeling. In a“think-aloud,” the teacher reads a pas-sage and talks through the thoughtprocesses for students. The objective isto show students how to ask themselvesquestions as they comprehend text.

Another important strategy is recip-rocal questioning where teachers andstudents engage in shared reading, dis-cussion, and questioning (Leu & Kinzer,1999). The primary goal of this strategyis to help students learn to ask ques-tions of themselves about the meaningthey are constructing as they read.

Interdisciplinary Units

Interdisciplinary units include and con-nect content area learning with lan-guage arts and culturally diverse litera-ture (Cooper, 2000; Leu & Kinzer, 1999).Many effective classrooms are organ-ized around an interdisciplinary, orcross-curricular, theme with studentsparticipating in meaningful reading,writing, listening, and speaking tasks asthey explore the theme through a vari-

ety of activities and books. The topiccan be drawn from children’s lives andinterests and sometimes from the cur-riculum. Teachers can help their stu-dents successfully engage in cross-cur-ricular activities by demonstrating howto make connections across the curricu-lum through literature, by makingexplicit connections among books, andby helping them recall how previousactivities and experiences relate to cur-rent studies.

Instructional Scaffolding

Instructional scaffolding involves theuse of teacher demonstration and themodeling of strategies that studentsneed to be successful with content areatexts (Galda, Cullinan, & Strickland,1997; Leu & Kinzer, 1999). In scaffoldedinstruction, teachers determine the dif-

ference between what students canaccomplish independently and whatthey can accomplish with instructionalsupport. Teachers then design instruc-tion that provides just enough scaffold-ing for students to be able to participatein tasks that currently are beyond theirreach. Over time, as the tasks becomemore under the control of the learner,

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN ■ MAR/APR 2001 ■ 5

Teachers need to useinstructional methods

that are tailored tosuit the setting, thestudents, and the

subject.

Our Increasingly Diverse Classrooms

For many reasons, U.S. schools are serving a growing number of students fromculturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds (Obiakor & Utley, 1997;Salend, 2001). In fact, the student population in the United States is growingfastest in those segments with which American education has traditionallybeen least successful—African Americans and Hispanics. • Special Education Overrepresentation. A disproportionate number of stu-

dents from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds are inappropri-ately referred to and placed in special education (Yates, 1998). Data from theOffice of Civil Rights reveal that African-American and Hispanic-Americanstudents, particularly males, are overrepresented in terms of their identifica-tion in the disability categories of serious emotional disturbance and mentalretardation (Oswald, Coutinho, Best, & Singh, 1999). These data also indicatethat students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds identifiedas needing special education services are more likely to be provided theseservices in more restrictive settings than their caucasian counterparts.

• The Negative Effects of Tracking. The overrepresentation of students fromculturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds in special education canhave a negative effect on students and their school performance because itplaces them in a separate and unequal track that denies them access to thegeneral education curriculum. In addition, once placed in special educationclasses, these students often encounter lowered teacher expectations, awatered down curriculum, and less effective instruction that can have dele-terious effects on their school performance, self-esteem, behavior, educationand career goals, and motivation to achieve (Nieto, 1996). As a result, thesestudents often do not return to general education placements and frequentlyleave school before graduating.

• Need for Culturally Responsive Instruction. Though several factors con-tribute to the disproportional representation of students from culturally andlinguistically diverse backgrounds in special education (Artiles & Zamora-Duran, 1997), one important factor is the failure of general education teach-ers to use culturally responsive instructional practices that address their edu-cational, social, and cultural needs (Smith, Finn, & Dowdy, 1993).

the teacher can introduce more difficulttasks.

Journal Writing

Journal writing provides opportunitiesfor students to share their personalunderstanding regarding a range of liter-ature in various cultural contexts thatinform, clarify, explain, or educate themabout our culturally diverse society(Montgomery, in press). For example,character study journals permit studentsto make their own personal connectionswith a specific character as they readthe story. Students develop their owninsight into the characters and theevents in the story, and they are giventhe independence to write what theywant about the character. The teacherprovides time for students to share theirjournal writings in small cooperativelearning groups, with their teachers,with their tutor(s), or with a readingbuddy.

Open-Ended Projects

Open-ended projects allow students tocontribute at their varying levels of abil-ity. Such projects work well with diverselearners because they need not start orfinish at the same time. Students canexplore a topic of interest drawn fromtheir readings of culturally rich litera-ture or a content area topic they are cur-rently studying. They may choose towrite reports or prepare oral presenta-tions and create artwork to illustratesome of the major concepts embeddedin their topic. Goforth (1998) suggests aproject in which interested studentsmake artifacts such as dolls or “storycloths” representing an ethnic or cultur-al group. They may also want to writestories or poems about their artifacts.

Establish a ClassroomAtmosphere That RespectsIndividuals and Their CulturesTeachers can enhance students’ self-esteem when they construct learningenvironments that reflect the culturalmembership in the class. This strategygoes beyond wall decoration to atmos-phere: Teachers must attend to all stu-dents and try to involve them equally inall class activities. This recognitiongives students a positive feeling abouttheir worth as individuals and as pro-

ductive members in their classroom.Some strategies to accomplish a positiveclassroom atmosphere include:• Current and relevant bulletin boards

that display positive and purposefulactivities and events involving cultur-ally diverse people. Include, forexample, newspaper articles (localand national) reporting newsworthyevents or accomplishments thatinvolve people of color, photographsof community leaders from culturallydiverse backgrounds, student-madeposters depicting culturally relevanthistorical events, and original (stu-dent-written) stories and poems withculturally diverse themes.

• A book corner with a variety andrange of culturally diverse literature,fiction and nonfiction (see box,“Culturally Complex Atmosphere”).

6 ■ THE COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

Explicit, strategicinstruction shows

students what to do,why, how, and when.

Culturally ComplexAtmosphere

Creating a book corner thatappeals to all children can be achallenge for the teacher. TheInternet has become an excellentresource for the kind of quality lit-erature that will introduce chil-dren to other cultural contexts.Teachers will find valuable linksto appropriate children’s literaturethat will help their studentsappreciate and begin to under-stand the range of human experi-ences and cultural backgrounds.• The Web site Multicultural

Resources provides articles, re-views, and literature selectionsorganized around specific cul-tural groups (http://falcon.jmu.edu/~ramseyil/multipub.html).

• An excellent Web resource forchildren’s literature thataddresses cultural differences isThe Children’s Literature WebGuide (http://www.acs.ucal-gary. ca/~dkbrown/lists.html)

• The Reading Zone of theInternet Public Library(http://www.ipl.org/youth/lapage.html) is a central sitethat is useful for teachers andstudents.

In reciprocal questioning, teachers and students engage in shared reading,discussion, and questioning.

The books that are chosen must alsodeal fairly with disabilities and spe-cial needs. The characters should beintegrated naturally into the story andnot depicted as anomalies or peculi-arities in society (Russell, 1994).

• Cross-cultural literature discussiongroups in which students discussquality fiction and nonfiction litera-ture that authentically depicts mem-bers of diverse cultural groups.Discussion groups help all studentsfeel pride in themselves and in theirculture when they see their back-grounds valued in classroom readingand study activities. In small groups,students can read a single work of lit-erature on their own, follow the expe-riences of a particular character andhis or her problems, form opinionsabout a specific issue put forward inthe text, or respond to a significantevent that occurred during the char-acter’s life (Montgomery, 2000). Forexample, the content and characteri-zations in culturally diverse bookssuch as Amazing Grace (Hoffman,1991), Local News (Soto, 1993),Smoky Night (Bunting, 1994), TheStory of Ruby Bridges (Coles, 1995)and Black Cowboys, Wild Horses(Lester & Pinkney, 1998) can stimu-late greater interest in reading and inreading to learn.

• Language arts and social studies pro-grams provide opportunities for stu-dents to share written and oralreports pertaining to their heritageand cultural traditions. Teachers canintroduce thematic units that offerexcellent opportunities for children toexplore a range (in terms of readabil-ity) of different forms of literaturethat look intensively into a single cul-tural or ethnic experience (Leu &Kinzer, 1999). If learners are to besuccessful in understanding culturaltraditions, trade books must be avail-able in the classroom and in theschool library to support these strate-gies.

Foster an Interactive ClassroomLearning EnvironmentStudents must have opportunities tointeract with each other—to engage inshared inquiry and discovery—in their

efforts to solve problems and completetasks. The following are suggestedactivities for interactive engagement inthe learning process:• Cooperative learning groups.

Cooperative groups bring studentstogether within a variety of support-ive and collaborative learning activi-ties. The use of this kind of learninggroup allows all children to see thebenefits of bringing together peoplewith diverse backgrounds for prob-lem-solving tasks. They use listening,speaking, reading, and writingtogether to achieve common goalsand in the process become account-able since their performance affectsgroup outcomes. They become activelanguage users and learn to respecteach other’s opinions (Bromley,1998). For example, the I-SearchStrategy (Leu & Kinzer, 1999) is aninterdisciplinary, student-centeredinquiry process that emphasizes par-ticipation and sharing of researchfindings in small cooperative learninggroups, as well as in whole-group set-tings. To implement this strategy,children choose a motivating theme;with the teacher’s assistance, theyformulate their own research plans;next, they follow and revise theirplans as they gather information, andthen they prepare papers, posters, orpresentations using computer soft-ware, or they prepare oral reports.

• Guided and informal group discus-sions. Informal discussions provideopportunities for able students andless able students to collaborate inconstructing meaning from text andenable them to learn from each otherby sharing their reflections, opinions,interpretations, and questions. Theteacher models discussion techniquesand guides the students through earlydiscussion sessions. As studentsdevelop their discussion skills andbegin to feel comfortable talkingabout story content and their opin-ions, they will begin to try out ideaswithout worrying about being wrongor sounding as if they do not under-stand the story.

• The Internet. On the Web, childrencan experience exciting culturalexchanges. Keypals (see box) is the

online equivalent of pen pals. It is ane-mail activity that may be particular-ly beneficial to second-languagelearners because the students are ableto communicate in their native lan-guage with children from similar cul-tural and linguistic backgrounds.Moreover, important friendships candevelop among all students as theyfind out about life in another part ofthe world, share useful Web sites, andeven help one another with home-work (Leu & Kinzer, 1999).

Employ Ongoing and CulturallyAware AssessmentsIn culturally responsive classrooms,teachers employ ongoing and systemat-ic assessment of student abilities, inter-ests, attitudes, and social skills. Thisinformation provides a basis for instruc-tional decision making and offers

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN ■ MAR/APR 2001 ■ 7

Teachers can designinstruction that

provides just enoughscaffolding, or

support, for studentsto be able to

participate in tasksthat currently are

beyond their reach.

Keypals

The Internet expands the appealof pen pal activities in the class-room. A great site for Keypal con-tacts is:http://www.stolaf.edu/ network/iecc

At this site, intercultural E-MailClassroom Connections, teacherswill find a good source for devel-oping keypals from differentcountries. There are several mail-ing lists for teachers looking forpartner classrooms. Teachers cansubscribe directly from this Webpage.

insights into what to teach and how toteach. In addition, there is an emphasison student involvement in the assess-ment process. When students are per-mitted to participate in their assess-ment, they are able to reflect on theirown progress and offer insights thatadults may not have. Examples of cul-turally sensitive assessment include thefollowing:• Daily observation of students’ social

and learning behaviors in all class-room situations. Observations can berecorded on checklists, in notebooks,on file cards, or in any way that per-mits the teacher to summarize obser-vations in a consistent and meaning-ful way. For example, the class rostercan be used as a convenient recordingform for observations. The teacherlists the names of the students in theclass and then heads subsequentcolumns across the top of the rosterto identify the project, activity, orbehavior that is observed.

• Portfolio assessment. Student andteacher select samples of work thatreveal the diverse needs and abilitiesof the student. Teachers, students,and family members reflect on what

students have done over time, howwell they are doing, and what areasneed to be improved.

• Teacher-made tests that are closelytied to the instructional program.Special attention is given to the cog-nitive styles of all the students andtheir evolving academic skills. Forexample, teachers can design a test toassess students’ knowledge or per-formance within a particular contentarea lesson.

• Student self-assessment. Students canrespond to questions about theirlearning during periodic teacher/stu-dent conferences. Portfolios can beused during these conferences. Forexample, students can be shown theirwork, discuss it with their teachers,and then assess their own progress.

• Teacher self-evaluation. Self-evalua-tion is an integral part of teachingeffectiveness. The kinds of questionsteachers ask themselves about theirchoices of teaching behaviors andstrategies, the effectiveness and cul-tural relevance of their lessons, andtheir reactions and responses to thecultural diversity in their classroomscan greatly contribute to continuinggrowth in teaching and learning.

Collaborate with OtherProfessionals and FamiliesCollaboration and communication withculturally diverse families and withother professionals are essential ele-ments of culturally responsive class-rooms. Families are a critical componentof a strong instructional program andshould be regularly informed about stu-dents’ progress and encouraged to par-ticipate in class and school activitieswhenever possible. It is also importantto establish strong collaborative rela-tionships with colleagues to developinstructional programs that broaden thelearning opportunities of all students.The following are specific collaborativeactivities that teachers and familiesmight use:• Consult and share ideas regularly with

other teachers with whom studentswork. Meet with teachers to discussstudents’ academic and socialprogress, as well as specific learningneeds.

• Communicate regularly with families.For example, send newsletters to allfamilies providing an overview of cul-turally responsive curriculum goals,classroom activities, and selected stu-dent-written stories and poems.

• Invite families to participate in class-room cultural celebrations and toassist in planning such events.Encourage culturally diverse familiesto visit the classroom to learn whatoccurs in the learning environmentand to see how well their children aredoing—academically and socially.

• Initiate a parent volunteer tutorialprogram.

• Use culturally diverse communityresources. Invite to your classroomculturally diverse civic leaders, busi-ness leaders, artists and writers,members of the police and firedepartment, college professors, andacademically successful high schoolstudents.

• Attend culturally diverse communityor neighborhood events.

Final ThoughtsOf primary importance in any culturallyresponsive classroom is the teacher’sbelief that children from culturallydiverse backgrounds want to learn.Second, instructional strategies and spe-cific teaching behaviors can encourageall students to engage in learning activ-ities that will lead to improved academ-ic achievement. Third, the developmentof instructional programs that preventfailure and increase opportunities forsuccess should be the goal of everyteacher. The strategies delineated in thisarticle can become important ways of

8 ■ THE COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

Many effectiveclassrooms are

organized around aninterdisciplinary, or

cross-curriculartheme.

Through the Internet,second-language

learners maycommunicate in theirnative language withchildren from similarcultural and linguistic

backgrounds.

Send newsletters to allfamilies providing anoverview of culturallyresponsive curriculum

goals, classroomactivities, and selectedstudent-written stories

and poems.

helping all children find purpose, pride,and success in their daily efforts tolearn.

ReferencesArtiles, A. J., & Zamora-Duran, G. (1997).

Reducing disproportionate representationof culturally and linguistically diverse stu-dents in special and gifted education.Reston, VA: The Council for ExceptionalChildren.

Bromley, K. D. (1998). Language art:Exploring connections. Needham Heights,MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Bunting, E. (1994). Smoky night. New York:Harcourt Brace.

Coles, R. (1995). The story of Ruby Bridges.New York: Scholastic.

Cooper, J. D. (2000). Literacy: Helping chil-dren construct meaning. Boston:Houghton Mifflin.

Galda, L., Cullinan, B., & Strickland, D. S.(1997). Language, literacy, and the child(2nd ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace.

Goforth, F. S. (1998). Literature and thelearner. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Hoffman, M. (1991) Amazing grace. NewYork: Scholastic.

Lester, J., & Pinkney, J. (1998). Black cow-boys, wild horses. New York: Dial Books

Leu, D. J., & Kinzer, C. K. (1999). Effective lit-eracy instruction, K-8 (4th ed.). UpperSaddle River, New Jersey: Merrill.

Montgomery, W. (2000). Literature discus-sion in the elementary school classroom:Developing cultural understanding.Multicultural Education, 8(1), 33-36.

Montgomery, W. (in press). Journal writing:Connecting reading and writing in main-stream educational settings. Reading andWriting Quarterly.

Nieto, S. (1996). Affirming diversity (2nded.). New York: Longman.

Obiakor, F. E., & Utley, C. A. (1997).Rethinking preservice preparation forteachers in the learning disabilities field:Workable multicultural strategies.Learning Disabilities Research andPractice, 12(2), 100-106.

Oswald, D. P., Coutinho, M. J., Best, A. M.,& Singh, N. N. (1999). Ethnic representa-tion in special education: The influence ofschool-related economic and demographicvariables. The Journal of SpecialEducation, 32, 194-206.

Patton, J. M. (1998). The disproportionaterepresentation of African Americans inspecial education. The Journal of SpecialEducation, 32(1), 25-31.

Russell, D. (1994). Literature for children(2nd ed.). New York: Longman.

Salend, S. (2001). Creating inclusive class-rooms: Effective and reflective practices (4thed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill/Prentice Hall.

Smith, T. E. C., Finn, D. M., & Dowdy, C. A.(1993). Teaching students with mild disabili-ties. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.*

Soto, G. (1993). Local news. Orlando, FL:Harcourt Brace.

Yates, J. R. (1998, April). The state of practicein the education of CLD students.Presentation at the annual meeting of theCouncil for Exceptional Children,Minneapolis, MN.

*To order the book marked by an asterisk (*),please call 24 hrs/365 days: 1-800-BOOKS-NOW (266-5766) or (732) 728-1040; or visitthem on the Web at http://www.BooksNow.com/TeachingExceptional.htm. Use VISA,M/C, AMEX, or Discover or send check ormoney order + $4.95 S&H ($2.50 each add’litem) to: Clicksmart, 400 Morris Avenue,Long Branch, NJ 07740; (732) 728-1040 orFAX (732) 728-7080.

Winifred Montgomery, Associate Professor,Department of Elementary Education, StateUniversity of New York at New Paltz.

Address correspondence to the author atDepartment of Elementary Education, StateUniversity of New York, 75 S. Manheim Blvd.,New Paltz, NY 12561-2443 (e-mail: montgomw@matrix.newpaltz.edu).

TEACHING Exceptional Children, Vol. 33,No. 4, pp. 4-9.

Copyright 2001 CEC.

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN ■ MAR/APR 2001 ■ 9

Learn More About It

The following resources can helpteachers evaluate the results ofself-assessment.BooksAu, K. (1993). Literacy instruction in

multicultural settings. New York:Harcourt Brace.

Garcia, E. (1994). Understanding andmeeting the challenge of studentcultural diversity. Boston:Houghton Mifflin.

Journal ArticlesMontgomery, W. (2000). Literature

discussion in the elementary schoolclassroom. Multicultural Education,8(1), 33-36.

Nieto, S. (1994). Lessons from stu-dents on creating a chance todream. Harvard EducationalReview, 64, 392-426.

Web SitesCultural Diversity in the Classroom

(http://education.indiana.edu/cas/tt/v2i2/cultural.html)

ERIC Digests on Cultural Diversity(ht tp://www.uncg.edu/edu/ ericcass/diverse/digests/tableoc.htm)