criminal proc. - p. l. o. lumumba

8/10/2019 Criminal Proc. - P. L. O. Lumumba

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UNDER REVISION

A HANDBOOK ON

CRIMINAL PROCEDURE

IN KENYA

P. L. O. LUMUMBA Ph. D


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Publication Financed by:

University of Nairobi Enterprises and Services (UNES) Ltd P.O. Box

30197 Nairobi.

Tel: 714240/7114144 A P.L.O Lumumba Publication

P.L.O Lumumba 1998 First Published in 1998

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any

means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise

without the prior permission of the Author.

Computer Typesetting by:

Dypac Information Technology Consultants

P.O. Box 49482 Nairobi

Tel: 334092

Publishing Consultancy Printing by:

Business Trends Limited P.O. Box 74327 Nairobi

Tel: 554397 ISBN 9966-939-00-8


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CONTENTS

Foreword ......................................................................................... xii

Acknowledgement .................................................................................. xiii

Introduction ............................................................................................ xiv

Dedication ..................................................................................xviii

Table of Statutes ........................................................................................ xix

Acronyms ................................................................................................. xx

Table of Cases ........................................................................................... xxi

CHAPTER I: THE NATURE OF CRIMINAL PROSECUTIONS 1

A. Introduction .................................................................................. 1

B. The Attorney - General's Constitutional Position ...................... 2

C. Private Prosecution ........................................................................ 4

D. Limitation of Time ...................................................................... 8

CHAPTER II: CONTROL OF PROSECUTIONS ..................... 12

A. Introduction..................................................................................... 12

B. Nolle Prosequi................................................................................. 12

C. Withdrawal ...................................................................................... 15

CHAPTER III: ARREST............................................................ 16

A. Introduction .................................................................................... 16

B. Arrest Without Warrant ................................................................. 17

i) Arrest by a Police Officer ...................................................... 17

ii) Arrest by Magistrate ........................................................... 19

iii) Arrest by a Private Person .................................................. 20


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C. Arrest with Warrant ........................................................................ 20

D. Others .............................................................................................. 22

E. Conclusion ..................................................................................... 23

CHAPTER IV: SEARCHES AND SEARCH WARRANTS

24

A. Introduction . 24

B. Searches with a search Warrants . 24

C. Searches without a search Warrant . 27

D. Conclusion 29

CHAPTER V: Bail . .

A.

Introduction.. 31

B.

Bail in Kenya 32

C.

Constitution of Kenya (Amendment)Act, No. 20 of 1987 37

D.The abolition of the Discretion of the High Court .. . 38

E. Pre-Trial Bail 40

F.

Bail pending Appeal . 46G.

Sureties 53

H.

Bail Bond . 56

I.

Renewal of Bail Application ... . 58

J. Bail as viewed by the High Courts 60

K.Variance between Law and practice 62

L. Suggested Reforms . 63

M.

The law of bail: Further thoughts on reform... 64


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CHAPTER VI: CHARGES AND INFORMATION. 70

A. Introduction .. 70

B. Charges . 70

C. Effect of Citing Wrong or Non-existent Sections . 71

D. Particulars of the Offence Charged ... 74

E. Lack of particulars and wrong ingredients 76

F. General form . 79

G. Joinder of Counts .. 81

H. Joinder of persons .. 84

I. Duplicity 87

J. Alternative Charges 92

K. Amendment of Charges .. 93

L. Amendment after conviction 95

M. Quashing of information 95N. Conclusion 96

CHAPTER VII: PLEAS 98

A. Introduction. 98

B.

Plea Taking in the subordinate Courts... 99C.

Recording of pleas. 99

D.

Plea of Autrefois Acquit, Autrefois Convict and pardon. 102

E.

Change of plea and the Functus officio Rule 102

F. Plea bargaining 104


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CHAPTER VIII: TRIAL PROCEDURE IN

THE SUBORDINATE COURTS.. 105

A.

Introduction105

B.

The Structure and Jurisdiction of Criminal Courts107

C. Trial procedure:..108

i) The prosecution Case 108

ii)

Prima-facie Case.110

iii)

The defence Case.. 111

CHAPTER IX: TRANSFER OF CASES. 113

A.

Introduction.. 113B.

Factors Giving Rise to Transfer.. 114

C.

Effects of transfer. 117

CHAPTER X: TRIAL IN THE HIGH COURT.. 131

A.

Introduction 131

B.

Committal proceedings and the Committal in the High court 132

C.

Arraignment and the Plea. 135

D. Taking the Plea. 138

i) Plea of guilt. 139

ii) Plea of not guilty. 140

iii)

Option of silence.. 140


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iv) Objection to jurisdiction... 141

v) Demurrer 142

vi) Autrefois Convict..143

vii)

Autrefois Acquit. 143

viii)

Pardon. 144

E.

Procedure when Accused Stands Mute of Malice or is

Deaf and/or Dumb. 144

F. procedure when Accused Pleads Guilty: The practice 148

G. The hearing and conduct of the trial 148

H.

Conduct of the case and Order of Hearing.. 149

I.

Summing up to Assessors.. 159

J.

The role and conduct of Judges and Assessors.. 161

K. Judgment and Sentence.. 165

L. Conclusion.. 165

CHAPTER XI: ASSESSORS 166

A. Introduction.. 166

B. Evaluation of the Assessors System in Kenya. 167

C. The Assessor System and the Jury System169

D. Procedural Aspect of the Assessor System. 170

E. Selection of Assessors.. 171F. The assessor in court. 177

G. Opinion of Assessors..181

H. Assessors as expert 183

I. Evaluation And Recommendations.. 184

J. A Case for reform..185

CHAPTER XII PROCEDURE IN CASES OF INSANITY.. 187


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A. Introduction .. 187

B. Procedure in case of lunacy or other incapacity of

the accused person 188

C.

Resumption of proceedings. 190

D.

Refusal to plead insanity.. 196

E. Insanity and the prosecution 196

F. Position in Kenya 202

G. Insanity as a Defence: The verdict of Guilty But

Insane versus Not Guilty On Account of Insanity 204

H.

Insanity: Evolution 205

I.

Guilty but insane or Not guilty on Account of

Insanity?.. 206

J. Insanity as and Absence of Mensrea 207

K. Procedure after a finding of Guilt and Sanity210

CHAPTER XIII: JUDGEMENT. 215

A. Introduction. 215

B. Delivery... 215

C. Form and Content 218

D. Minor and Cognate Offences.. 219E. Order of Judgment 222

F. Conclusion.. 222

CHAPTER XIV: SENTENSING..223


B. Historical Development of Sentencing and Punishment.. 224


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HABEAS CORPUS282

A. Introduction 282

B. Territorial Ambit of Habeas Corpus 283

C.

Habeas Corpus... 284

D.

Application of Habeas Corpus. 287

CHAPTER XVIII: REVISIONS 288


B.

Revision in Practice. 290

C.

Extent of powers of revision 294

D.

Revision Jurisdiction When Right of Appeal Exists

and is Not Exercised 299

E. A Finding of Autrefois Acquit and Revision.. 302

F. Effect of Revision of a Civil Case upon a Criminal case.. 303

CHAPTER XIX: RE-TRIAL 305

A. Introduction.. 305

B. Orders for retrial.. 305

CHAPTER XX: INQUIRIES AS TO SUDDEN DEATHS.. 313

A.

Introduction. 313

B.

Inquest Jurisdiction. 313

C. Inquest where death occurs in police custody or prison.. 313

Findings after Inquest. 314


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FOREWORD

Law students, practitioners, judicial officers and academics will breathe a sigh

of relief as they can now resort to a comprehensive hand book on Criminal

Procedure for quick reference. The book is written in simple language which

affords a comprehensive treatment of the subject. The book is made rich

because it incorporates the most recent unreported decisions of the Court of

Appeal and the High Court of Kenya, most of which may not be easily available

to the reader due to the haphazard and unsystematic law reporting system

currently prevailing in the country. The book also affords quick and precise

comparison of the subject with the English and the American systems where

appropriate.

The author of the book has done service to the development of the law in

Kenya, not only in devoting time to the writing and compilation of a much

needed book, but the admirable and reliable treatment of the subject of the

Criminal Procedure based on the latest decisions of the Highest Court in theland. The author must also be commended for ensuring the book is available at

the shelves at such a reasonable cost to the reader.

As the author is a practising lawyer and lecturer at the Faculty of Law,

University of Nairobi, this book cannot have a more authoritative source.

PAUL M. WAMBUA

ADVOCATE & LECTURER AT

THE KENYA SCHOOL OF LAW


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INTRODUCTION

This book is written for Law Students, Practitioners, Judicial Officers and

Academics. It is written as a Handbook to be resorted to for quick reference. At

the same time, it provides comprehensive treatment of the subject.

The book covers most of the key areas of Criminal Procedure that interest

the Student, the Practitioner, the Magistrate, the Judge and the Academic. There

are a number of chapters that puritanical students of procedure may consider out

of place but are rendered here owing to their close nexus with procedure in a

manner that underscores the often quoted statement, Procedure is the

handmaiden of Substance. The chapters in the category include those of

Criminal prosecutions, Methods of Controlling Prosecution, Contempt of Court

Proceedings, Directions in the nature of habeas corpus and inquiries as to

sudden deaths.

Elucidation, analysis and exposition of basic requirements of procedure

and aspects of criminal law, criminology and penology that are germane have

been employed and dovetailed to help deal with Kenyan Criminal Procedure. Incases where the use of comparative jurisprudence is deemed necessary reference

has been made to principles of English and American Law. Reference has also

been made to the decisions of the former East African Court of Appeal arising

from Uganda and Tanzania under the 'pari materia' rule. Heavy reliance has

been placed on judgements of the Court of Appeal and the High Court. Owing

to the absence of systematic and sustained law reporting most recent cases thatare used are un reported.

Decisions of the superior courts of Common Law Countries like the

United States of America and England have been used in spite of their little

precedential value, a number of decisions by magistrates have also been referred

to where there is paucity of other judicial opinion. Extensive reliance has been

placed on the Constitution and a number of statutes principally the Criminal

Procedure Code (Cap. 75), The Penal Code (Cap. 63), the Evidence Act (Cap.


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80) and the Traffic Act (Cap. 403). Being a Legal Practitioner and a teacher, the

author has made certain observations and rendered opinion informed by these

experiences but germane to the discourse in this book.

This book is divided into Twenty one Chapters arranged deliberately into

sub-topics for ease of reference and reading. To enhance clarity most chapters

commence with an introduction some of which take a historical bent.

To enhance the reading of this book it is necessary to outline the basic

contents of each of the Twenty One chapters.

Chapter 1 deals with the general nature of Criminal Prosecutions. There is

mention of the Attorney-Generals constitutional position vis-a-vis prosecutions.

There is equally an elaborate discussion on private prosecution.

Chapter 2 deals with the subject of control of prosecutions. These are

basically through, aNolle Prosequiand Withdrawal.

Chapter 3 covers arrest. The requisites for a valid arrest are given. Since

arrests can be with or without a warrant, the circumstances under which the

same can be effected and discussed. The chapter also identifies those who arelegally mandated to effect arrest.

Chapter 4 deals with searches and search warrants. Of special, interest are

searches without warrants and searches with warrants.

Chapter 5 examines the subject of bail. After giving a brief historical

account of the development of the subject, bail in Kenya is examined

extensively. There is a discussion of both pretrial bail and bail pending appealand the factors to be considered in each case. It is also noted that there is a

variance between law and practice and reforms are suggested. The Chapter then

concludes by looking at bail as viewed by the Courts.

Chapter 6 deals with charges and information. It analyses such aspects of

a charge, like contents of a charge, the effect of citing wrong or non-existent

sections of the law, and rules regarding the framing of dirges.

Chapter 7 is on pleas. It examines the importance of and the procedure of


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taking and recording pleas in the subordinate, courts. The pleas of' autrefois

acquit', 'autrefois convict' and pardon are discussed. Change of plea and its

effects is examined as well as the concept of plea bargaining.

Chapter 8 is on trial procedure in the subordinate courts. It gives the

structure of the court system in Kenya and the jurisdiction of Criminal courts.

The trial procedure is examined in detail from the prosecution case, a finding of

prima facie case upto the defence case.

Chapter 9 deals with transfer of cases. It examines factors giving rise to a

transfer and the factors that the High Court takes into cognisance before

effecting a transfer. It concludes by giving the effects of a transfer.

Chapter 10 is on trial in the High Court. It deals with arraignment and

plea-taking and the procedures to be followed.

Chapter 11 is on assessors. It begins with a discussion of the evolution of

the assessor system in Kenya. Comparison between the assessor and the Jurysystem is undertaken. Selection of assessors and their role and/or importance to

trials in the High Court is also undertaken.

Chapter 12 examines procedure in cases of insanity and begins with a

historical account of the law relating to insanity. Insanity is discussed at two

levels:- Insanity at the time of trial and insanity at the time of commission of anoffence.

Chapter 13 is on judgments. It highlights the subtleties of a judgment -

delivery, form and content.

Chapter 14 deals with sentences. After giving a brief historical

development of sentencing and punishment and the objectives of sentencing, the


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various sentences are highlighted. The sentencing of young persons and

sentencing examines committal proceedings beginning with its origin. To

enhance the understanding of the Committal process a brief discussion of the

erstwhile process of preliminary enquiries is undertaken.

Chapter 16 is on appeals. It highlights the rules governing appeals, the

rules governing summary allowance and rejection of appeals and mentions

those entitled to appeal against convictions, sentences and acquittals.

Chapter 16 addresses contempt of court proceedings and the attendant

modes of punishment.

Chapter 18 is on directions in the nature of habeas corpus. It provides

insight into the nature and types of the writ of habeas corpus and concludes by

setting out the procedure for seeking the writ of habeas corpus.

Chapter 19 covers revisions. The procedure on revision is discussed and

the extent of powers on revision. Reference is made to instances such as,revisional jurisdiction when right of appeal exists and is not exercised; a finding

of 'autrefois acquit' vis-a-vis revision and the effect of revision of a civil case

upon a criminal case based on the same facts.

Chapter 20 covers retrial and addresses instances and reasons for which a

retrial may be ordered.Chapter 21 examines enquiries in cases of sudden deaths.


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DEDICATION

Dedicated to my uncles M. T. Onono and Dr. W. E. Onyango whose generosity

in adversity set me on the path of knowledge.


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TABLE OF STATUTES

1. Constitution of Kenya Text of Revised Edition (1998) 1992

s 14 ......................................................................................... 261

s 26 ......................................................................................... 3,4

s 26(3) ...................................................................................... 12

s 26(3) (b) ................................................................................ 4

s 27 ......................................................................................... 144

s 60(1) ...................................................................................... 37

s 65(1) ...................................................................................... 1Q5

(2) ...................................................................................... 105

s 67 .......................................................................................... 105

s 72 ......................................................................................... 32,33

s 72(1) ...................................................................................... 213

s 72(3)(b) ................................................................................. 33

s 72(5) ...................................................................................... 36,37

s 77(1)....................................................................................... 8,188s 81(1) ...................................................................................... 10,36

s 123 ........................................................................................ 36

2. Criminal Procedure Code. (Cap. 75)

s 21& 24 ................................................................................ 16

s 22 ........................................................................................ - 27

s 26 .......................................................................................... 27s 29 .......................................................................................... 18

s 34(1) ..................................................................................... 20

s 36 .......................................................................................... 56,63

s 38 .......................................................................................... 19

s 42 .......................................................................................... 19

s 78........................................................................................... 1H

s 78, 79, 80 & 81 .................................................................... H3


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s 82 .......................................................................................... 8


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s 83 .........................................................................................; 14

s 87 .......................................................................................... 143

s 88 .......................................................................................... 7

s 88(1) ...................................................................................... 37

s 88(1.3) ................................................................................... 134

s 88&89 ................................................................................... H

s 89 .......................................................................................... 34

89(1)..70

s 99 ............................................................................................. 148

s 102 .......................................................................................... 21

s 105 ........................................................................................... 21

s 120 ........................................................................................... 24

s 123 ........................................................................................... 54,64

s 123(1) ....................................................................................... 34,36

s 125 ...................................................................................... . 56

s 130(1) .................................................................................. 65s 131(1) .................................................................................. 65

s 135(1) .................................................................................. 82,133

s 135(2) .................................................................................. 91

s 136 ...................................................................................... 84

s 137 ...................................................................................... 79

s 162 ...................................................................................... 193s 162-167 ............................................................................. 188

s 162 & 280 .......................................................................... 190

s 166 ...................................................................................... 190

s 167 ...................................................................................... 146

s 168 ...................................................................................... 215,222

s 169 ...................................................................................... 218,311

s 170 ....................................................................................... 218,222


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s 171(2) .................................................................................. 244

s 175 ....................................................................................... 235

s 177 ....................................................................................... 243


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s 179 ............................................................... 219,221

s 181 ............................................................... 221,222

s 193 .............................................................. 149

s 201 .............................................................. 161

s 207 ............................................................. 108

s 207(1) .......................................................... 188

s 211 ................................................................ 111

s 214 ............................................................... 137

s 219 ............................................................... 8

s 220 .............................................................. 124,131

s 221 .............................................................. 254

s 230 .............................................................. 131

s 231 .............................................................. 136

s 230(b) .......................................................... 131

s 233 .............................................................. 132

s 234 .............................................................. 131s 230-249 ..................................................... 119

s 235 .............................................................. 153

s 253 .............................................................. 134

s 261 .............................................;................ 181

s 262 .............................................................. 170

s 263 .............................................................. 173s 263 & 297 .................................................. 176

s 274 .............................................................. 136

s 276 .............................................................. 96

s 279(2) .......................................................... 220

s 279(a) .......................................................... 143

(b) ........................................................ 143

s 280 .............................................................. 144,189


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s 283 .............................................................. 149

s 298(1) .......................................................... 165

s 300 .............................................................. 149


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s 305(1) .......................................................... 298

s 322 .............................................................. 160,171

s 322(1) .......................................................... 159

s 330 .............................................................. 165

s 335 .............................................................. 234

s 336 ............................................................... 235

s 343-345 ....................................................... 237

s 345 .............................................................. 238

s 346 .............................................................. 89

s 347 .............................................................. 74

s 348 .........................................;.................... 48

s 348(a) .......................................................... 4,267

s 349 .............................................................. 268

s 352 .............................................................. 269

s 352(2) .......................................................... 270

s 352(a) .......................................................... 272s 354(3) .......................................................... 252

s 354,357 & 358 ........................................... 288

s 357 .............................................................. 48,51,275

s 358 .............................................................. 277

s 359 .............................................................. 277

s 360 or 378 ................................................... 286s 361(1) .......................................................... 7

(1)&(7) ................................................ 7

s 362 ............................................................... 288,295

s 364 ............................................................... 288,295,300

s 364(1) .......................................................... 295,296

s 364(2) .......................................................... 289

s 364(5) .......................................................... 289,299


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s 364(1) (b) ..................................................... 302

s 379 .............................................................. 147

s 382 .............................................................. 73,75,134,160,216,219


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s 385-388 ............................................................................ 3L3

s 389 ................................................................................... 282

s 389(1) ............................................................................... 284,286

(2) .............................................................................. 287

3. Police Act (Cap. 84)

s 23 ..................................................................................... 56

4. Prisons Act (Cap. 90)

s ............................................................................................. 237

5. Traffic Act (Cap. 403)

s ............................................................................................. 244,310

6. Vagrancy Act (Cap. 58)

s ............................................................................................. 18

7. Penal Code (Cap. 63)

s 12 ...................................................................................... 141, 212

s 14(1) ................................................................................. 142

s 15 ...................................................................................... 142s 21 ...................................................................................... 250

s 24 ...................................................................................... 229

s 27(3) ................................................................................. 245

s 31 ...................................................................................... 234

s 35 ..................................................................................... 295

s 58 ...................................................................................... 141s 121 .................................................................................... 257

s 121(1) ............................................................................... 257

s 129(a) ............................................................................... 80

s 228 .................................................................................. 191

s 243(b) ............................................................................... 221


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s 246 ...................................................................................109

s 251 .................................................................................... 239

s 275 ...................................................................................93

s 279 ......................................................................................... 255

s 279(c) ..................................................................................... 52

s 280,281,282 or 283.............................................................. 80

s 296 ......................................................................................... 247

s 304 .........................................;............................................... 96

s 306(a) .................................................................................. 91, 256

s 322......................................................................................... 93

s 323 ......................................................................................... 27,29

s 367(e) ..................................................................................... 75

s 367(e)&(a) ........................................................................... 75

s 352 & 356 ............................................................................. 294

s 389 ......................................................................................... 76

8. Magistrates Courts Act (Uganda)s 7 ............................................................................................. 142

s 11 ........................................................................................... 276

s 197,198 & 199 ...................................................................... 161

9. Public Order Act (Cap. 56)

s 9(1) ......................................................................................... 71

10. Traffic Ordinance 1951 (Uganda)

s 9(a) ......................................................................................... 73

s9(b) .......................................................................................... 73,74

11. Mental Treatment Act (Cap. 248)

s 30 ........................................................................................... 214


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12. Children and Young Persons Act (Cap. 141)

s 16(3) ...........................................................246

s 17 ............................................................... 240, 245

13. Borstal Institutions Act (Cap. 72) 246

14. Administration Police Act (Cap 85) 18

15. Game (Preservation and Control) Act (Cap. 266) (Uganda) 76

16. Privileges and Immunities Act. Cap 179 22, 141

17. The Constitution of Kenya (Amendment) Act, No. 9 of 1997. 35

18. The Statute Law (Repeals and Miscellaneous Amendments) Act, No. 10 of

1997 s ......................................................................................... 141


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ACRONYMS

Kenya Evidence Act.

Criminal Procedure Code.

All England Reports.

Israel Law Reports.

East African Law Reports.

Kenya Law Reports.

Miscellaneous Application

Kenya High Court Decisions.

Court of Appeal Reports.

Uganda Law Reports.

India Law Reports.

Australia Law Reports.

West African Court of Appeal.

Tanzania Law Reports.

Ireland Reports.Criminal Law Review

Criminal Application

Queen's Bench Division

Legal Notice

Master of the Rolls

Chief JusticePenal Code

Chapter

Modern Law Review

Criminal Application

High Court of Tanzania

Attorney-General


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TABLE OF CASES

A.G-vs-Marakaru(1960)EA 484 ....................................................... 265

A.G -vs- Kelly (1938)I.R .................................................................. 306

Abdallah Change -vs- R (1964)EA ................................................... 94

Abdalla Omer -vs- R (1958)EA 725 ................................................. 179

Abdullah -vs- R (1963) EA .............................................................. 50

Abdullahi Ali-vs- R (1958)EA .......................................................... 181

Adan -vs- R [1970] EA ..................................................................... 101

Adam Mwambalafu -vs- R (1966) EA 45.......................................... 89

Aganyi -vs- R (1960)EA ................................................................... 254

Ahmed Hirsi Mohamad -vs- R (1958)EA ......................................... 233

Ahmed Mohamed -vs- R (1959)EA.1087 ......................................... 235

Ahmedali Ali Dhalamasi Sumar -vs- R (1964)EA 481 .................... 308

Alexus Afumu & Another -vs-R (1953)26 K.L.R ............. 108,148

Ali Mohammed Hassani Mpanda -vs- R (1963)EA ......................... 221

Aloys Awori -vs- Uganda (1972)EA 469.................................... 309Amand -vs- Home Secretary & Another (1943) A.C ................... 286

Andiazi -vs- R (1967)EA 813 ........................................................ 175

Andrea s/o Kulinga -vs- R (1958)EA 684 .......................... 159,178

An Application for Directions in the Nature of Habeas

Corpus by Keshavlal Punja, (1955)22 EACA 381 ............... 282,287

Arnold Pudo s/o Aranda -vs- R (1960)EA 380 ..................... 269,271Attorney-General -vs- Times Newspapers Ltd(1973)l All ER ......... 23

Augustine Chebon A. Cherutich -vs- R Cr. App. No.16 of 1982 ..... 162

Avone -vs- R (1969) EA ............................................................ 71,132

Baland Singh-vs-R (1954) EACA .............................................. 182

Baland Singh -vs- R (1954)21 EACA ........................................... 179

Benjamin Sauzier -vs- R (1962)EA ....................................... 94

Bracegirdle -vs- Oxiey (1947)1 All E.R .......................................... 265


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Bratty -vs- Attorney-General for Northern Ireland (1961)3

WLR 965 ................................................................................ 199


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Byarutu Gata -vs- R [1950] 17 EACA ......................................... 101

Chander Kanta Sethi -vs- R (1962)EA 523 .................................... 231

Cherere Gukuli -vs- R (1955)22 EACA 478 ................................. 91

Christopher Omufira Akwabi -vs- R Cr. App. No. 131 of 1989 ...... 80,97

Consolidated Exploration and Finance Co. Ltd -vs- Musgrave

(1900) 64 J.P ......................................................................... 53

Desai -vs- R (1971) EA ................................................................. 99

Desiderio Kawunya -vs- R (1953)20 EACA ................................... 312

Dhalamini -vs- King (1942) A.C 583 ..................................... 166

Durham -vs- US 214 R 2d 862, ................................................ 203,208

Edwards (Inspector or Taxes) -vs-Bairston & Another

(1953)3 All E.R ...................................................................... 266

Elgood -vs- R (1968)EA ...................................................... 273

Ekai Paul -vs- R Crim. App. No. 15 of 1981 .......................... 184

Ellis -vs- State (1930) ALR 783 .............................................. 215

Eliud Mwaura -vs-R Crim. App. No. 446-of 1986 ..................... 38,39Eneriko Lutalo -vs- R (1966)EA 328 ..................................... 216

Ex-parte Malley 50 Nev.248 (1927)53 A.L.R 395 ........................ 45

Fatehali Manji -vs- R (1966) EA 343 .............................................. 3Q6

Fazal & Tryabali and Another -vs- R (1959) EA 29 ................ 277

Fernandes-vs-R (1957) EA ......................................................... 304

Francis Juma Musungu-vs-R (1958) EA ................................... lg2Francis Muzungu (Francis) -vs-R (1958)EA ........................... 179

Galos & Another -vs- R (1944) A.C ......................................... 308

Grace Ibingira -vs- A.G. of Uganda (1966)EA p ............................. 285

Gouriet-vs-Union of Post Office Workers (1978) A.C 435 ......... 5,135

Govindji -vs- Regina (1954) 21 EACA ..................................... 52

Habib Kara Vesta -vs-R (1943)1 EACA ..................................... 181

Haining & Others -vs- R (1971)EA 421 ................................... 269


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Hando -vs- R (1951)18 EACA ................................................. 138

Hasham -vs- R Crim. Appeal No. 582 of 1967 (Un-rep) ................ 50

Islam Ali-Abdullah -vs- R Crim. Application No. NAI.2 of 1989 .... 52

Jaffer s- R (1973) EA ................................................................ 64


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James -vs- R (1950)18 EACA ................................................... 253

John Brown Shilenje -vs- R Cr. Appl. 180 of 1980 .............. 113 116

Jones -vs- National Coal Board (1957)2 All E.R. ..................... 152

Jopley Constantine Oyieng' -vs- R - Criminal Appeal No. 45

of 1988 ................................................................................ 3

Joseph Odhengo s/o Ogongo -vs- R (1954)21 EACA ..................... 258

Kabeni -vs- R (1970) EA 503 ................................................... 236

Kaisa-vs- R (1975)EA ...................................................................... 245

Kamau s/o Muga-vs- (1963)EA ........................................................ 84

Kamau -vs- R (1975)EA ................................................................... 272

Kamlesh M. Pattni -vs- R Cri. App. No. 31 of 1995 ........................ 56

Kamlesh M. Pattni -vs- R Cri. App. No. 88 of 1995 ................ 56

Kamundi -vs- R [1973] EA 540 ................................................ 103

Kamwana s/o Muria -vs- R (1958) EA 471 .............................. 82

Kanja Muguku -vs- R Cr. App. No. 397 of 1983 ........................ 255

Kaplotwa s/o Tarino -vs- R (1957) EA 553 ...................................... 192Karioko s/oGichohi.vs-R(1950)17 EACA ...................................... 270

Katungo Mbuki -vs- R (1962)EA 682 ....................................... 255

Kenera Opidi-vs-R (1965) EA 614 .................................................. 132

Keshallila -vs- R (1963)EA ...................................................... 298

Keteta -vs- R (1972)EA 532 ...................................................... 246

Khalif-vs- R (1973)EA 364 .....................;................................ 251Kimanzia -vs-R (1972) EA 495 ................................................... 237

Kimani & Maina -vs- Nathan Kahara H.C.C (Misc) App. No. 11

of 1988 ................................................................................ 135

King Emperor -vs- Tramal Reddi (1901) ILR 24 Madras 523 ........163 167

Kinyori s/o Kiraditu -vs- R (1956) EACA 480 ....................... 151

Kirby vs- King (1714)93 E.R. 338 ......................................... 40

Kityo -vs- Uganda (1967)EA ..................................................... 27 84


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Kionywaki-vs-R (1968) EA 195 ...................................................... 19

Kiwala -vs- Uganda (1967)EA 758 ...................................... 290 292

Kuyate -vs- R (1967)EA 815 ............................................................ 272

Koech -vs- Republic .................................................................... 28


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Laban Koti -vs-R (1962)EA 439 ...................................................... 134

Lall Khan -vs- R 17 EACA ............................................................. 286

Lamabutu Mokalya -vs- R (1958)EA 706 ...................................... 180

Lambert Houareau -vs- R (1957) EA 575 ........................................ 161

Laurenti Busolo s/o Mukumba -vs- R (1957)EA ................. 165,179

Lebiningin -vs- R (1974) EA .................................................... 78

Letoyiania Another -vs- R (1972)EA .............................................. 246

Lighten alias Magere -vs- R (1951)18 EACA ................................. 270

Loibon -vs- R (1949)16 EACA ........................................................ 132

Lujo -vs- R (1946)EA 13 EACA ............................................. 132

Mahlikilili Dhalamini & Others -vs- R (1942) A.C 589

....... 163,182

Mahmood vs- R (1974)EA .............................................................. 57

Maina vs- R (1970)EA 370 ...............;................................... 247, 269

Margaret Magiri Ngui -vs- R Crim. App. No. 59 of 1985 ............... 36

Masran -vs- R (1960) EA 321 ........................................................... 47Maumba -vs- R [1966] EA ............................................................... 103

Mbebi vs- R (1957) EA 426 ........................................................... 112

M'Kanake -vs- R (1973)EA ............................................................. 309

Meek -vs- Powell (1952)1 K.B ......................................................... 297

Merali & Others -vs- R (1971) EA .................................................. 310

Merali -vs- R (1972) E.A 47 ............................................................. 48, 51Mehar Singh Bensel -vs- R (1959)EA 813 ..................................... 160

Mehar Singh vs- R (1951) U.L.R .................................................... 243

M'bui -vs-Dyer (1967) EA .............................................................. 20, 33

M'Mwenda -vs- R [1957] E.A 429 .................................................. 101

Michael Otieno Ademba -vs- R (1983)1 C.A.R 187,

(Court of Appeal Reports) ....................................................... 51

Michael Meshaka -vs- R (1962)EA ...................................... .. 292, 293


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Misana -vs- R (1967)EA 334 ........................................... 279

Mka -vs- R (1969)EA 598 .................................................... 232

Motichand -vs- R (1972) EA 399 ............................................. 47

Mohamedi & Another -vs- R (1973)EA 1907 ................................ 164

Mohamed vs- R (1969)EA .............................................. 233

Mohamed Juma -vs- R.I.T.L.R ......................................... 232

Mohammed Hussein -vs- Price Controller (1943)10 EACA ........... 275

Mohanlal Trivedi -vs- R............................................................ 26

Mongella-vs-R (1934)1 EACA ................:............................... 133

Mukindia -vs- R (1966)EA 425 ................................................. 242

Mulakh -vs- R (1954)21 EACA 383 ........................................... 270

Mulaba Mugeni -vs- R (1964)EA 518 ........................................ 132

Mutemba s/o Rutehenda -vs- R (1953)20 EACA ...................... 271

Murimi -vs- R (1967)EA 542................................................... 280

Musa s/o Bakari -vs- R (1968) H.C.D (Tanzania) No. 239 ............. 251

Musoke -vs- Uganda .................................................................. 34Mutwalumbi Bukuli -vs- Busoga (1964)EA 713 .......................... 185

Muyimbo -vs- R (1969) EA 433 ............................................... 307

Mwasya -vs- R (1967) EA - 345 ................................................... 75

Mwangi -vs- R (1974) EA .......................................................... 90

Mwangi s/o Njoroge -vs- R (1954)21 EACA 377 ........................ 16

Nathani -vs. R (1965)EA .................................................. 85Nathan Godfrey Odhiambo Obiro -vs- R (1962)EA 650 ............... 294

Narrotthandas Vithlam -vs- R (1957) EA 343 ........................ 109

Narothanda Vithlani -vs- R (1957)EA 343 ................................ 149

Nahashon Marenya -vs- R Cr. App. No. 786 of 1982. .................. 71

Ndirangu -vs- R (1959) EA 875 .................................................. 174

Ndirangu Juma-vs-R (1953)20 EACA 190 ................................. 255

Ngige s/o Gatonye -vs- R (1963) EA 663 .................................... 78


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Nilsson -vs- R (1970)EA 599 ....................................................... 249,253

Nsubuga -vs- R (1968) EA ....................................................... 65

Ogalo s/o Owuora-vs-R( 1954)21 EACA ................................. 253

Oman -vs- R (1956)23 EACA 580 .......................................... 153

O'Neal -vs- State 35 Ga. App. 665 (1926) ................................ 215

Osman & Another -vs- R (1972)EA 429 .................................... 237

People Ex-parte Summons -vs- Snow 340 iu 469 (1688-93) I.N.P .. 46

People -vs- Tinder 19, Cal.539 .................................................. 44

Pita vs- R EACA Cr. App. No. 66 of 1972 (Unreported) .............. 92

Popat -vs- R (1950)17 EACA .............................................. 153

R -vs- Abdulla Mali (1920-29)3 ULR ....................................164,177

R -vs- Assa Singh (1937)4 EACA ................................................. 164

R -vs- Barronet and Allain (1852) 17 Y.P .................................... 42

R-vs- Bazilio Sentamu (1936-51)6 ULR .................................... 159

R-vs- Badger (1843)7 ].P ........................................................ 53

R-vs- Bennett and Newton, 9 Cr. App. R. ....................................... 278R -vs- Grays Justices, Ex parte Graham (1982) 3 All E.R 635 ........ 9

R -vs- Rose (1885 - 99) All E.R 851 ............................................. 41

R -vs- Phillips (1974) A.C 111 ...................................................... 41

R -vs- Peter Kariuki (1976) ............................................................. 43

R -vs- Muturi Kigano 1975 .......................................................... 44

R -vs-Vallet (1951)1 All E.R ..................................................... 44R -vs- London Sessions Appeal Committee Ex-Parte Beautmont

(1951)1 All E.R ........................................................ ...................... 45

R -vs- Porter (1908-10) All E.R. .................................................... 54

R -vs- Gabhai jessa, High Court Bulletin No. 54/1963 at .............. 54

R -vs-Gajjan Singh & Others (1947)14 EACA 111 (P.42) ............ 55

R -vs- Wood Green Crown Court, Ex-parte Jemima Home

Reported in Criminal Law Review (1964) Vol.39 641 .... 69


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R-vs- Nottingham Justices Ex-parte Davies (1980)2 All E.R775..... 58

R -vs- Dalip Singh (1943)1 EACA ............................................. 82

R -vs- Muir (1938)2 All E.R 516 ................................................. 83

R -vs- McBride (1961) 3 W.L.R 549 ............................................ 84

R -vs- Scaramanga (1963)2 All E.R 582 ...................................... 86

R -vs- Molley (1921)2 KB 364 ........................................................ 87

R-vs-Devett 8, C&P 639 ................................................................. 87

R -vs- Thompson (1914)2 KB .................................................... 87, 33

R -vs- Benfield 2, Burr.980, 983 ................................................ 88

R-vs- Fuller 1 B & P ..................................................................... 88

R -vs- Boyle (1954)2 All ER 721 ................................................. 91

R -vs- Guest (1964)3 All E.R 385 ............................................. 95,103

R -vs- Tucker 4 Burr. 2046 .......................................................... 95

R -vs- Phillips 2 Str. 921.......................................... 95

R -vs Yates (1920)15Cr. App. Rep ................................................. 96

R -vs- Malakwen Arap Mutei (1949)23 KLR ............................... 111,158R -vs- Garden (1879)5 QBI ....................................................... 128

R -vs- Gee (1939)2 KB 442 ....................................................... 136

R -vs- Ndolo (1926)10 KLR 11 ................................................. 123

R-vs- Jonah Orao Anguka, H.C.Crirninal Case No.41 of 1992 ........ 135

R -vs- Mushraf Akhtar (1964) EA ................................................ 137

R -vs-Main (1954)21 EACA ......................................................... 137R -vs- Akatendasama (1956)23 EACA 487 ................................ 137

R -vs- Home Secretary ex parte Soblen (1963)2 QB ........................ 283

R -vs- Gusambizi Wasonga (1948)15 EACA ................................ 163

R -vs- Tomasi Mufumu (1959)EA 625 ....................................... 148

R -vs- Chacha (1953)20 EACA 339 ............................................... 176

R -vs- Yonasani Egalu (1942) EACA .....:....................................... 140 143

R -vs- Waithaka (1963)EA ...............................................................140


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R -vs- Mungu Atosha (1938)5 EACA ............................................. 130

R -vs- Deputy Chairman of Inner London Quarter Sessions

(1970)2 WLR ............................................................... ............. 142

R -vs- Obau 15 KLR 107 ............................................................ 149,164

R -vs-Leiawan Leseroi (1964) EA III, Supreme Court of Kenya .... 144

R-vs-Daudji (1948)15 EACA ........................................................ 143

R -vs- Salim Bin Karama (1951)18 EACA ..................................... 143

R -vs- Loizeau (1956)23 EACA 566 .......................................... 143

R -vs- Livingstone Anyanga, Crim. Appeal No. 125 of 1989 ........ 147

R -vs- Grimsby Recorder (1951)2 All ER 889 ................................ 148

R -vs- W. Y. Wilken (1965)EA ........................................................ 176

R -vs- Anyelwisye Undule (1965) EA 451 ...................................... 193

R -vs- Beynon (1957)2 WLR 956 .................................................... 193

R -vs- Roberts (1954) Crim. L. R. ................................................. 194

R-vs-Mwita (1948)15 EACA ........................................................ 132

R -vs- Ndambere (1947)14 EACA ................................................. 133R -vs- Mutwiwa (1935)2 EACA ..................................................... 183

R -vs- Podola (1959)3 All E.R 418 ................................................. 194

R -vs- Juston (1945)6 Cos 385 ....................................................... 195

R-vs- Pritchard (1836)7 C & P ...................................................... 195

R -vs- Barnett (1956) Cr. Law Rev. 560 ......................................... 195

R -vs- Bastian (1958)1 WLR 413 .................................................. 197498R -vs- Bishom s/o Mwango 2 TLR, ............................................... 232

R -vs- Price (1962)3 WLR 1308 .................................................... {97

R -vs- Oliver Smith (1910) Cr. App. Rep. ..................................... 197

R -vs- Casey (1947)32 Cr. App. Rep. ............................................ 197

R -vs- Cain 25 Cr. App. Rep.2, ..................................................... 152

R -vs- Noormohamed Kanji (1937)4 EACA ............................ 12

R -vs- Jack Jezelani (1947)14 EACA ..........................................^Q


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R -vs- Wachira (1975)EA ......................................................... 267

R -vs- Kidasa (1973)EA 368 ..................................................... 268

R -vs- Mallo (1958) EA II .......................................................... 268

R -vs-Kemp (1957)1 399 .................................................................. 193

R -vs- Nott (1959) Crim. L.R 365 ..................................................... 199

R -vs- Dickie (1984)3 All E.R ................................................ 204

R -vs- Magata s/o K-achehakana (1957)EA 330 .............................. 205

R -vs- Smith 8 Cr. App. Rep. ..................................................... 200

R -vs- Dixon (1961)3 All E.R 460 ............................................. 200

R -vs- Duke (1961)3 All E.R 737 ................................................. 200

R -vs- Indo Parsad Dave (1963)EA .............................................. 296 297

R -vs- Tuttle (1929)A11 E.R .................................................... 297

R -vs- Ajit Singh s/o Vir Singh (1957)EA 822 ................................ 299

R -vs-Telenga (1967)EA 407 ..................................................... 98,295

R -vs- Morris (1961)2 WLR 986 .................................................. \QQ

R -vs- Mandi s/o Ngoda (1963) EA ................................................. 202R -vs- Malakwen Arap Mute (1949)22 KLR ..................................... m 153

R -vs- Sironga & Mindo (1918)7 KLR ............................................. 291

R -vs- Orunyo (1970)EA ............................................................. 251

R -vs-Wamasuya s/o Bola (1944)11 EACA ................................ 154

R -vs- Sherrif 20 cox Cr. C. 334 ................................................ 155

R-vs-Makali& 3 Others Crim. App. No. 4&- 5 of 1994 ....... 750 757R -vs- Pinckrey (1904)2 KB ....................................................... 284

R -vs- Gray (1900)2 QB ................................................................ 261

R-vs- Zablon Ogalo ObonyoCr. Case No. 24 of 1991 .................. 22

R-vs-Heifer (1951)1 KB .................................................................. 49

R-vs-Guest ex p. Anthony [11964]3 All ER 385 .............................. 103

R -vs- Lokidilio s/o Laitogon, Confirmation case No.344 of

1958 (1958)EA ......................................................................... 234


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R -vs- Saidi Kabila Kiunga (1963)EA I ....................................... 191

R .vs Sowedi Mukasa (1946)13 EACA C.A ................................... 249

R -vs- Parks (1961)3 All E.R 633 .................................................. 274

R-vs-Nathani (1965)EA 777 .......................................................... 250

R -vs- Paulo Lwevola (1943)10 EACA ............................... 178,181

R -vs-Cosma (1955)22 EACA 450 ................................................ 134

R -vs- Mathenge s/o Muriemo (1938)5 EACA ............................ 150

R (Through J. K. Mbugua & 2 others) -vs- William R. Ole

Ntimama. Private Prosecution case No. 13 of 1995 ...................... 6

R (Through Afro Travels Ltd) -vs- A. K. Holdings, Trust Bank

Holding, Ajay Shah Cr. Revision Case No. 56 of 1995 .................. 6

R-vs-Eric Kotut & 5 Others Private Prosecution case No. 1 of 1994 ...6

R-vs-The Chairman of London Sessions Ex-parteDownes(1954)lQBI ... 96

R -vs- Abdaka Mali (1921) 3 ULR ................................................. 171

R -vs- Odera (1973)EA 392 ..................................................... 238

R-vs-Yowasi (1939)6 EACA ......................................................... 170R-vs-Wilkin (1964) unreported ..............:...................................... 175

Raghbin Singh Lamba -vs- R (1958) EA 337 ................................... 47,4.9

Rajabu Jalum -vs- R (1965)EA 365 ................................................. 181

Rarilal Shah -vs- R (1958) EA .............................................. 222,311

Raila Odinga -vs- George Saitoti & Others Misc. App. No. 31 of 1995 .6

Re Castings (1958)42 Cr. App. Rep. ............................................. 217Republic (Through James Orengo & 7 Others) vs Rashid

Sajjad & 3 Others Misc. Appl. No. 37/1997 .............................. 42

Republic (Through James Orengo) vs Rashid Sajjad & 13

others. Misc. Appl. No. 41 of 1997 .......................................... 42

Richard Kimani & S. M. Maina -vs- Nathan Kihara - High

Court Criminal (Revision) Case No.ll of 1983 .......................... 41

King -vs- Thomas 2, East P.C 934 ................................................. 37


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Robert Ndecho & Ogonyo Luora-vs-R( 1951) 18 EACA ................ 219

Robbert Martins-vs-R Criminal Case No. 1321 of 1975 ................. 43

Ross -vs- R (195DA11 E.R 451 ..................................................... 3Q6

S (An Infant) By Parsons (His next Friend) -vs- Recorder of

Manchester (1970)2 WLR ................................................ 103,301

Sabur -vs- R (1958) EA ..........................................................72,104

Samwiri^vs- R (1953)20 EACA ................................................. 312

Saina vs-R (1974) EA ............................................................... 91

Shah -vs- R (1976) C.A unreported ............................................... 47

Selemani s/o Ussi-vs- R (1963)EA 44 2 ...................................... 180

Semi Longa -vs- R (1964)ea 512 ................................................... 132

Semuyaga -vs- Uganda (1975)EA ...................................... 296,302

Seidi -vs- R (1969) EA ................................................................ 82

Seifu s/o Bakari -vs- R (1960)EA 338 ........................................... 250

Sey -vs- King (1950)13 WACA ....................................................... 13

Shiani -vs- R [1972]EA 557 .......................................................... 104Shire -vs- R (1967)EA ................................................................ 280

Sirasi- vs- R (1936)3 EACA .......................................................... 275

Somo -vs- R (1972) 476 at 480 ...................................................... 47

Sowedi Kauta-vs-R (1933)13 K.L.R ............................................ 134

Stanley Munga Githunguri-vs-R Misc. Application No. 271 of 198510

Suleman Ahmed -vs- R (1922)9 EALR ........................................... 292Surat Singh -vs- R (1946)13 EACA ............................................ 251

Tamano -vs- R (1969) EA ............................................................ 310

TheRepublic,ThroughDevjiKanji-vs-DavendraValjiHalai(1978)KLR ........

......... 45

Torroha Mohammed Torroha -vs- R Criminal Appeal

No. NAI.5 of 1988 (Unrep) ..................................................... 53

Uganda -vs- Keneri Opidi (1965)EA 614 ................................ 73


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Uganda -vs- Zubairi and Another (1973)EA 470 .......................... 77

Uganda -vs- Polasi (1970)EA 638 ..................................... 300,302

Valezi Kashiza -vs-R (1954)21 EACA 389 ................................... 133

Wachira s/o Njenga -vs- R (1954)21 EACA 398 ................ 220,221

Wafula s/o Waniamira -vs- R (1957)EA 498 ' ...............................

Wafula -vs- R (1954)EA 498 .......................................................

Wandera Reuben Kubanisi -vs- R (1965) EA 572 .......................... 75

Wanjema -vs-R [19711 EA 493 .................................................... 14

Ward -vs- James (1965)1 All E.R 563 ............................................ 159

Washington s/o Odingo -vs- R (1954) EACA 392 ....................... 59

Washington s/o Odindo -vs- (1954) EACA 392 ............................

Washington s/o Odindo-vs-R (1954)21 EACA 392 .....................

Wenlock-vs-River Dee Co; 19 Q.B.D ....................................... 17

Wheatley -vs- Lodge (1971)1 All ER ............................................. 5

Witherley -vs- Witherley (1608)2 Rolle's Abridg ............... 83 284

Yakobo -vs- R (1945)12 EACA ..................................................... 775Yokobo Uma and Another -vs- R (1963)EA 542 ..........................

Yosefu Muwonge and Two Others -vs-Uganda Cr. App. No. 86

of 1965 (unreported) ............................................................... 779

Yowana Sebuzikira -vs- R (1965) EA 684 ..................................... 133

Yozefu & Another-vs-R (1969) E.A ............................................ 75

Yusuf Maumb -vs- R (1966)EA ..................................................... 95Zaver -vs- R (1952)19 EACA ..................................................... 779

Zaverchand Hemraj Shah -vs- R (1960) EA 562 ............................. 73


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CHAPTER ONE

THE NATURE OF CRIMINAL PROSECUTIONS

A. INTRODUCTION

Criminal procedure is the process through which substantive penal laws

are applied to achieve their general purpose. It is the means and mode of

bringing to trial those suspected of criminal activities.

The procedure of trying a suspect is an elaborate one and runs from the

time of arrest, through interrogation and charge, to the time of taking the

suspect to court for the plea, trial, judgment, sentence, appeal and revision of a

case if necessary.

Criminal proceedings are instituted in the name of the State as the

complainant. Thus in any one criminal case the complaint will appear as

Republic-vs- Wachir a,Wachira being the name of the accused person. Thismeans that in law every crime is against the State1and, therefore, the state takes

the responsibility to seek redress on behalf of the victim by punishing the

offender.

There has nevertheless been the argument among criminologists as to

who actually is the complainant in criminal prosecutions: the State or the victim

of the crime? The answer is that the State is as much a complainant in any onecriminal prosecution as the victim of the crime. Being under the duty to protect

the society, the State takes the responsibility to prosecute those who commit

crimes. But there is almost always a background complainant in crimes

involving private property and crimes against the person. Such complainants

usually appear only as prosecution witnesses. In most cases they appear as the

1 See Rufus Riddlesbarger v. Brian John Robson (1959) E.A. 841.


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victims of the crime. The State, on the other hand, is usually the complainant

and the prosecutor. Since it is the state which through its legislative arm enacts

laws, breach of such laws by any criminal activity is in direct conflict with the

interests of the state. Thus, as the custodian of the legal and administrative

order, the state becomes a complainant when her laws are breached.

B. THE ATTORNEY GENERAL'S CONSTITUTIONAL POSITION

The Constitutional basis of criminal prosecution is founded on section 26(3) of

the constitution which provides:

"The Attorney-General shall have power in any case in which he

considers it desirable so to do:-

(a) to institute and undertake criminal proceedings against any person

before any court (other than a court martial) in respect of anyoffence alleged to have been committed by that person;

(b) to take over and continue any such criminal proceedings that have

been instituted or undertaken by himself or another person or

authority and

(c) to discontinue at any stage before judgment is delivered any

criminal proceedings instituted or undertaken by himself or anyother person or authority".

THE NATURE OF CRIMINAL PROSECUTIONS


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The foregoing provision underscores that under Kenyan law it is the State,

through the Attorney-General, which is bestowed with the power of controlling

criminal prosecutions. This was the position of the court of Appeal of Kenya in

the case of Jopley Constantine Oyieng' -v- Republic2 wherein the court

observed:-

"... in the instant case, the appellant was pursuing a right to file

a private prosecution. Only the Attorney-General has the right

under section 26 of the Constitution to institute criminal

proceeding's. No similar right is extended to a private

individual and it is obvious that section 88(1) of the Criminal

Procedure Code does not override section 26 of the

constitution...3

The state is therefore the prosecutor in all criminal prosecutions4. That

power of the state to control all criminal proceedings subsists whether theproceedings have been initiated by a complaint and the prosecution conducted

by a private individual under the provisions of section 895 of the Criminal

Procedure Code.

The problem of who has the right to prosecute is even more pronounced

in respect of appeals. On the one hand section 348(a) provides that;

"when an accused person has been acquitted on a trial held by a

subordinate court, or where an order refusing to admit a

complaint or formal, charge, or an order dismissing a charge,

2 Criminal Appeal No. 45 of 1988.

3 Ibid

4 Sec Riddlesbarger, Supra, note.

5 The section allows a private individual to prosecute a crime subject to

permission being granted by a magistrate with Jurisdiction,


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has been made by a subordinate court, the Attorney-General

may appeal to the High Court from the acquittal or order on a

matter of law".

This provision seems to oust from the scope, of a private prosecutor

conduct of criminal appeal, and to rest on the Attorney-General monopoly right

of prosecuting criminal appeals a position which was upheld in Riddlesbarger v

Robson6.On the other hand, the Court of Appeal in RepublicThro' Devji Kanji

v Davendra Valj i H alai7 held that a private prosecutor has a right of appeal

against an acquittal. Faced with those two conflicting authorities, in the case of

Charles Wainaina v H. K. Ndegwa8the High Court decided that it was bound

by the latter case being the most recent in point of time.

On the whole, the cumulative effect of section 26 of the Constitution of

Kenya and section 348(a) of the Criminal Procedure Code is that it is the

Attorney-General who has the ultimate and undisputed control over all

prosecutions.

C. PRIVATE7PROSECUTION

The State's constitutional and legal rights over criminal prosecutions are

not exclusive. A private individual other than the Attorney-General may also

institute criminal proceedings if he/she has reason and probable cause to believethat an offence has been committed. This right is recognised under section 26(3)

(b) of the Constitution which also empowers the Attorney-General to take over

and continue any such criminal proceedings that have been instituted or

undertaken by another person or authority.

6 Supra,note 1.

7 (1978) KLR 1978.8 Criminal Appeal No. 925 of 1979, High Court, Nairobi (unreported).


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Section 89 of the Criminal Procedure Code confers the right to institute criminal

proceedings on any person by means of complaint to a Magistrate, and section

88 confers the right to any person to conduct the prosecution subject to the

permission of "any Magistrate trying the case". The right to private prosecution

has been said to be "a useful constitutional safeguard against capricious, corrupt

or biased failure or refusal of police forces and the office of Director of public

prosecutions to prosecute offenders against the criminal law9".

A private individual who wishes to institute a private prosecution must

first make a complaint to the Magistrate after which the Magistrate may upon

being satisfied grant permission for private prosecution. But there are conditions

which a private prosecutor must fulfil before the Magistrate grants the

permission. Such conditions were stated, by the High Court of Kenya in the

case of Richard Kimani & M. Maina -vs- Nathan Kahara10

thus:-

"When an application is made under section 88 to conduct a prosecution,

we think that the Magistrate should question the applicant to ascertain whether

a report has been made to the Attorney-General or to the police and with whatresult. The Magistrate should also askhimselfhow is the complainant involved?

What is his LOCUSSTANDI? Has he personally suffered injury or damage or

is he motivated by malice, or political considerations?".

Thus in granting permission for a private prosecution, the discretion of the

Magistrate must be exercised judicially, sparingly and only on extremely good

grounds. This is to avoid misuse of the right to private prosecution for personalvendetta and vengeful intentions. The Court further emphasised the importance

of private prosecution by stating:-

"...the right of Private Prosecution is essential to counteract

9 Gouriet VUnion of post office workers (1978) AC 435 at 477.10

High Court Criminal (Revision) case No. 11 of 1983


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attempts by wealthy and influential people to stifle prosecutions

when offences by themare alleged in reports to the police.11

But the question has arisen as to the validity of a private prosecution

commenced and/or accomplished without prior permission of the Magistrate.12

Since there are certain conditions which the Magistrate must consider

before granting or refusing permission for private prosecution, one would

assume that without the Magistrate's permission any prosecution or purported

prosecution by a private individual is a nullity. This issue was raised in the case

of The Republi c, through Devji Kanji -v- Davendra Valj i Halai.13 In that case,

the appellant brought a private prosecution in the Senior Resident Magistrate's

Court, Nairobi, against the respondent. Both parties were represented by

counsel and, at the close of the prosecution case, counsel for the respondent

took the objection that the private prosecutor had not obtained permission from

the court to prosecute the case, as required by section 88(1) of the Criminal

Procedure Code. The Senior Resident Magistrate upheld the objection, and heldthe proceedings to be a nullity. He was upheld by the High Court (Sachdeva, J.)

exercising revisionary jurisdiction which had been invoked. The appellant

appealed against the High Court decision and it was held that where all persons

concerned are aware that a private prosecution and the parties are represented

by counsel, if no objection is raised to the absence of formal permission from

11 Ibid

12 See decisions in the unreported cases of Raila Odinga v Prof. George Saitoti & Others. Misc.

Application No. 31 of 1995; Kamlesh Mansukhlal Pattni v Republic. Criminal Appeal No. 88 of 1995;

R (Through Joseph Kairu Mbugua & 2 others) v William Rongurwa Ole Ntimama, Private Prosecution

Case No. 13 of 1995.

R (Through Afro Travels Ltd) v A. K. Holdings Ltd, Trust Bank. Ltd, Ajay Shah , Criminal Revision

Case No. 56 of 1995. . R v Eric Arap Kotut &5 Others Private Prosecution No. 1 of 1994,

Republic (through James Orengo & 7 others) v Rashid Sajjad & 4 others. Misc. Appl. No. 37 of 1997

(28/8/1997)

Republic (through James Orengo) vs Rashid Sajjad & 13 others, Misc. Appl. No. 41 of 1997 (22/9/97)

13 [1978] KLR 178


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D. LIMITATION OF TIME

Justice delayed is justice denied is a legal maxim but there is no legal

prescription for the period constitutes "delay" in criminal cases nor is there any

provision for redress of "denial" of justice due to delay, however, the

constitution provides that such prosecution must commence within reasonable

time. Section 77(1) of the Constitution of Kenya provides that;

"If a person is charged with a criminal offence, then, unless the

charge is withdrawn, the case shall be afforded a fair bearing

within a reasonable time by an independent and impartial court

established by law".

The question has always been: What period of time constitutes "reasonable"

time? In general criminal prosecutors are never time barred except in special

circumstances such as contemplated under section 219 of the Criminal

Procedure Code which provides;-

"Except where a longer time is specifically allowed by law, no

offence the maximum punishment for which does not exceed

imprisonment for six months, or a fine of one thousand shillings,

or both, shall be triable by a surbodinate court unless the

charge or complaint relating to it is laid within twelve monthsfrom the time when the matter of the charge or complaint

arose".

The absence of time limit notwithstanding, criminal prosecution must be

initiated promptly and without undue delay. This is because, any criminal

prosecution is generally presumed to have the object of harmonizing the society

and ridding it of activities perilous to social good. It would therefore defeat the


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intention of good government, to bring in prosecution founded on a crime

whose peril has waned due to the passage of time. In the words of Lord

Shawcross, Britains Chief Prosecutor at the Nuremberg trial of Nazi war

criminals, evidence given after a long lapse of time would be "unsafe after four

weeks and hopeless after 40 years14". Such prosecution, may be construed to

pursue not the establishment of peace and tranquility, but execution of personal,

social or political vendetta and as the court observed in the case of Rv- Gray

Justices ex par te Graham15

:

"In our opinion, delay of itself, with nothing more, if sufficiently

prolonged, could in some cases be such as to render criminal

proceedings brought long after the events said to constitute the

offence both vexatious and an abuse..."

There are, however, certain instances when institution of criminal

proceedings against a suspect might be withheld for a long time whileinvestigations are carried out. Morally, this is a better alternative to arresting a

suspect and keeping him in remand under the pretext that investigations are still

being carried out. But it offers no excuse for a prosecution to be brought against

a person after a period of time when even some of the prosecution witnesses

have died, and others can hardly remember what actually took place. Such

action may prejudice an accused person to the extent that his constitutionalrights under section 77 of the Constitution are abused. In the case of Stanley

Munga Githungurivs- R16, the High Court of Kenya stated.:-

"There is no time l imit to the prosecution of serious offences

14 See The Times,May 13, 1991, P53

15 (1982)3 All ER, at 65316

Miscellaneous Application No. 2 of 1985, High Court, Nairobi, unreported.


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except where a limitation is imposed by statute....In so far as the

time limit is concerned the Attorney General is therefore free to

prosecute provided he does not offend the fundamental rights

conferred by section 77(1) as protected by section 84(1) of the

Constitution".

The underlying principle in the above case is that the prosecution must be

brought within a reasonable time. Although the issue of "reasonable" time is to

be judged by the circumstances surrounding each particular case, courts will

generally be reluctant to entertain delayed prosecutions in absence of proper

explanation for the delay. The delay itself must be reasonable.

CONCLUSION

The following points are demonstrable from the foregoing that:-

(i) The state through the Attorney-General, has an overall and residuary

control over all criminal prosecutions in Kenya. This has its basis both in the

Constitution and the Criminal Procedure Code. It is however more pronounced

in criminal appeals.

(ii) In cases in which a public prosecutor (the Attorney-General) does notwish to commence criminal proceedings, a special provision is made

under sections 88 and 89 of the Criminal Procedure Code to enable a

private individual to institute criminal proceedings by a complaint made

to the Magistrate. Before the Magistrate grants permission for private

prosecution, he must be satisfied that prima facie the commission of an

offence has been disclosed and the complaint is neither frivolous nor

vexatious.


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(iii) The right to private prosecution is a constitutional safeguard against

inertia or partiality on the part of authority and it is the best legal check

against corruptible laxity on the part of the state to initiate criminal

proceedings against suspected offenders.

(iv) Although permission of the Magistrate is a statutory requirement before a

private prosecution is commenced, such prosecution is not rendered invalid for

want of permission of the Magistrate. Provided that no objection is raised to the

absence of formal permission from the Magistrate to the institution of such

proceedings until after the close of the prosecution case, such permission may

properly be inferred from the fact that the trial has been allowed to proceed this

far.

(v) The underlying principle of private prosecution is that the Private

Prosecutor must have a locus standi such that his complaint is not onemerely founded on political or other personal considerations.


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CHAPTER TWO

METHODS OF CONTROLLING PROSECUTIONS

A. INTRODUCTION

The power of controlling prosecutions is vested in the Attorney General under

section 26(3) of the Constitution.1 The major methods of control are the

instruments of nolle prosequi and withdrawal. The former entitles the Attorney

General to take over and continue any criminal proceedings and the latter

empowers him to withdraw proceedings at any stage before judgment is

delivered.

B. NOLLE PROSEQUI

A Nolle Prosequi is a statement that the Republic intends to discontinue the

proceedings and is entered by the Attorney-General. In the case of crispus

nj ogu-vs-the attorney general2 a nolle prosequi was defined to mean :

A Nolle Prosequi is procedural device which has its origins in English

Common Law. Under English Constitutional System the monarch is theconstitutional head of the courts.

The powers to commence and terminate proceedings lies with the

1 See the Constitution of Kenya (1998) 1992. Text See also Chapter 1, Supra. The government has created the

office of the Director of Public Prosecutions (DPP) but this has not removed the Attorney-General from his

position as the overall in charge of prosecutions. It is arguable that the office of DPP as currently constituted is no

more than an administrative office and should not be confused with the office of the DPP in a place like England

where the DPP actually directs prosecutions2 High Court of Kenya, Criminal application No. 39 of 2000


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monarch. A nolle prosequibecomes merely a procedural device through

which the monarch can exercise her prerogative powers to end criminal

criminal proc. - p. l. o. lumumba

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