Critical Thinking Thinking is a purposeful mental activity—you

control it… Thinking is a two-sided activity—first you

produce ideas and then you evaluate them… Producing ideas widens your focus (resist the

temptation to settle for a few familiar ideas). Evaluating narrows your focus. Sort the

ideas, identify the most reasonable ones.

Why critical thinking is important Success in work depends on

thinking skills. It isn’t enough to possess

knowledge but you must be able to apply information to your job.

Critical thinking is a reliable way of searching for the truth.

Facts and Opinions Facts are realities; opinions are

beliefs or judgments. Opinions may fit the facts or be in

error. Even the greatest experts sometimes

hold incorrect opinions. That is why research is so important

in every subject area—it confirms some opinions and disproves others.

Forming Opinions Critical thinkers realize how easy it is to

be mistaken so they form their opinions with care.

They revise their opinions, even cherished ones, whenever they prove to be in error.

There is no shame in being wrong, but problems occur when we stubbornly cling to a mistaken view.

Recognizing facts & opinions Fact: Babe Ruth was a famous

baseball player. Opinion: Smoking should be

banned in all public places. Fact: Camel’s hair brushes are

made of Siberian squirrel fir. Opinion: Eyewitness testimony is

generally unreliable.

Separating facts & opinions1) If you state a fact that is not common

knowledge, or that can’t be easily verified, briefly state where you got your information.

2) If you state an opinion—a view others might disagree with, include answers to questions others might ask.

3) If you are not sure whether a statement is a fact or an opinion, treat it as an opinion.

Opinion versus personal preference… Often confusing to many people. Example: “Comic books are as instructive

about life as novels are.” When asked what evidence exists that

comic books are so instructive, they don’t have an answer…

Preferences don’t need to be defended as long as they are expressed as preferences. (If we express them as opinions, don’t be surprised if others challenge them.

Basic Approach to Critical Thinking

Step One: Decide what you think and why you think it.

Step Two: Seek other views and more evidence.

Step Three: Decide which view is most reasonable.

Step One Begin by deciding what your position is on

the issue in question. (Putting this decision in writing can help. Don’t be discouraged if this takes several attempts.)

Ask yourself what evidence do you have to support your view?

Are there other conclusions possible? Answer these questions as completely as

you can. (You might list them rather than write full sentences.)

Step Two Other viewpoints help you test your

view and discover your biases. You gain additional insights by looking

at new ideas. Gather ideas from multiple sources:

libraries, instructors, or experts in the field.

Look at ideas that both agree and disagree with your viewpoint.

Step Three Measure your view and the views

of others against the evidence. Decide which one is the most

reasonable based on the evidence. Research will often prove your

viewpoint. If it always proves your viewpoint, you may be twisting the evidence to meet your needs…

Critical Reading Strategies

1) Choose your time and place2) Read actively (ask questions/seek

answers)3) Concentrate on the task4) Write a summary (in your own

words; emphasize key points; & write accurately)

5) Reflect on the ideas

Critical Thinking & Writing Critical thinking provides the ideas

for writing, and writing stimulates more ideas.

Allow time for reflection every day. Focus on discovering ideas. Be open to ideas at other times.

Expressing your thoughts for others Complete the thinking process first.

Discovery writing is part of the

thinking process—you produce rather than communicate ideas.

Use your viewpoint as your controlling idea.

Choose a suitable organization.

Expressing your thoughts for others - continued1) Introduction2) Your controlling idea3) Your first argument for this idea and

supporting evidence4) Your second argument and supporting

evidence5) Your third argument (if you have one)

and supporting evidence6) Conclusion

Expressing your thoughts for others - continued Support your view with evidence Be exact, but lively. (Choose word

that convey your idea exactly.) Break your thoughts into paragraphs. Use standard punctuation and

observe conventions of grammar and usage. (The Department of Health Studies uses APA format for most papers.)

Characteristics of Critical Thinkers Know their own minds. Are honest with themselves. Acknowledge all truths—even unpleasant

ones. Accept responsibility and accountability for

their actions. Accept sound arguments—even if that means

rejecting their own. Critical thinkers overcome confusion and ask

questions. They base their judgments on evidence.

Characteristics of Critical Thinkers - continued They base their judgments on

evidence. They resist manipulation. They look for connections between

subjects. They balance their thinking. Critical thinkers are intellectually

independent.

Recognizing and avoiding errors

Three types of broad errors in critical thinking

Errors of Perception Errors of Judgment Errors of Reaction

Perception Errors Faulty ways of seeing reality—

preventing us from being open-minded even before we begin to think.

“Mine is better” thinking Selective Perception—focusing on

different things.

Perception Errors - continued Pretending to know Resistance to change Either/or thinking (Example

Evolution versus Creation Theories)

Judgment Errors Over generalizing or stereotyping Hasty conclusion Unwarranted assumption

(assumptions: ideas that are taken for granted) Example: if something appears in print, it must be true.

Failure to make a distinction

Judgment Errors - continued Distinctions are subtle differences among

things. Distinguish between the person and the

idea. Example: Critical thinkers judge an idea on its own merits—not on the celebrity status or expertise of the person expressing it

Distinguish between familiarity and validity. It’s easy to believe that reasoning is valid because we’ve heard it many times.

Judgment Errors – continued

Distinguish between “often” and “always,” “seldom” and “never.”

Oversimplification differs from simplification. It omits essential information or ignores complexity. It distorts reality and confuses discussion.

Errors of Reaction Explaining Away (Example: Marijuana

Use—users feel the studies are wrong because they have smoked for years and it’s had no effect on them…”

Shifting the burden of proof. When you make an assertion, you might have to defend it. If you find you can’t, avoid shifting the burden of proof to others but instead withdraw the assertion.

Reaction Errors - continued Attacking the person. “You have

no business lecturing me about…” Instead focus on the idea than the

person. Be flexible and be willing to admit

a mistake.

Argument Solving Steps Find the Controlling Idea—the idea

that is the most reasonable. Usually stated right after the introduction.

Read the Article (while keeping the controlling idea in mind.)

Identify Relationships (more info next slide)

Write a Summary

Identify Relationships And relationships signal that what

follows adds to what preceded. (Words like also, first, in addition, next, further, and, moreover, finally, lastly, besides and another.)

But relationships signal what follows contrasts with what preceded. (Words like however, nevertheless, yet, or, but, on the other hand, and in contrast.

Identify Relationships - continued

Therefore relationships signal that a conclusion is being made about the preceding evidence. (Words like so, consequently, accordingly, thus, therefore, and it follows that.)

Coping with Complexity Overcome confusion by dealing

with one sub-issue at a time. Begin by making a spreadsheet.

Put the names of the authorities across the top of the page and the sub-issues down the left-side. Then indicate each authority’s view on each sub-issue

Medical Doctor

Health Teacher

Dietician

Dieter

Is the Adkins Diet safe?

No No No Yes

Is it costly?

Yes ???? Yes No

Does it work?

No Yes ???? Yes

Complexity - continued Chart the sub-issues Look for the disagreements Look at the evidence for those sub-issues

—then decide who makes the best persuasive case for that issue (don’t assume that any authority is right on every issue!)

Use your decisions on the sub-issues to determine your overall view of the issue.

Evaluating Your Own Views Step 1: Decide what you think and

why you think it. Step 2: Seek other views and more

evidence. Step 3: Evaluate the various views. Step 4: Construct the most

reasonable view

Process Original View Significant ideas discovered in the

investigation/research process Revised View

Evaluating Others’ Views Step 1: Understand the other person’s

view. (Withholding all judgment) Step 2: Seek other views and more

evidence. Step 3: Evaluate the various views.

(Pros & Cons—may want to chart) Step 4: Construct the most reasonable

view. (If no one view proves to be fully reasonable, then construct a view by combining parts of the views.)

Propaganda Techniques Bandwagon-creates the impression

that everyone is doing something or buying something. It appeals to the urge to conform.

Glittering Generality – Using words or phrases to imply excellence or uniqueness. “Amazing new discovery”

Techniques - continued Empty Comparison – Uses words

like “bigger,” “better,” or “more.” Used to make statements that seem to make a serious claim—yet you can’t hold the advertiser responsible because you can’t tell exactly what is being claimed. Bigger or better than what?

Techniques - continued Meaningless Slogan – designed to create

a positive impression. “Fly the friendly skies” is designed to associate United Airlines with friendliness. Aimed at associating a business with a particular idea or concept.

Testimonial – an endorsement for a product or service lending their credibility and celebrity status to products.

Techniques - continued Transfer Voice-over – even if the viewer

cannot name the speaker, the voice may be familiar and make the message more appealing.

Objects – Statue of Liberty or American Flag—showing the symbols arouses strong positive feelings in many people.

Techniques - continued Party Scene – where we see people

enjoying themselves. The product may be shown as creating a good time. The product may just be included in the scene but still leaves an impression…

Use critical thinking skills to identify propaganda not only in media but also in writing styles.

Credits All the information for this

PowerPoint came from the book Critical Thinking by Vincent Ryan Ruggiero. The book was designed as a supplement to the “Becoming A Master Student” Program.