critiquing big data

7/25/2019 Critiquing Big Data

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Critiquing Big Data: Politics, Ethics, Epistemology

Special Section Introduction

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capacities: that the steady drumbeat of Moores Law, the doubling of integrated circuits every two years,

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interlinked. Apaches Hadoop, a common big data platform that utilizes distributed nodes to act as

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data (Cox & Ellsworth, 1997, ?J 3:>7J

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for the logical analysis of large collections of factual data. In November 19678 #E( 0(/?,#$% L0'$"#'L#L

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data remain expensive and limited and storage remains problematic. Jonathan Sterne notes that further

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If we are to reject the claim that the big data moment has been precipitated by technology

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can be seen in city billboards promoting big data solutions, at highly profitable big data conferences, and

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argue that at sufficient scale, data is enough; statistical algorithms find patterns where science cannot

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Another way to consider the why now? question is to ask '#& &"F '#-. 'L L,OT$0#$F #(analysis. For decades, the informatics of domination have been focused and tested on historically

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data tools should be used. How can data be gathered without peoples knowledge or consent and still

meet the ethical obligation to treat people with justice, beneficence, and respect, as the Belmont Rep(%#

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A#$0*10, Pentland (2014) outlines his goal to gather the digital bread crumbs we all leave behind as we

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?%$F'0# EB( 'L /(%$ )'_$)@ #( A$# F'&betes and whether someone is the sort of person who will pay back

loans (p. 7). In his view, big data brings us closer to a probabilistic universe where human behavior can

be predicted from metadata, to build a society that is better at avoiding market 0%&LB$L8 $#B"'0 &"F

religious violence, political stalemates, widespread corruption, and dangerous concentrations of power (p.

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ways that do not register as digital signals. It is big datas opacity#( (,#L'F$%L &"F L,OL$^,$"# 0)&'/L #(

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?()'0y makers traversing the complex world of social phenomena. In Will Davies (2013) terms, data is

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CD$;&7&%, a collection edited by Lisa Gitelman (2013), takes up this question by examining the

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From a research perspective, boyd and Crawford (2011) have noted the divide between the Big

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Big Data poor (those excluded from access to the data, expertise, and processing power), highlighting

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thinking about data and putting it to use. It argues that big data mining privileges correlation and

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14/32

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Vs: volume, velocity, and variety (IBM, 2012A B&'&G


15/32

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also operate at a probabilistic level. In this regard, the assertion that data mining augers a future in

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When you are doing this kind of analytics, which is called big data, you are looking at

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cant tell you what one shopper is going to do, but I can tell you with 90 percent

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information technologies is one of degree, not of kind, that they simply make more efficient more

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useful knowledge available to those with and without access to the database.

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16/32

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!"#$%"'("&) +(,%"&) (- .(//,"'0'(" 1 234567 89$ :'; Crawford met this claim with a resounding no [2011, p. 4]).

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theory sidelined by Anderson are needed to address. Andersons article is simp )E & L,'0ND9'# /&;&R'"$

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With these qualifications in mind, the substance of Andersons claim is more narrowly

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data mining and microDtargeting has renewed the salience of a bit of political wisdom discovered early in

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to vote Republican than owners of any other kind of automobile (Gertner, 2004 C H&%&I 537I YB ("$

consultant put it, We never had the money or the technology to make anything of it . . . but o - 0(,%B$

they do now (ib'>I7I

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,">$%)E'"; $QH)&"'("C B9(,)> #9$%$ J$ ("$I YB Y">$%B(" 23441C H&%&I 1) pointed out, Who knows why

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fidelity.

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with correlation and prediction. What is known is not an underlying cause or explanation but rather a set

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mining textbook observed, as the world;%(MB '" 0(/H)$Q'#EC (=$%M9$)/'"; ,B M'#9 #9$ >& '# ;$"$%$BC

data mining becomes our only hope for elucidating the patterns that underlie it (Chakrabarti, 2009, p.

32). Perhaps unsurprisingly, considering commercial databases central role in its dev$)(H/$"#C #9$ ;(&)B


18/32

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conceivable. McCues (2007) textbook on predictive policing frames the goal in 3-(:B 48 +'304+'5 B-17(03C

and military advantage: 28 )+4J5-,?- 0B D4J-(H 3@-+ 84(-)+4J5-,?- K/0' D(-,0130/- '+'5C301BL 1'+ G- B--+

as battlespace dominance or supremacy (p. 48).MITs big data guru Alex Pentland, who coined the term

reality mining to ,-B1(0G- 3@- G(-',3@ '+, ,-D3@ 48 +-J 84(:B 48 ,'3' 1'D37(-H '+3010D'3-B 3@'3 0+B0?@3B

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But even these salutary scenarios belie the leveling promise of networked digital technology.

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is the thrust of Andersons account of the end of theory: that understandi +? 3@- J4(5, 3@(47?@ 3@-1'(-875H .7,01047BH '+, 0+84(:-, B37,C 48 '/'05'G5- 0+84(:'304+ 0BH 84( ' ?(4J0+? ('+?- 48 'DD501'304+BH

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knowledge that provide an advantage of some kind and that are not just unavailable to the vast majoritC

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technology, still bigger data will remain beyond their reach, available only to those with the resources to

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19/32

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/&I'";G '"0),>'";G -(% $@&/A)$G D9$#9$% #9$H /';9# E$ 0("C'>$%$> & C$0,%'#H %'CIG & ;((> (% E&> J(EA%(CA$0#G & 0%$>'# %'CIG (% /(%$ (% )$CC )'I$)H #( >%(A (,# (- C09(()FF .("C'>$%G -(% '"C#&"0$G #9$ -'">'"; #9

people who fill out online job applications using browsers that did not come with the computer . . . but

9&> #( E$ >$)'E$%$)H '"C#&))$d (like Firefox or Googles Chrome) perform better and change jobs less

often (Robot Recruiters, 2013G A&%&F 37F 89$ -'">'"; 'C ,"$@A)&'"$> &"> ,")'I$)H #( E$ &"#'0'A$> EH #9$

&AA)'0&"#C #9$/C$)=$CG E,# '# 0&" C';"'-'0&"#)H &--$0# #9$'% )'=$C "$=$%#9$)$CCF KC #9'C $@&/A)$ C,;;$C#CG #9$

-(%/C (- C(0'&) C(%#'"; &CC(0'$> D'#9 E'; >& /'"'"; D')) %&";$ -&% E$H("> #9$ /&%I$#'"; %$&)/G -$$>'";

'"#( #9$ >$0'C'("L/&I'"; A%(0$CC$C (- #9(C$ D'#9 &00$CC #( #9$ '"-(%/'(" '# A%(='>$C &"> #9$%$EH

&))(D'"; #9$/ #( &--$0# #9$ )'-$ 09&"0$C (- (#9$%C '" '"0%$&C'";)H (A&B,$ E,# C';"'-'0&"# D&HCF

M9$%$&C '# /&H C#')) E$ A(CC'E)$ #( '"#,'#'=$)H ;%&CA #9$ )'"I E$#D$$"G -(% $@&/A)$G & A&%#'0,)&%

E%&"> (- 0&% &"> & A()'#'0&) A%$-$%$"0$G #9$ A%(/'C$ (- >& /'"'"; 'C #( ,"$&%#9 0(%%$)'("C E$H("> #9$

%$&)/ (- C,09 '/&;'"'";F N$=$%C$ $";'"$$%'"; &" &);(%'#9/'0 >$#$%/'"'(" 0&" %$B,'%$ &C /,09 $@A$%#'C$&C ;$"$%'"; '# '" #9$ -'%C# A)&0$G &"> #9$ %$C,)#C /&H 9&=$ "( >'%$0# $@A)&"(%H A(D$%F M9$" 0(%%$)'("

>'CA)&0$C 0&,C&)'#H (% $@A)&"'("G #9$ ;(&) 'C #( &00,/,)$ &C 0(/A%$9$"C'=$ &"> =&%'$> & >&E&C$ &C

A(CC'E)$ #( ;$"$%$ #%,)H C,%A%'C'";G "("L'"#,'#'=$ %$C,)#CF O$%9&AC & A&%#'0,)&% 0(/E'"'(" (- $'";

9&E'#CG D$$% A#$%"CG &"> ;$(;%&A9'0 )(0'(" 0(%%$)$C D'#9 & #$">$"0H #( A$%-(%/ A((%)H '" &

A&%#'0,)&% J(E (% C,C0$A#'E')'#H #( & 09%("'0 '))"$CC #9 #9%$$"C $/A)(H&E')'#HF 89$%$ /&H "(# E$ &"H

,">$%)H'"; $@A)&"'(" E$H("> #9$ A#$%" '#C$)-F

89$ E&C'C -(% #9$ I'"> (- C(%#'"; $"='C'("$> ='& E'; >& /'"'"; 'C )'I$)H #( E$0(/$ '"0%$&C'";)H

(EC0,%$ '" >'%$0# A%(A(%#'(" #( #9$ C'P$ &"> C0(A$ (- #9$ &=&')&E)$ >& &"> #9$ C(A9'C#'0'(" (- #9$

#$09"'B,$C ,C$> #( /'"$ '#F K# & %$0$"# /$$#'"; (- #9$ Q%;&"'C'(" -(% R0("(/'0 .(L(A$%'(" &">

$%C#&">

-,))H D9 'C ;('"; (" #9$%$F 2+F U&$C)$%G A$%C("&) 0(//,"'0'("G V$E%,&%H 3?G 345S7

8( "(#$ #9$C$ 09&%&0#$%'C#'0C (- >& /'"'"; 'C "(# #( >'C0(,"# #9$ A(#$"#'&) E$"$-'#C (- '#C &"#'0'A$>

E$"$=()$"# ,C$CF W$# #9$ C9&>(D (- %'("&)'P'(" E$#(I$"C &CH//$#%'0&) 0("#%()T & D(%)> '" D9'09 A$(A)$

&%$ C(%#$> '/A(%#&"# )'-$ /(/$"#C &00(%>'"; #( ;$"$#'0G >$/(;%&A9'0G ;$(L)(0'("&)G &"> A%$='(,C)H

,"&"#'0'A$> #HA$C (- >& '" D&HC #9 %$/&'" (A&B,$ &"> '"&00$CC'E)$ #( #9(C$ D9( &%$ &--$0#$>F !"

C(/$ '"C#&"0$CG #9'C 'C C,%$)H >$C'%&E)$T D9$"G -(% $@&/A)$G & /$>'0&) '"#$%=$"#'(" 'C #%';;$%$> J,C# '"

#'/$ #( &=('> /(%$ C$=$%$ 0(/A)'0'("CF K# #9$ C&/$ #'/$G '# 'C $&CH #( '/&;'"$ D&HC '" D9'09 #9'C #HA$

(- A%$L$/A#'=$ /(>$))'";D9 M'))'&/ :(;&%> 25XX?G AF 5) has called the simulation of surveillance

0&" E$ &E,C$>F !/&;'"$G -(% $@&/A)$ & D(%)> '" D9'09 A%'=$ 9$&)#9 '"C,%$%C /'"$ 0)'$"# >& '" &"

#$/A# #( 0&"0$) 0(=$%&;$ J,C# '" #'/$ #( &=('> 9&='"; #( 0(=$% /&J(% /$>'0&) $@A$"C$CF


20/32

!"#$ &'() *+,(-.-/01 2+3-(+'304+'5 647(+'5 48 94::7+01'304+ #;$

!"#$ &'()*' +#*, -.(/$ !"'0 +"'1 +#*, -.(/$ &234#51

?@- 'AA'(-+3 14+3(',01304+B 0+ A7C501 '33037,-B 34D'(, A-(B4+'5E,'3' 1455-1304+ (-B45/- B4:-D@'3D@-+ /0-D-, 'F'0+B3 3@0B '1147+3 48 3@- C0F ,'3' ,0/0,- '+, 03B ,-80+0+F '33(0C73-BG ?@4B- D@4 .7,F-

A-4A5- B45-5H CH 3@-0( '1304+B :'H 14+157,-I 84( -J':A5-I 3@'3Ithe average American finds a very healthy

'11-A3'C5- C'5'+1- C-3D--+ A(0/'1H '+, 14+/-+0-+1-I 3@-H F0/- 7A B4:- A(0/'1H '+, F-3 ' 543 48

convenience (Oppmann, 2010I A'('G !!>G ?@0B 8(':0+F 48 3@- -J1@'+F- 'BB7:-B A-4A5- '(- 'D'(- 48 3@-

3-(:B 48 3@- 3(',-E488 '+, 03 14+B3(7-B '1K70-B1-+1- 34 A(-EB3(7137(-, 3-(:B 48 '11-BB 'B 3'+3':47+3 34 '

(-',H -:C('1- 48 3@4B- 3-(:BG L+ 154B-( -J':0+'304+I B71@ 'BB7:A304+B 8'55 B@4(3G ?@- +4304+ 48 0+84(:-,

14+B-+3 0B ' /-J-, 4+- 0+ 3@- 4+50+- 14+3-J3I A'(35H C-1'7B- 8-D A-4A5- (-', 3@- 3-(:B 48 7B- 3@-H 'F(--

34 7A4+ .40+0+F 4( B0F+0+F 0+G M-B-'(1@ 0+,01'3-B 3@'3 3@- /'B3 :'.4(03H 48 7B-(B 4+5H B)0: A(0/'1H A45010-B

or skip them altogether (e.g., Regulators Demand, 2009; Turow, &7550F'+I N O448+'F5-I $

survey of 1,100 people about Australians attitudes toward the collection and use of their personal

0+84(:'304+GU?@- B7(/-H (-B753B A'('55-5-, (-B-'(1@ 0+ 43@-( 147+3(0-B 0+,01'30+F ' @0F@ 5-/-5 48 14+1-(+

U?@-B- B7(/-H 80+,0+FB '(- C'B-, 4+ ' +'304+'5 3-5-A@4+- B7(/-H 14+,713-, D03@ *V !I!


21/32

!"#$%"'("&) +(,%"&) (- .(//,"'0'(" 1 234567 89$ :'; '"; & >(L"(#L#%&0M (C#'(" 2F3G B,CC(%#7K & %$N,'%$/$"# #( >$)$#$ C$%B("&)>& ,C(" %$N,$B# 2F?G B,CC(%#7K &"> %$&)L#'/$ "(#'-'0'(" (- #%&0M'"; 2FEG B,CC(%#7I OP$)) (=$% 9&)- (-

#9$ %$BC(">$"#B 2E?G7 B&'> #9$J (CC(B$> 0,B#(/'Q$> &>=$%#'B'"; A&B$> (" #%&0M'";I 89$ B,%=$J %$B,)#B

&)B( '">'0$> #9 C$(C)$ &%$ C&)C&A)J &H&%$ #9 #9$J M"(H )'##)$ &A(,# 9(H #9$'% '"-(%/'(" 'B ,B$>D

O@G (- %$BC(">$"#B B&'> #9$J "$$>$> #( M"(H /(%$ &A(,# #9$ H&JB H$AB'#$B 0())$0# &"> ,B$ #9$'%

'"-(%/'("I1

8hese findings represent a particular type of big data divide, not between researchers with

access to the data and those without, but between sorters and sortees#9 'BK "(# A$#H$$" #9(B$ H9(

0(/C%$9$"> #9$ 0(%%$)'("B &"> #9(B$ H9( >( "(#K A,# A$#H$$" #9(B$ H9( &%$ &A)$ #( $R#%&0# &"> ,B$

,"L&"#'0'C&A)$ &"> '"$RC)'0&A)$ 2&B >$B0%'A$> &A(=$7 -'">'";B &"> #9(B$ H9( -'"> #9$'% )'=$B &--$0#$> AJ

#9$ %$B,)#'"; >$0'B'("BI 89'B -(%/,)'(" 0&" &'> 0("B'>$%'(" (- #9$ H&JB #9 #9$ C(B#LB,%=$J -'">'";B

-%(/ #9$ -())(HL,C -(0,B ;%(,CB 09&))$";$ #9$ >(/'"&"# -%&/'"; (- 'BB,$B '" 0("#$/C(%&%J >'B0,BB'("B (-privacy. One repeatedly mobilized frame is perhaps best summed up by Eric Schmidts notorious

observation: !- J(, 9&=$ B(/$#9'"; #9 J(, dont want anyon$ #( M"(HK maybe you shouldnt be doing'#

in the first place (and his subsequent, related assurance that if you dont have anything to hide, you

have nothing to fear) (:%&>)$JK 3453K C&%&I @SGoogle CEO on Privacy, 2010K C&%&I 5). Gmails role in

#9%$$ B'#$B &0%(BB T,B#%&)'& 2U$)A(,%"$K VJ>"$JK &"> :%'BA&"$7I W$0%,'#$> %&">(/)J '" C,A)'0 BC&0$B -(%

@4L #( 6EL/'",#$ >'B0,BB'("BK %$BC(">$"#B H$%$ B0%$$"$> #( '"0),>$ (")J $RC$%'$"0$> !"#$%"$# ,B$%BI 89$

C%$)'/'"&%J '"#$%='$H B&/C)$ BM$HB J(,"; &"> -$/&)$K 0("B'B#'"; (- 5F -$/&)$ %$BC(">$"#B &"> 1 /&)$

%$BC(">$"#BK &)) A$#H$$" #9$ &;$B (- 5F &"> @OI TB #9$ C%(X$0# >$=$)(CBK %$BC(">$"#B H')) A$ B$)$0#$> #(

0(,"#$% #9'B BM$HI Y(0,B ;%(,C C&%#'0'C&"#B H$%$ B'/')&%)J %$0%,'#$> '" C,A)'0 BC&0$B #9$ #9%$$ %$B$&%09

B'#$B &"> %$0$'=$> & Z34 '8,"$B ;'-# 0&%> #( C&%#'0'C$ '" & E4L/'",#$ ;%(,C >'B0,BB'("I T B'/')&% BM$H

&CC)'$B #( #9$ -(0,B ;%(,C C&%#'0'C&"#BD 5? H(/$" &"> ? /$"K &;$B 34@5I 89$ -(0,B ;%(,C B#%,0#,%$ H&B

#$B#$> (" B#,>$"#B '" &" ,">$%;%&>,$ B$/'"&%K &"> B(/$ (- #9$'% 0(//$"#B H$%$ '"0),>$>I?Actual survey question: 89'"M'"; "(H &A(,# #9$ C$%B("&) '"-(%/'(" ;$%$> AJ [\]!\^ 0(/C&"'$B

&A(,# #9$'% 0("B,/$%BK H(,)> J(, B&J #9$J ;$% #(( /,09K &A(,# #9$ %';9# &/(,"# (% "(# $"(,;9

information?OV,%=$J N,$B#'("BD

$)$#$ &))

B#(%$> '"-(%/'(" &A(,# &" '">'='>,&)K '- %$N,$B#$> #( >( B(_

3I 89$%$ B9ould be a law requiring Web sites and applications to provide a doL"(#Ltrack

(C#'(" #9 H(,)> C%$=$"# #9$/ -%(/ ;$%'"; '"-(%/'(" &A(,# C$(C)$_

@I 89$%$ B9(,)> A$ & )&H %$N,'%'"; 0(/C&"'$B #( "(#'-J C$(C)$ #9$ #'/$ H9$" #9$J 0())$0#

>& &A(,# #9$/ (")'"$_1Survey question: `(H H(,)> J(, >$B0%'A$ J(,% ,">$%B#&">'"; (- #9$ H&JB '" H9'09 0(/C&"'$B 0())$0#

&"> ,B$ #9$ '"-(%/'(" #9$J ;$% &A(,# C$(C)$ (")'"$_ J M"(H &B /,09 &B

J(, "$$> #( M"(H &A(,# H9 0(/C&"'$B >( '" #9'B %$;&%> (% "$$> #( M"(H /(%$ &A(,# H9 0(/C&"'$B

do in this regard?


22/32

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3?- ,4@+8'55 48 ABCB D-+-('5 E-3('-7F 5-+3 3?-F- (-:'()F ' 1-(3'0+ F'50-+1-G H73 3?-I ,4 +43 (-85-13 3?-

14+1-(+F 48 :4F3 (-FJ4+,-+3FG @?4 -:J?'F0K- 3?'3 @?-(-'F :71? 48 3?- 0+84(:'304+ 3?-I F?'(- ;'+, 3?'3

0F 1455-13-, 'H473 3?-:> 0F :7+,'+-G 3?-I F3055 ,0F50)- H-0+L 14:J-55-, 34 F?'(- 03B

M+- 8417F L(47J J'(3010J'+3G 84( -N':J5-G 7F-, .7F3 4+- @4(, 0+ (-FJ4+F- 34 14+1-(+F 'H473 3?-

collection and use of personal information: powerless. C-/-('5 43?-(F 0+ 3?- F-/-+OJ-(F4+ ,0F17FF04+

L(47J 0+,01'3-, 3?-I ?', '5F4 @(033-+ ,4@+ J4@-(5-FF 0+ 3?-0( ,0F17FF04+ +43-FB *+43?-( J'(3010J'+3

1?0:-, 0+G

P47 .7F3 8--5 473 48 14+3(45 48 @?'3 J-4J5- 1'+ )+4@ 'H473 I47B 23 (-0+84(1-F @?'3 3?-

@4(5, ?'F 14:- 34B 2 )+4@ 3?'3 0+ L-+-('5 I47 F?'(- ' 543 :4(- 3?'+ I47 7F-, 3 o, were

7F-, 34 3?'3B Q73 3?-+ 2 F3055 8--5 J4@-(5-FFB ;:'5-G

R?- 8417F L(47J J'(3010J'+3F (-J-'3-,5I 0+/4)-, ' 8--50+L 48 'FI::-3(I 3?'3 J'('55-5-, 3?0F F-+F- 48

J4@-(5-FF+-FFB *F 4+- (-FJ4+,-+3 :'0+3'0+-, 0+ ' 14+/-(F'304+ 3471?0+L 4+ -O:'05 '+, F410'5 +-3@4()0+LSIts not fair, its not transparent. Its funny because Facebook is supposed to be all about transparency,

and theyre the ones who arent transparent at all (female, 31). Another respondent explained how this

F-+F- 48 J4@-(5-FF+-FF 0+857-+1-, ?-( ,-10F04+ +43 34 (-', J(0/'1I J45010-FS

2 .7F3 1501) 'L(--G H-1'7F- @?'3 -5F- 1'+ 2 ,4T 2 3?0+) 3?'3 8(7F3('304+ F4:-30:-F .7F3

translates into: I wont even think about it, because what can I do? It [Facebook]

H-14:-F J'(3 48 ?4@ I47 14++-1t with people. Its really useful for your career, for your

choices in life. It doesnt mean you cant live without it, but living with it becomes

0:J4(3'+3B ;8-:'5-G

&4F3 (-FJ4+,-+3F -NJ(-FF-, 14+1-(+ '+, 8(7F3('304+ @03? 3?- 4+50+- 1455-1304+ 48 0+84(:'304+

'H473 3?-:G H73 ' 8-@ F'0, 3?-I @-(- 7+14+1-(+-, H-1'7F- 3?-(- @'F +43?0+L 3?-I 1475, ,4 'H473 03B *F4+- 8417F L(47J J'(3010J'+3 J73 03G

I dont see it as a threat . . . probably because I dont know much about it. . . . I cant

F-- 03 '88-130+L :- 0+ :I -/-(I,'I 508- H73 08 I47 3-55 :- 'H473 4+50+- J(0/'1I B B B 3?-+

Ill be thinking about it all the time. Im better off not knowing about it in the first place.

;:'5-G


23/32

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#9 A#$%$(#DH$ (% #9$D C')) 0%$$ &"(#9$% A#$%$(#DH$ -(% D(,E 2-$/&)$I 3@7

J=$%&))I 0("0$%" &B(,# &0#,&) 9&%/A 0&/$ &0%(AA )$AA =(0'-$%(,A)D #9&" >'> -%,A#%'(" (=$% &

A$"A$ (- H(C$%)$AA"$AA '" #9$ -&0$ (- '"0%$&A'";)D A(H9'A#'0$> &"> 0(/H%$9$"A'=$ -(%/A (- >&

0())$0#'(" &"> /'"'";E K(0,A ;%(,H H&%#'0'H&"#A ;$"$%&))D &;%$$> C'#9 %$AH("A$A $/H9&A'L'"; #9 #9'A

A$"A$ (- H(C$%)$AA"$AA $M#$">$> #( #9$'% )&0G (- G"(C)$>;$ (=$% 9(C H$%A("&) >& /';9# B$ ,A$>E NA

one respondent admitted, We really dont know where things collected about us gowe dont understand

9(C #9$D '"#$%&0# '" A,09 & 0(/H)$M $"=ironment (female, 22). Interview respondents and focus group

participants alike noted the seemingly endless appetite for personal data: Its not just what you want

its where you are, what you do. Its everything. Youre not free any more. Youre just a A)&=$ (- #9$A$

companies (male, 22). This may come across as hyperbolic, but nonetheless noteworthy is the stark

0("#%&A# B$#C$$" #9'A %$AH("A$ &"> #9$ %9$#(%'0 (- -%$$>(/I $/H(C$%/$"# &"> 0("=$"'$"0$ #9 9&A )(";

,">$%H'""$> #9$ H%(/(#'(" (- #9$ (")'"$ $0("(/DE 89$ 0("#%&A# 9';9)';9#A #9$ 09&))$";$ H(A$> BD #9$

H(C$% &AD//$#%'$A ,A9$%$> '" BD B'; >& /'"'";E

!"#$%&"'%& ') *+$ !","-$

This articles analysis suggests that the sense of powerlessness $MH%$AA$> BD #9$ -(0,A ;%(,H

%$AH(">$"#A (H$%$A '" )$&A# #C( >'/$"A'("AO #9 (- (C"$%A9'H &"> 0("#%() (=$% '"-(%/'(" &">

0(//,"'0'(" %$A(,%0$AI &"> #9 (- >'--$%$"# &HH%(&09$A #( G"(C)$>;$PB&A$> >$0'A'(" /&G'";E Q$(H)$

&%$ H&)H&B)D &C&%$ #9 H(C$%-,) 0(//$%0'&) '"#$%$A#A A9&H$ #9$ #$%/A (- &00$AA #9 $M#%&0# '"-(%/'("

-%(/ #9$/O #9$D /,A# 09((A$ $'#9$% #( &00$H# #9$ #$%/A (" (--$% (% #( ;( C'#9(,# %$A(,%0$A #9 '" /&"D

C&DA &%$ #%$$> &A ,#')'#'$A (- '"0%$&A'"; '/H(%#&"0$ '" #9$'% H$%A("&) &"> H%(-$AA'("&) )'=$AE R(C$=$%

&"> #9'A 'A &" '"#$%H%$#'=$I AH$0,)'=$ 0)&'/#9$ =$%D =&;,$"$AA 2B,# =(0'-$%(,A"$AA7 (- #9$'% 0("0$%"A

&B(,# '"-(%/'(" 0())$0#'(" /&D %$-)$0# #9$ A#%,0#,%&) ;&H '" #9$ B'; >& >'='>$O #9$ -&0# #9 ,A$%A (- B';

>& %$)D (" #9$ ,"&"#'0'H&B)$ &"> ,"P'"#,'#&B)$ 09&%&0#$% (- #9$'% -'">'";AE 89'A =&;,$"$AAI #9$"I 'A "(#necessarily an artifact of laziness or ignorance due to users failure to educate themselves about the

#$09"()(;'$A #9$D ,A$ 2(% #( %$&> )$;&)'A#'0I =&;,$ H%'=&0D H()'0'$A7 B,# /&D B$ & >$-'"'"; 09&%&0#$%'A#'0 (-

#9$ >& 0())$0#'(" A#%$;'$A #( C9'09 #9$D &%$ A,BS$0#$>E Q$(H)$ 0&" 9&%>)D B$ $MH$0#$> #( '/&;'"$ #9I

-(% $M&/H)$I #9$'% ,A$ (- & H&%#'0,)&% B%(CA$% /';9# %$">$% #9$/ /(%$ (% )$AA >$A'%&B)$ #( $/H)(D$%AI (%

#( $"='A'(" &)) #9$ H(AA'B)$ H#$%"A ;$"$%$> BD #9$ 0(/H)$M '"#$%H)&D (- #9(,A&">A (- =&%'&B)$A &B(,#

/'))'("A (- H$(H)$I H#$%"A #9 >&Pmining strategies have explicitly relegated to the realm of too big to

know or predict. As one respondent put it, you end up accepting having no priva0D C'#9(,# G"(C'"; #9$

consequences (male, 32).

!-I &A R$)$" T'AA$"B&,/ 2344U7 9&A 0(/H$))'";)D &%;,$>I H%'=&0D 'A 0("#$M#,&) 2B$0&,A$ (-

$A#&B)'A9$> $MH$0#'("A &AA(0'$> C'#9 H&%#'0,)&% '"-(%/'("P0())$0#'(" 0("#$M#A7I #9$" #9$ B'; >& $%&

09&))$";$A H$(H)$ to develop contextual norms for the use of data whose uses can be radically,,"H%$>'0#&B)D >$0("#$M#,&)'L$>E 89&"GA #( #9$ H%()'-$%'(" (- /("'#(%'"; #$09"()(;'$A 2)'0$"A$ H)$

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