crop productivity index cpi soil root shoot ...

CROP PRODUCTIVITY INDEXCPI

SOIL ROOT SHOOT

CROP YIELD

CPI = CROP PRODUCTIVITY INDEX RATING

Sumber:.

Crop Productivity Index (CPI) ratings provide a relative ranking of soils based on their potential for crop production.

An index can be used to rate the potential yield of one soil against another

over a period of time.


Sumber:.

Productivity Index (PI)

The PI is available in North Dakota, South Dakota and Minnesota.

The productivity index (PI) model is a derived measure of soil productivity.

The basic assumption of the PI model is that crop yield is a function of root development, which in

turn is controlled by the soil environment.

PRODUKSI TANAMAN = F(FAKTOR PERTUMBUHAN )

FAKTOR-FAKTOR PERTUMBUHAN TANAMAN

There are a lot of things that hinder or promote the growth of plants depending on the sources available

for their survival.

Learn more about what plants need in order to sustain themselves.

Read more at Buzzle: http://www.buzzle.com/articles/plant-growth-factors.html

http://www.buzzle.com/articles/plant-growth-factors.html

UNSUR HARA – PERTUMBUHAN TANAMAN

There are several aspects of plant nutrition, which need to be considered for better growth of plants.

The basic nutrients required for plant growth are divided into two main categories namely

micronutrients and macronutrients.




Air - Water A majority of growing plants contains as much as 90 percent water. Water is one of the most essential factors required in

growth of plants. Water plays a crucial role for efficient photosynthesis,

respiration, transpiration and transportation of minerals and other nutrients through the plant.

Air mempengaruhi proses membukanya stomata daun, dan merupakan sumber tegangan yg mengarahkan pertumbuhan

akar dalam tanah.


PRODUKSI TANAMAN = F( Air)


CAHAYA - LightAdequate light is perhaps one of the most important factors influencing plant

growth and it is he quantity, quality and duration of light exposure is what matters. Various light sources can be used to provide light to the plants and

the sources of light can be classified as natural and artificial sources. The natural source of light is the sun whereas the artificial sources include

various types of lighting equipment. Blue light is essential for the growth of the leaves whereas a combination of red and blue light promotes flowering

of plants. The artificial light sources can be manipulated to adjust the intensity of the light as well. While it is always good to rely on the natural

source of light, during extreme weather conditions and lack of sunlight artificial light is the best option.

Also there are certain plants, which require less light for the growth, in such cases the light can be filtered using protective shelters for the plants to allow

minimum required amount of sunlight exposure.




TemperatureTemperature sangat berpengaruh terhadap pertumbuhan tanaman.

Temperature atmosfir dan temperatur tanah mempengaruhi pertumbuhan tanaman.

Optimum temperature is one of the pre-requisites for many of the plant processes, like photosynthesis, respiration, germination, and flowering. Although the values differ for various plants usually cool

season plants have 55-65oF as the optimum temperature for germination whereas warm-season plants germinate at 65-75oF.

Kisaran suhu untuk fotosintesis dan respirasi yang optimum beragam dengan spesies tanaman dan persyaratan individualnya.





CO2 DAN O2

The manufacturing of sugar by plants requires the presence of carbon dioxide and hence it is one of the vital elements for plant growth. It is a known fact that plants can use as

much as 1500 parts per million of carbon dioxide. In case the natural carbon dioxide available in the air is not enough, there exist Carbon dioxide injectors that promote

enhanced plant growth. Oxygen is essential for plant respiration and utilization of

photosynthesis byproducts.




SoilSoil with proper humidity, and the right balance of all the

minerals and nutrients is one of the essential factors instrumental in plant growth.

The type of soil and the quality and the nutrients required in it vary according to the plant species. The right pH balance,

which measures the alkalinity or acidity of the soil and presence of certain chemicals, is also instrumental in the

growth of plants.




PERTUMBUHAN AKAR = F(FAKTOR LINGKUNGAN)

Nutrients Localized concentrations of nutrients may alter the form of a root system - nitrogen and phosphorus have a marked effect, but not

potassium. Excessive concentration of fertilizer salts will restrict root growth due to osmotic effects or specific toxicities such as with

ammonia (NH3) or nitrite (NO2). Safe rates have been established for fertilizers banded with or close to

the seed (OMAFRA Publ. 296) What changes occur to roots as a result of variation in nutrient

conditions in the rooting zone ?

Morphological changes :Root extension changed

Localized supply altering root distribution.

Sumber: http://www.uoguelph.ca/~mgoss/three/410-N03f.html.

PERTUMBUHAN AKAR = F(FAKTOR LINGKUNGAN)

Nutrient effects on the relative growth of roots and shoots:

1. Effects on root hair development - production and elongation

2. Plant growth controlling substances - especially cytokinin production (N deficiency results in decreased cytokinin production or at least decreased transport from the roots). Evidence of aerenchyma formation in maize roots growing in limited N supply.

3. Changes to membrane transport - uptake characteristics modified in zone with localized enhanced branching.


PERTUMBUHAN AKAR = F(FAKTOR LINGKUNGAN)Soil Acidity – Pertumbuhan akar

1. The major causes of reduced root and shoot growth in acid soils are aluminum and manganese toxicity. Direct effects of hydrogen ion concentration are of lesser importance.

2. Aluminum toxicity affects primarily root growth whereas manganese toxicity affects primarily shoot growth. Deficiencies of calcium, magnesium and phosphorus may also be factors causing reduced growth on acid soils.

3. Solubility of aluminum in soil increases rapidly as soil pH decreases from 5.5 to 4.0. The species of aluminum (A13+, A10H2+) also change. Solubility of manganese increases as pH decreases but is also highly dependent on oxidation-reduction potential in the soil.

4. Excessive aluminum inhibits root growth primarily by affecting meristematic activity. Aluminum toxicity results in short stubby roots.

5. There are, at least in some species, close relations between aluminum toxicity and calcium deficiency.

6. Excessive manganese affects shoot growth directly rather than root growth causing chlorotic or necrotic spots.

7. Plant species differ markedly in degree of adaptation to acid soils through either tolerance or avoidance mechanisms.


PERTUMBUHAN AKAR = F(FAKTOR LINGKUNGAN)Mechanical Impedance

1. Roots will not grow into rigid pores which are smaller in diameter than the apical meristem of the root. They can however, exert considerable pressure to enlarge or create pores where the rooting medium is weak enough to allow this to occur.

2. The ability of roots to develop in soil is determined by the size and rigidity of soil pores. 3. Mechanical resistance to root penetration - soil strength - is determined by the number, diameter and

continuity of soil pores, inter-particle bonding and moisture content. 4. When root growth is impeded there is an increase in the osmotic potential within the cells. The increase

probably occurs because of the reduced growth rather than a physiological response to the impedance. Turgor pressure in the zone of cell expansion may also increase (Clark et al., 1996).

5. Physical factors alone cannot account for the marked reduction in root elongation produced by a relatively small resistance. There is good evidence of physiological response mechanisms.

6. Impedance affects apical cells and their subsequent elongation. Elongation will not return to the unimpeded rate until cells formed after the impedance is removed reach the elongation stage.

7. Roots sense physical contact and react to it very quickly. A temporary reduction is barley root elongation rate was observed for about 10 minutes after a root tip made contact with a physical object. If the object offered little resistance, root elongation increased to the original rate after about 20 min. If the root cap was removed, roots were not sensitive to contact, suggesting an important role for the root cap in the response to mechanical impedance.

8. Results from a number of studies suggest that changes in cell wall properties are important in the response of roots.


PERTUMBUHAN AKAR = F(FAKTOR LINGKUNGAN)Soil Temperature

1. Root growth can be adversely affected by both sub- and supra-optimal soil temperatures. Work with monocots has often been confused because the shoot meristem remains below ground for a considerable time. Hence the effects on roots may also include indirect effects due to differences in shoot growth between treatments. At both high and low temperature the rate of cell extension is slowed. Changes in anatomical features result from low temperatures eg lignification of late metaxylem vessels. These observations suggest changes in enzymatic activity, possibly influenced by changes in the formation of plant hormones such as ABA and cytokinins.

2. Root growth depends on the supply of carbohydrate from the shoot. In monocot species the soil temperature governs shoot growth for a longer period than for dicots because the shoot apex stays below the ground surface for the early stages of vegetative growth rather than being lifted above the surface. In cool soils root growth may be more constrained in monocots than dicots because the expansion of the shoot is limited by soil temperature, whereas shoot growth in dicots will depend on air temperature.


PERTUMBUHAN AKAR = F(FAKTOR LINGKUNGAN)Efek temperatur thd Pertumbuhan Akar Tanaman :


Aktivitas Akar

Soil Temperature KeteranganBelow optimum Above optimum

Cell division ? reduced reduced The length of the meristem and zone of expansion will be shorter. Changes in cell

wall extensibility may reflect as much as be the cause of these effects.

Cell elongation reduced reduced

Cell radial expansion increased ?

Cell maturation Closer to apex for some cells, suberized closer

to apex. Slower for late metaxylem in wheat

Closer to apex These may largely reflect the change in cell elongation Temperature effects can be

expected because of effects on enzymes and enzyme systems.

Root elongation less less

Root branching depressed depressed unclear whether this is the result of the difference in length

Carbohydrates carbohydrates may accumulate

limitations may contribute to reduced growth

At lower soil temperatures and fast rate of evaporation, can slow shoot growth

Nutrients uptake may be slower large NO3 supply may further

decrease growth

Growth control substances

cytokinin production depressed

Almost certainly affected, especially if meristem activity changes

geotropism affected geotropism affected

PERTUMBUHAN AKAR = F(PEMADATAN TANAH)

Sumber: http://organicsoilsolutions.com/services/core-aeration-and-compost-top-dressing/

Pemadatan Tanah

Tanah yg strukturnya

bagusTanah yg

padat

PERTUMBUHAN AKAR = F(AERASI TANAH)

Aeration is simply the removal of hundreds of small soil plugs from a lawn, to help break up soil compaction and improve root growth.

Turf grass in compacted soil grows slowly, lacks vigor and becomes thin or does not grow at all. Core aeration removes small cores of soil,

depositing them on the surface of the turf. This improves the depth and extent of turf grass rooting.

Core aeration will reduce soil compaction and enhance thatch breakdown, thus improving soil water uptake and decreasing water runoff and puddling. Core aeration allows air, water, and fertilizer to

better reach the root zone. This stimulates root growth to create healthier, stronger turf grass plants.

Sumber: http://www.greenergrass.biz/Aeration.html

PERTUMBUHAN AKAR = F(POROSITAS TANAH)An approach for using general soil physical condition–root growth relationships to

predict seedling growth response to site preparation tillage in loblolly pine plantations

L.A. Morris, K.H. Ludovici, S.J. Torreano, E.A. Carter, M.C. Lincoln, R.E. WillForest Ecology and Management. Volume 227, Issues 1–2, 15 May 2006, Pages 169–177.

Relationship between air-filled porosity and root growth used in model

simulation in its original form (dashed line) plotted

against root elongation and as relative root growth (solid

line) normalized to 1 for maximum observed growth

(adapted from Zou et al., 2001a).

Sumber: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112706001216

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112706001216


Sumber: http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/y4690e/y4690e07.htm.

Examples of rooting

pattern and growth habit when roots

are physically impeded or prevented

from penetrating a

root-restricting soil

layer (R.G. Barber)

PERTUMBUHAN AKAR = F(Fisika TANAH)


Sumber:. http://www2.bot.or.th/statistics/Download/EC_EI_010_ENG.PDF

The index of crop production is the indicator of the level of crop production. It reflects changes in the

production volume and production cycle.

The index covers 21 major crops and 20 vegetables and fruits, accounting for 67.7% of total value of

agricultural products. Monthly index is calculated, then quarterly and

yearly indices are derived as the average of monthly series.


Sumber:.

Data are from Output of Major Agricultural Production(EC_RL_001). The index is calculated using Laspeyres’ formula, with

1988 as the base year. Monthly production of base year (1988) is the average of total production of each crop for the entire year.

Weight applied to each product is the relative value-added of each product to that of the entire agricultural sector as appeared in the

national account disseminated by the National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB).

The formula used in the index calculation is as follows :


Sumber:.

Dimana:

= Crop production index for month t,

= Quantity of crop product i of month t in the current year

= Quantity of crop product i in the base year 1988

= Weight of product i in the base year 1988

n = Number of crop products covered in the calculation.

The formula used in the index calculation is as follows :

ASPEK FISIK PRODUKTIVITAS TANAMAN

Sumber:http://www.fao.org/docrep/V9926E/v9926e04.htm.

Hubungan antara sumberdaya tanah dan sistem pertanaman

A traditional view of the influence of soil is that it provides an opportunity, or a constraint on the type of cropping system that can be implemented and its productivity.

Pandangan yg lebih bertanggung-jawab ialah bahwa ‘TANAH' mengkombinasikan berbagai sifat yg saling

berhubungan dan secara langsung mempengaruhi prosedur pertanaman.

Sumber:http://www.fao.org/docrep/V9926E/v9926e04.htm.

ASPEK FISIK PRODUKTIVITAS TANAMAN

. Soil-Plant Relations: Natural Processes

Sumber:. http://cnx.org/content/m41620/latest/#id1165166545097

Soil plays a key role in plant growth. Beneficial aspects to plants include

providing physical support, heat, water,

nutrients, and oxygen. Heat, light, and oxygen

are also obtained by the atmosphere, but the roots

of many plants also require oxygen.

Elemental nutrients, dissolved in soil water

solution, are derived from soil minerals and organic

material

http://cnx.org/content/m41620/latest/?collection=col11325/latest

Relationship among unavailable, slowly available, and readily available potassium in the soil-plant system..

Sumber: http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/cropsystems/dc6794.html.

Three forms of K (unavailable, slowly available or fixed,

readily available or exchangeable) exist in

soils. A description of these

forms and their relationship to each other is provided in the paragraphs that

follow.

Structures involved in Absorption:

The root terminal region is made up various structures such as; from the tip towards base, apical meristem, zone of

elongation, root hair zone and zone of maturation. The root hair zone is studded with root hairs; they are the extensions

of epidermal cells in the form of tubular structures.

Most of the water is absorbed by the plants is through root hair zone. The figure shows the pathway of soil water into

root system.

Sumber:. http://preuniversity.grkraj.org/html/4_PLANT_AND_WATER_RELATIONSHIP.htm

BULU AKAR – PENYERAPAN AIR DAN HARA.


.ANATOMI BULU AKAR


Sumber air dan Perilaku air yang masuk ke dalam tanah.

Sumber: http://www.bae.ncsu.edu/programs/extension/evans/ag452-1.html.

Sebagian air hujan atau air irigasi disimpan dalam tanah zone

perakaran tanaman .Jumlah air yang dapat disimpan inii tergantung pada kedalaman zone

perakaran dan WHC-tanahnya.

Air inilah yang akan dimanfaatkan oleh tanaman untuk

pertumbuhannya.Kedalaman perakaran

merupakankarakteristik yang sangat penting.

. The relationship between water distribution in the soil and the concept of irrigation scheduling when 50 percent of the

PAW has been depleted..


. The amount of water extracted by plants is influenced by the distribution of the root in the soil..


Water uptake by a specific crop is closely related to its root distribution

in the soil. About 70 percent of a plant's roots are found in the upper half of the crop's maximum rooting

depth. Deeper roots can extract moisture to keep the plant alive, but they do not extract suffficient water to maintain optimum growth. When adequate moisture is present, water uptake by the crop is about the same as its root distribution. Thus, about 70 percent of the water used by the crop comes from the upper half of the root zone (Figure 10). This zone

is the effective root depth.

.. . Effective Root Depth


Rooting depth is the depth of the soil reservoir that the plant can reach to get PAW.

Crop roots do not extract water uniformly from the entire root zone. Thus,the effective root depth is that portion of the root zone where

the crop extracts the majority of its water.

Effective root depth is determined by both crop and soil properties. Plant Influence on Effective Root Depth. Different species of plants

have different potential rooting depths. The potential rooting depth is the maximum rooting depth of a crop

when grown in a moist soil with no barriers or restrictions that inhibit root elongation. Potential rooting depths of most agricultural crops

important in North Carolina range from about 2 to 5 feet.

For example, the potential rooting depth of corn is about 4 feet.

Ciri-ciri Tanah yg mempengaruhi kedalaman akar …..


Efek Tanah thd Kedalaman efektif

Perakaran.

The maximum rooting depth of crops in North Carolina is usually less

than their potential rooting depth and is

restricted by soil chemical or physical barriers.

Subsoil di North Carolina mempunyai pH = 4.5 -

5.0, menjadi barier kimia bagi pertumbuhan akar.

Kedalaman akar pd kondisi tidak ada barier fisik, tetapi ada barier kimia, yaitu subsoil yg

masam, pH rendah

Kedalaman akar pd kondisi ada barier fisik, cadas

keras atau tapak bajak, subsoil masam, pH rendah

. Corn rooting depth in North Carolina during various stages of development. Irrigation scheduling should be based on effective root

depth rather than maximum rooting depth.


. Why deep-dug beds are important?Deep digging makes the soil loose and friable. This enables the plant roots to penetrate easily,

so a steady stream of nutrients can flow into the stems and leaves. Different plants have varying rooting depths, so extract nutrients and moisture from different points of the soil profile. The cultivation of different plants in the same part of the bed from

season to season does not overburden the soil.

Sumber: http://www.nzdl.org/gsdlmod?

. Root System of a Transplanted Cabbage Plant

Sumber: http://www.nzdl.org/gsdlmod? .

.

. Short Taproot of a Pepper Plant


. Thin Taproot of a Cucumber Plant


. Fibrous Root System of an Onion


PEMADATAN TANAH - PERTUMBUHAN AKAR.

Pertumbuhan akar terhambat karena

pemadatan tanah oleh pukulan air hujan,

pengolahan tanah dan jalur jalan kendaraan.

Source: Compaction-Soil Management Series 2.

University of Minnesota Extension Service, BU-

7400

Sumber: http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/cropsystems/components/3115s01.html .

Kerak permukaan

Pemadatan dalam atau Subsoil

Pertumbuhan akar tdak

terhambat

Pemadatan permukaan (di bawah jalur jalan kendaraan)

Tapak bajak (di bawah ke dalaman

olah tanah)

Tree Root Growth RequirementsDr. Kim D. Coder (The University of Georgia July 2000)

Graphical representation of compaction effects on soil.

Sumber: http://warnell.forestry.uga.edu/service/library/index.php3?docID=393&docHistory[]=2&docHistory[]=412.

Persyaratan Tumbuh AkarBrief list of root growth resource requirements.

Growth in trees may not be a positive increase in living mass, but does represent

expansion of tissues into new spaces. For roots, the tips elongate and the tissues

thicken in diameter. Lateral roots are developed

adventitiously and allowed to elongate and radially thicken.

Root density, mass, and activity vary with internal and

external conditions. Sumberdaya yg diperlukan untuk pertumbuhan akar

disajikan Tabel 1.

Sumber: . http://warnell.forestry.uga.edu/service/library/index.php3?docID=393&docHistory[]=2&docHistory[]=412

requirements

root resourceminimal maximum

oxygen in soil atmosphere (for root survival) 3% 21%

air pore space in soil (for root growth) -- 1.4 clay

-- 1.8 sandpenetration strength (water

content dependent) 0.01kPa 3MPa

water content in soil 12% 21%root initiation ( % in soil

atmosphere) 12% 21%

root growth ( % in soil atmosphere) 5% 21%progressive loss of element in absorption in roots ( % in soil

atmosphere) 10% 21%

temperature limits to root growth 40°F/4°C 94°F/34°C

pH of soil (wet test) pH3.5 pH8.2

. Root growth of Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh.

Sumber: http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S0034-737X2011000400015&script=sci_arttext

KARAKTERISTIK TANAMAN - AKAR.

Sumber:http://www.yara.us/agriculture/crops/potato/key-facts/agronomic-principles/default.aspx.

Potatoes produce a fibrous root system. These roots are at best no more than 24in long. Thus potatoes are shallow rooted compared to cereals for example, which can root to at least 47in depth. As a result, potatoes are often unable to exploit nutrients and soil moisture at depth

within a soil profile.While root growth occurs when soil temperatures are between 50 to 95˚F (10 to 35˚C), best, most active root development is at soil temperatures of between 59 and 68˚F (15 and 20˚C).

Efek suhu tanah terhadap perkembangan akar tanaman kentang

Efek Tekstur dan BI tanah terhadap perkembangan akar tomat

Sumber:. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0098847213000476

Exploring the interacting effect of soil texture and bulk density on root system

development in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.).

Saoirse R. Tracy, Colin R. Black, Jeremy A. Roberts, Sacha J. Mooney.

Environmental and Experimental BotanyVolume 91, July 2013, Pages 38–47.

Diagram showing typical root systems grown in clay loam (A) and

loamy sand (B) soil at all bulk densities and destructively harvested

at 3 (upper row) and 10 days after transplanting (DAT; lower row).

Gradien Bar mencerminkan peningkatan BI tanah dari kiri

ke kanan.

Effect of Ca:H ratio in solution on relative root length in soybean (Sanzonowicz et al., 1998a)..

Sumber:. http://courses.soil.ncsu.edu/ssc541de/units/ch3/main3_5.html

Pada kondisi lingkungan tanah masam (kaya H+),

pertumbuhan akar kedelai terhambat; diperlukan

penambahan Ca++ untuk

memperbaiki pertumbuhan

akar.Nilai kritis rasio molaritas Ca/H

sekitar 750.

Effect of Ca:Al ratio in solution on relative root length in soybean (Ferrufino et al., 2000). .

Pada kondisi lingkungan tanah

yang kaya Al-tersedia, pertumbuhan

panjang akar kedelai terhambat; diperlukan

penambahan Ca untuk memperbaiki

pertumbuhan panjang akar.

Sumber:. http://courses.soil.ncsu.edu/ssc541de/units/ch3/main3_5.html

Root growth potential and seedling morphological attributes of narra (Pterocarpus indicus Willd.) transplants

R.M Gazal, C.A Blanche, W.M Carandang. Forest Ecology and Management. Volume 195, Issues 1–2. 28 June 2004, Pages 259–266.

Sumber:. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112704002191

Effect of soil moisture regimes (soil at 50, 75 and

100%) of field capacity (FC), on root growth potential:

(a) number of new roots and (b) length of new roots of

narra transplants 7 days after transplanting.

Means with the same letters are not significantly different

at 5% level based on Duncan’s new multiple range

test.

. Fine roots of trees as indicators of environmental change, soil nutrient status and forest health

Sumber: http://www.forestry.gov.uk/fr/infd-626awt.

Respon akar-akar rambut (halus) terhadap kondisi lingkungan tanah (lengas tanah, temperature dan kimiawi larutan-tanah) dan

fluktuasinya juga dievaluasi pada kondisi lingkungan alamiah. Penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa:

1. Lengas tanah dan kimiawi larutan tanah menunjukkan variasi musiman dan tahunan

2. Akar-akar rambut Pinus sylvestris tidak terpengaruhi negatif oleh kondisi lingkungan tanah yg jelek kalau lengas tanah tidak membatasi pertumbuhan akar

3. If soil moitsure deficits are accompanied by an unfavourable soil chemical environment (high Al, low Ca:Al ratio), this may reduce fine root growth and increase mortality as well as alter the vertical distribution of the fine roots.

Fibrous root system of onion, 3.5 months old..

Sumber: http://www.soilandhealth.org/01aglibrary/010137veg.roots/010137ch3.html.

Some of the main roots ran outward, almost parallel to the soil

surface, to distances of 6 to 8 inches before turning downward at an angle of about 45 degrees.

These had a maximum lateral spread of about 12 inches on all

sides of the plant. Between these horizontal roots and the vertically descending ones, the soil volume

thus delimited was filled with numerous roots Which extended outward to various distances and

then turned downward, or pursued an outward and

downward course throughout their entire extent

A maturing onion excavated August 21. Root growth is not yet completed. Some of the roots shown in Fig. 9 had died..

From 20 to 25 roots arose from the base of the bulb. A few ran

vertically downward but most of them ran outward at various

angles, even to near the horizontal, and then gradually turned

downward. The volume of soil delimited at the previous

excavation (which had an area on the surface of about 4 square feet) had not been increased except in

depth. The former working level of 20 inches had been extended to 32

inches. A maximum depth of 39 inches was found

Sumber: http://www.soilandhealth.org/01aglibrary/010137veg.roots/010137ch3.html.

Crop Rooting Depth.

Sumber:. http://ucanr.edu/sites/Drought/Agriculture/Irrigation_Scheduling/Evapotranspiration_Scheduling_ET/Frequency_of_Irrigation/Crop_Rooting_Depth/

Plant Rooting CharacteristicsWhile the soil's texture impacts the amount of stored soil moisture, the plant's rooting characteristics determine how much of the soil

moisture can be accessed by the plant. A deep rooted crop has access to a greater amount of soil moisture than does a shallow-rooted crop,

usually allowing it to go longer between irrigations. The rooting depths of a number of crops are shown in the table below.

The rooting depth may be affected by the soil depth, constraining soil layers (hardpan, plowpan, etc.), or even abrupt changes in soil texture. When in doubt about the soil profile or rooting depth, use a soil auger

or better yet a backhoe, to determine the rooting depth and soil profile textural characteristics.

Depths to which the roots of mature crops will deplete the available water supply when grown in a deep permeable, well-drained soil under average conditions..

Source: Chapter 11, "Sprinkler Irrigation," Section 15, Natural Resources Conservation Service National Engineering Handbook Sumber: . http://ucanr.edu/sites/Drought/Agriculture/Irrigation_Scheduling/Evapotranspiration_Scheduling_ET/Frequency_of_Irrigation/

Crop_Rooting_Depth/

Better rooting = Greater yield potentialIn 3 weeks from planting there was over a 40% increase in root mass

where Avail treated phosphate was used..

Sumber:.

.

Sumber:. http://www2.puc.edu/Faculty/Gilbert_Muth/botglosr.htm

Root-hair Zone The root-hair zone is the zone in the differentiating root tip where the final maturation and full differentiation of all

the cells occurs. The prominent part of this zone is

the root hairs themselves. This is where most of the water and minerals are absorbed by the root.

http://www.puc.edu/Faculty/Gilbert_Muth/botglosr.htm

BULU AKAR – ROOT HAIR.

Sumber:. http://www2.puc.edu/Faculty/Gilbert_Muth/botglosr.htm#Root%20Hairs

Bulu akar merupakan perluasan

protoplasmik sel-sel epidermis.

Bulu akar ini memperluas

permukaan akar , sehingga

memudahkan penyerapan air dan

hara dari tanah.

ABOVE AND BELOWGROUND ORGANIC MATTER AND ROOT:SHOOT RATIO IN A CERRADO IN CENTRAL BRAZIL.

Guilherme C. Abdala1, Linda S. Caldas2, M. Haridasan1 & George Eiten2

Brazilian Journal of Ecology, Rio Claro, SP, Brazil, Vol.02 Number 01, 1998

Sumber:http://www.seb-ecologia.org.br/revista2/art2.html.

Kedalaman tanah mempengaruhi

pertumbuhan akar

Total biomasa akar (variable tergantung)

sebagai fungsi dari kedalaman tanah

(variable bebas) yg diukur dalam blok-

blok tanah.





Distribusi akar menurut diameternya

merupakan fungsi dari kedalaman akar pada lapisan tanah 100 cm

dari permukaan.

Very fine = material collected by washing/floating sieved

soil samples; fine = diameter < 2 mm;

medium = diameter 2-10 mm; thick = diameter > 10 mm.





Percentage of total root biomass in each

diameter class as a function of depth from the surface to 100cm,

measured in soil blocks. Very fine = material

collected by washing/floating sieved

soil samples; fine = diameter < 2mm;

medium = diameter 2-10mm; thick = diameter

> 10mm.





Stocks of biomass in different compartments of the cerrado

sense strict. Aboveground biomass includes standing

dead. Root diameter classes are as follows:

Very fine = material collected by washing/floating sieved soil samples; Fine = diameter < 2 mm; medium = diameter 2-10 mm; Thick = diameter > 10 mm.

Rhizomes of grasses were included in the class of medium size roots. Humus refers to soil

organic matter.

. Woody Versus Herbaceous Plants

Sumber: http://landflux.org/phenology.php

Representation of herbaceous (shallow, fibrous root system) and woody (deeper, coarse root system) plants. Taken from Walter (1985).

Control of Shoot-root Balance in TreesKim D. Coder . Professor, Silvics/Ecology . Warnell School of Forest Resources . The

University of Georgia January 1998 .

Sumber: http://warnell.forestry.uga.edu/service/library/index.php3?docID=149&docHistory[]=2.

A critical feature of tree growth regulation involves functionally balancing the top of the

tree with the bottom. Concepts of shoot / root ratios and how a tree can maintain a resource balance between apparently competing needs

have been proposed and tested for accuracy. Of all the working models examined, one form has

proven over the last two decades to serve in describing regulatory partitioning between

shoot and root. The type of model proven to be most effective is

called a ``Thornley" model, although many derivations and more refined systems exist. The result is a means of understanding tree functions in a holistic sense and predicting

resource allocation patterns between shoot and root. Generically, shoot size and function is

equated with root size and function.

Control of Shoot-root Balance in TreesKim D. Coder . Professor, Silvics/Ecology . Warnell School of Forest Resources . The

University of Georgia January 1998 .

Sumber: http://warnell.forestry.uga.edu/service/library/index.php3?docID=149&docHistory[]=2.

Estimating BalanceTo calculate the proportional change patterns seen in trees, or their ``functional balance,"

only four components are required: sapwood shoot mass, sapwood root mass,

photosynthesis rate, and nitrogen uptake rate . Trees will attempt to balance shoot mass and Ps rates against root mass and

nitrogen uptake. A tree will adjust the mass of roots or shoots to correct any deficiency in

photosynthesis rates or nitrogen uptake. Carbohydrate shortages will initiate more shoots and nitrogen shortages will initiate more roots. Note that the photosynthesis rate and nitrogen uptake rates are highly susceptible to both external and internal

environmental changes.

Recurrent Selection for Seedling Vigor in Kura Clover L. R. DeHaan, N. J. Ehlke * and C. C. Sheaffer

Crop Science. 2001. doi: 10.2135/cropsci2001.4141034xVol. 41 No. 4, p. 1034-1041 July, 2001

Sumber: https://www.crops.org/publications/cs/abstracts/41/4/1034?access=0&view=article

Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengkaji hubungan antara root/shoot ratio dengan

pertumbuhan kecambah.

Karakter ini akan digunakan sebagai kriteria seleksi tanaman.

Influence of integrated soil nutrient management on cowpea root growth in the semi-arid Eastern Kenya

Kimiti, Jacinta M.African Journal of Agricultural Research Vol. 6(13), pp. 3084-3091, 4 July, 2011

Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/AJAR

Sumber: http://www.academicjournals.org/ajar/fulltext/2011/4July/Kimiti.htm.

Shoot/Root Ratio

Biomasa akar pada saat 50% berbunga

berkorelasi positif significantl (p < 0.05)

dengan biomassa shoot pd saat 50% berbunga, di

lokasi Kavuthu (R2 = 0.6778) dan Ndunguni (R2 = 0.7206) selama musim

hujan yg panjang.

. Effects of catch crop type and root depth on nitrogen leaching and yield of spring barleyTek Bahadur Sapkotaa, b, , , , Margrethe Askegaarda, Mette Lægdsmanda, Jørgen E. Olesen Field Crops ResearchVolume 125, 18 January 2012, Pages 129–138


Measured (triangle) and simulated (circle) root

frequency of three catch crops in September (filled

symbols) and October (open symbols). Measured root frequency values are average of two replication,

two systems, two years and two locations and

simulated root frequency values are average of two

systems, two years and two locations.



















http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03784290

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03784290/125/supp/C

Sumber: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1161030111001201.

Root intensity distribution at the end of

the growing season of vegetables, cereals and

fertility building crops in the rotation from the O2 system (open symbols)

and the C system (closed symbols).

Solid lines show main crops, dashed lines with diamond symbols show fertility building crops; fodder radish or green

manure (GM).

Crop yield, root growth, and nutrient dynamics in a conventional and three organic cropping systems with different levels of external inputs and N re-cycling through fertility building crops

Kristian Thorup-Kristensen, , Dorte Bodin Dresbøll1, Hanne L. KristensenEuropean Journal of Agronomy. Volume 37, Issue 1, February 2012, Pages 66–82











http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/11610301

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/11610301/37/1

Sumber: http://www.canolacouncil.org/crop-production/canola-grower%27s-manual-contents/chapter-4-effects-of-moisture/effects-of-moisture.

Sistem akar tanaman Canola

(Cyclone), Wheat

(Katepwa) dan Field Pea

(Grande)

at Swift Current, SK in

1998

Canola and field peas are dicots and have a tap root system, while wheat is a monocot with a fibrous root system

Sumber: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167198711001358.

Maize root number in Exp. 1 (left) and 2 (right)

under high (HC), medium (MC) and no

compaction treatments following no cover crop (NCC), rye, forage radish (FR) and rapeseed cover crop treatments in 2008. Values within the same depth followed by the same letter(s) are not

significantly different (F-protected LSD, P < 0.05).

. Root growth and yield of maize as affected by soil compaction and cover cropsGuihua Chen , Ray R. Weil.

Soil and Tillage Research. Volume 117, December 2011, Pages 17–27

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/01671987/117/supp/C

SHOOT-ROOT RELATIONSHIPS .

Sumber: http://www.uoguelph.ca/~mgoss/two/Sr_ratio.html.

Kesetimbangan Fungsional

The shoot fixes C02 from the air, and the root extracts mineral nutrients and water from the soil. In

this sense, there is a balance of shoot and root functions in a plant.

After defoliation or root pruning, the plant acts so as to restore the balance of root and shoot functions.



Source-Sink Relations Growth of non-photosynthesizing organs (sinks) is controlled

by transport of sugars from photosynthesizing organs (sources) via the phloem. Sugars (mainly sucrose) are

released from cells into the leaf apoplast (outside of the cell membranes) and move towards the conducting system

(veins). Sucrose is actively loaded into phloem tissue and flows to sink sites under a pressure gradient. At the sink site,

sucrose is unloaded from the phloem and used in growth processes or stored. (Marschner 5.1 p. 131, and 5.4 pp. 144-152) During vegetative growth photosynthesis is often sink limited, while in the reproductive stages source-limitation

usually becomes more important.



There is a characteristic shoot:root ratio for each species at each growth stage. Shoot:root ratios tend to increase with plant size (decrease for root crops), reflecting increasingly preferential assimilate partitioning above ground (below

ground for root crops). Thus, shoot:root ratio comparisons should be made at equal dry weight, or at equal plant

developmental stage, not at equal time. Shoot:root ratios are influenced by changes in

environmental conditions, such as light, nutrient availability, temperature and water supply. These changes usually reflect an adaptive advantage for the plant in acquiring the limiting

resource.



What factors affect root-shoot ratios ? The ratio of shoot to root growth varies widely between species,

changes between phases in plant development, and can be modified by external conditions.

Shoot and root growth of maize grown in

hydroponics in the field (Miller et al, 1989.

Canadian Journal of Soil Science, 69, 295-302.



Kalau akar atau batangnya dipangkas,

tanaman akan tumbuh kembali

dnegan root/shoot ratio yang khas.



If external conditions change, shoot-root ratio will be affected. e.g.. There is a decline in the ratio in maize plants grown in the

absence of P

Effect of P nutrition on shoot-root ratio (Anghinoni and

Barber, 1980, Agronomy Journal, 72, 685-688).

The 12 day old plants were transferred to a P deficient

solution.

The shoot P concentration declined from 0.95% on day 1 to

0.27% on day 6.



Root-shoot ratio

meningkat kalau air

diambil dari zone

perakarannya

(Sharp and Davies, 1979).



This is not due to effects on carbon fixation as impacts on shoot growth take place at water potentials that are too high to restrict

photosynthesis (Boyer, 1970).

Pada kondisi cekaman air ternyata proses

fotosintesis dan pertumbuhan daun kedelai mengalami

hambatan.



Efek faktor eksternal terhadap rasio akar/daun.

Pada kondisi tanah kekurangan hara dan air, pertumbuhan akar relatif lebih dominan terhadap

daun.Pada kondisi intensitas

radiasi yang rendah, pertumbuhan daun relatif lebih dominan daripada

akar

. Braz. J. Microbiol. vol.32 no.3 São Paulo Aug./Oct. 2001http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1517-83822001000300006

WATER STRESS RESPONSE ON THE ENZYMATIC ACTIVITY IN COWPEA NODULES Márcia do Vale B. Figueiredo1*; Egídio Bezerra-Neto2; Hélio A. Burity

Sumber: http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S1517-83822001000300006&script=sci_arttext

Rasio Shoot/root menurun dari 2.61 menjadi 2.14 kalau perlakuan potensial matriksnya <-85.0 dan -70.0 KPa.

There was a reduction in the glutamine synthetase activity and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxilase activity with increased

stress, while glutamine synthase activity was the enzyme most sensitive to water stress.

Aktivitas enzim Glutamate dehydrogenase meningkat dalam potensial matriks yg lebih negatif, ini menyatakan bahwa

enzim ini cukup aktif pada kondisi stress air.

http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S1517-83822001000300006&script=sci_arttext




The sensitivity of cowpea nodules under water deficit conditions

inclosed with the plant development and with the Yw.

Reduksi shoot/root akibat cekaman lengas-tanah, sesuai dnegan hasil

penelitian Costa et al. (3).

Costa, M.M.M.N.; Távora, F.J.A.F.; Pinho, J.L.N. de; Melo, F.I.O. Produção,

componentes de produção, crescimento e distribuição das raízes de caupi submetido à deficiência hídrica. Pesq. Agrop. Bras., 32:43-

50, 1997.





It was verified that the shoot dry matter (Fig.4) plants at the most negative Ym (S3) was more

affected in E2 stage:

Tanaman yg mengalami stress pada periode E2 menunjukkan reduksi

luas-daunnya, seperti halnya akumulasi bahan keringnya.

Cekaman lengas (air) tanah mengakibatkan reduksi shoot/root

rasio, sesuai dengan hasil penelitian Costa et al., (3).


Tanah yg padat menghambat pertumbuhan akar (kanan)

Sumber: http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/resources/soils/structure/compaction

Pemadatan tanah mempengaruhi

pertumbuhan tanaman. There are not enough pores or spaces in compacted soil to allow unrestricted root

movement, infiltration, drainage or air circulation.

The restricted roots are often unable to take up

sufficient water or nutrients from the soil.

Pertumbuhan tanaman terhambat dan hasilnya lebih rendah , terutama

selama periode kekeringan.

Lapisan Tanah padat tidak dapat

ditembus oleh akar tanaman

Effect of solution pH on soybean root growth (Sanzonowicz et al., 1998).

Sumber: http://courses.soil.ncsu.edu/ssc541de/units/ch3/main3_4.html

pH larutan media tumbuh berpengaruh

terhadap pertumbuhan

pemanjangan akar kedelai.

Pemanjangan akar utama dan akar-akar

cabang meningkat eksponensial dengan

meningkatnya pH media tumbuhnya.

Influence of solution Al3+ on corn root growth at tasseling in two North Carolina Ultisols (Jallah and Smyth, 1998).


Peningkatan konsentrasi Al dalam larutan

tanah menghambat pertumbuhan panjang akar

tanaman jagung.

Influence of exchangeable Al3+ on corn root growth in Oxisols and Ultisols (Gonzalez-Erico et al., 1979; Jallah and Smyth, 1998).


Peningkatan kejenuhan Al dalam tanah

mengakibatkan hambatan

pertumbuhan panjang akar

tanaman, khususnya

pada kejenuhan Al di

atas 30%.

Influence of solution Ca from different sources on increasing root growth in wheat grown in a Ca deficient Oxisol.


Pada tanah-tanah masam yang kaya Al3+ tukar, efek

toksisitas Al dapat dikurangi atau dicegah

dengan jalan meningkatkan konsnetrasi Ca2+ dalam larutan tanah. For example, Ritchie et al. (1983) added 0.1 cmol Ca2+

kg-1 to an Oxisol containing only 0.02 cmol Ca2+ kg-1, observing a 50%

increase in wheat root growth, independent of Ca

source

Efek Ca terhadap panjang akar utama tunggang tanaman

kedelai

(Sanzonowicz et al., 1998b).


Root Growth and Development2001 Peter Graham and Deborah Allan

Sumber: http://www.soils.umn.edu/academics/classes/soil5611/content/RootGrowth_Development/index.htm

Bagian-bagian akar tanaman, mulai dari bulu akar, epidermis, korteks, hingga

pembuluh Xilem.



Bagian-bagian akar: Penampang longitudinal

i. MERISTEM UJUNG1. cell division 2. hormone (PGR) synthesis ii. TUDUNG AKAR1. geotropic response (senses gravity) also light 2. protection of apical meristem 3. facilitates penetration 4. synthesis and release of hormones

iii. ZONE PEMANJANGAN DAN DIFERENSIASI

iv. ZONE BULU AKAR1. 5-10 mm di belakang ujung akar2. Panjang, densitas dan umur bulu akar3. Bertahan hidup beberapa hari4. Dipengaruhi oleh hormon dan suplai hara

v. Pembentukan akar laeral dan pertumbuhan nya



Faktor-faktor yg mempengaruhi pertumbuhan akar

1. Hormon-hormon dari tumbuhan dan mikroba tanah2. Unsur hara - Concept of compensatory growth-phloem unloading

increases where nutrients, water, etc. available.3. Air tanah - Loss of turgor required for cell elongation4. Mechanical impedance - Can't enter pores less than root tip diameter in

width5. Temperature - Optimum 20-25 degrees Celcius6. Aeration - Need 10-15% oxygen in the soil gas phase7. Calcium - Need at least about 15% of total cations8. Organic compounds - Some high molecular weight enhance root initiation

and elongation. Some low mw cpds at high conc can inhibit9. Microorganism - Inoculation usually inhibits root growth and root hair

formation, but some can stimulate by nutrient mobilizatioin, nitrogen fixatioin and synthesis of PGRs (hormones)



Sistem akar tanaman kapri (Pisum arvense) yg

menunjukkan pertumbuhan akar yg lebat (proliferasi akar) akibat penempatan

pupuk P dan K 5 cm di samping benih dan 7-5 cm di

bawah permukaan tanah

(Cooke, 1954).



Modifikasi bentuk akar tanaman barley (Hordeum vulgare) yg

diakibatkan oleh suplai nitrat (1-0 mM) di bagian tengah dari

salah satu sumbu akar; sedangkan di bagian lainnya

konsentrasi nitrat hanya 1/100 nya.

Photograph taken 15 days after treatment (Drew and Saker,

1975).



Tipe-tipe Sistem Akar TanamanA - Shallow, spreading fibrous root system. B - fibrous root system penetrating the soil evenly

from 1 to 1.5 m. c - tap root system, in which main primary root penetrates soil 2.5 m or more. D - fibrous root system developed from adventilous roots growing at lower nodes of stem. E -

tap root system in carrot (Daucus carota).



Sistem akar tanaman di daerah Prairie berumput-

pendek, setelah berlangsungnya periode

tahun dg surah hujan rata-rata (Hays, Kansas).

Al - Allionis lineraris, Ap - Aristida purpurea, Aps - Ambrosia psilostachya, Bd - Buchloe dactyloides, Bg - Bouteloua gracilis, Kg - Kuhnia glutinosa, Lj - Lygodesmia juncea, Mc - Malvastrun coccineum, Pt - Psoralia tenuiflora, Sm - Solidago mollis, Ss - Sideranthus spinulosus.



Sistem akar tanaman di

suatu daerah setelah

berlangsungnya periode

tahun kering.



Efek jumlah curah-hujan thd

kedalaman perakaran tanaman

gandum winter. (Tekstur tanah

Lempung berpasir halus

hingga Lempung berdebu di

daerah Great Plains)



Laju pemanjangan akar tanaman kacangtanah

dan kapas sebagai fungsi dari kekuatan

tanah (resistensi

penetrasi akar).



Sistem akar tanaman barley muda yang

tumbuh di lapangan pada tanah-tanah yang bobot isi (BI)

nya berbeda (Kiri ) BI = 1.35 g cm -3;

(kanan) BI = 1.50 g cm -3.



Efek suhu-tanah di zone perakaran

terhadap morfologi akar

kentang dan pertumbuhan

batang kecambah kentang

(Sattelmacher et al., 1990)



Pengaruh pH larutan hara

terhadap pemanjangan akar Lupinus

angustifolius dan Pisum sativum selama periode tumbuh 60 jam

(Tang et al., 1992)



Efek ratio molaritas Ca/Total

kation dalam larutan tanah

terhadap pertumbuhan akar tanaman

kapas.



Efek pengapuran subsoil masam (pH 4.6) thd pemanjangan akar tanaman kapas *

% massa tanah (subsoil )yg dikapur **

Jarak antara lapisan yg dikapur (cm) Panjang akar relatif

Tidka terbatas - 32

10 4.5 38

20 4.0 57

40 3.0 57

60 2.0 70

100 - 100

*Based on Pearson et al. (1973)**Application of the same dose, but differently distributed



Aspects of the rhizosphere that may

influence the arrival of ions at the absorptive surface of the root.

The extent of the unstirred layer that surrounds roots in solution culture is

indicated.

Dalam lapisan ini, konsentrasi ion-ion

dapat dnagat berbeda dengan konsentrasinya

dalam larutan keseluruhan .

. Quercus ilex root growth in response to heterogeneous conditions of soil bulk density and soil NH4-N content

Elena Cubera, Gerardo Moreno, Alejandro Solla.Soil and Tillage Research. Volume 103, Issue 1, April 2009, Pages 16–22


Variation of fine root densities with depth

of Quercus ilex seedlings grown in soil with different

doses of NH4: control, 0.1, 0.25,

and 1 g NH4 L−1 soil.

Sebagian besar akar-akar halus tumbuh

dalam topsoil .

SHOOT-ROOT RELATIONSHIP


Physiological mechanisms of crop responses to soil compaction. The thickness of the lines reflect qualitatively the importance attributed to

each of the three major pathways. Pathway 1 involves direct root perception of soil hardness, and root

signals inducing reduction in shoot growth. Pathway 2 involves a strong, reinforcing loop of reduced shoot and root growth which is

mediated by impairment of the ability of root systems and canopies to capture resources.

Pathway 3 involves reductions in the efficiency in the use of resources, as exemplified by radiation-use efficiency (RUE) and transpiration

efficiency (TE).

Crop responses to compacted soil: capture and efficiency in the use of water and radiation

Víctor O. Sadras, Garry J. O’Leary, David K. Roget. Field Crops Research. Volume 91, Issues 2–3, 14 February 2005, Pages 131–148.

SHOOT-ROOT RELATIONSHIP


crop productivity index cpi soil root shoot ...

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