cross-cultural communication what is culture universalism versus particularism individualism versus...

Cross-Cultural Communication

• What is culture • Universalism versus Particularism• Individualism versus Collectivism• Neutral versus Affective• Specific versus Diffuse• Achievement versus Ascription• Time• Environment

•The assessment for this course is out of 100 %,

• Answer ANY 2 questions (each carrying 50 marks) out of a choice of 5 questions.

• Time limit 1 Hour• Exam on Tuesday 3rd May 2005

Sample questions given on website

http://onlinelectures.tripod.com/mba.htm

Assessment

What is Culture

Implicit Culture

Explicit Culture

What is Culture?

Set of beliefs, attitudes and values shared by a group of people and

learnt over a period of time

Distribution of Cultural Traits

Levels of Culture

National

Regional / Ethnic / Religious / Linguistic

Gender

Generation

Social Class

Organisational

1 - If we see a group of Japanese managers bowing, we are obviously observing explicit culture as the sheer act of bending. However, if we ask the Japanese, “Why do you bow?, a question that they may not welcome, we penetrate the next layer of culture.

2 - Some Japanese might say that they bow because they like to greet people: that is a value. Other might say that they don’t know why except that they do it because the others do it too. Then we are talking about a norm.

3 - You might observe that some Japanese bow deeper than others. Again, if you ask why they do it the answer might be that they don’t know but that the other person does it too (norm) or that they want to show respect for authority (value). A typical Dutch question that might follow is: “Why do you respect authority?” The most likely Japanese reaction would be either puzzlement or a smile (to hide their irritation).

Layers of Culture

TitelCultural Variables

Universalism versus Particularism

Individualism versus Collectivism

Neutral versus Affective

Specific versus Diffuse

Achievement versus Ascription

Universalism vs Particularism

• What is more important - rules or relationships?

• People in universalistic cultures share the belief that general rules, codes, values and standards take precedence over particular needs and claims of friends and relations. Rules apply equally to the whole "universe" of members. Any exception weakens the rule.

A universalist will say of particularists, “they cannot be trusted because they will always help their friends”; a particularist, conversely will say of universalists, “you cannot trust them; they would not even help a friend”.

Universalism Vs Particularism

The Car AccidentWhat happens to your friend?

What Right has Your Friend?

A. My friend has a definite right as a friend to expect me to testify to the lower

figure.

B. He has some right as a friend to expect me to testify to the lower figure.

C. He has no right as a friend to expect me to testify to the lower figure.

Clashing values of Entrepreneur

(10,10)

?Robust and Consistent Systems

Particular needs of our customers

Globalism and Locallism

X(10,10)

Global Standards (Critical Mass)

“Be like US”

Transnational Centers of Excellence

Cultural Diversity (Differing solutions)

Small Nations

Multi-Localism

1. focus is more on rules than relationships

2. legal contract are readily drawn up

3. a trustworthy person is the one who honors their word or contract

4. there is only one truth or reality, that which has been agreed to

5. a deal is a deal

Universalism Vs Particularism

1. focus is more on relationships than on rules

2. legal contract are readily modified

3. a trustworthy person is the one who honors changing mutualities

4. there are several perspectives on reality relative to each participant

5. relationships evolve

Individualism

• In individualistic culture people place the individual before the community.

• Individual happiness, fulfillment, and welfare set the pace.

• People are expected to decide matters largely on their own and to take care primarily of themselves and their immediate family.

Collectivism

• In collectivist cultures people place the community before the individual.

• It is the responsibility of the individual to act in ways which serve society. By doing so, individual needs will be taken care of naturally.

• The quality of life for the individual is seen as directly dependent on the degree to which he takes care of his fellow man, even at the cost of individual freedom.

Employees from collectivist cultures who receive bonus feel guilty in front of others and try hard the next time NOT to earn a bonus.

Individualism Vs Collectivism

1. more frequent use of “I” form

2. decisions made on the spot by representatives

3. people ideally achieve alone and assume personal responsibility

4. vacations taken in pairs, even alone

1. more frequent use of “we” form

2. decisions referred back by delegate to organization

3. people ideally achieve in groups which assume joint responsibility

4. vacations in organized groups or with extended family

Individualism Vs Collectivism

Affective vs Neutral

• In affective cultures people do not object to a display of emotions.

• It isn't considered necessary to hide feelings and to keep them inside.

• Affective cultures may interpret the less explicit signals of a neutral culture as less important. They may be ignored or even go unnoticed.

Neutral

• In a neutral culture people are taught that it is incorrect to show one's feelings overtly.

• They accept and are aware of feelings, but are in control of them.

• Neutral cultures may think the louder signals of an affective culture too excited, and over-emotional.

• In neutral cultures, showing too much emotion may erode your power to interest people.


In my society, it is considered unprofessional to express emotions overtly.Please select your position on the statement above:

a) Strongly agreeb) Agreec) Be undecidedd) Disagreee) Strongly disagree

Neutral versus AffectivePercentage not expressing emotions overtly

• Tekst– Tekst

• Tekst– tekst

151819

2428

3033

4043

4546474849

5155

6474

81

0 20 40 60 80 100

KuwaitEgyptSpain

RussiaArgentina

FranceItaly

BrasilUSA

UKSwedenPortugalDenmark

CanadaIndia

ChinaHong Kong

JapanEthiopia

03/ Neutral versus AffectiveEmotions in Control

Thinking:Head in Control

Feeling: Heart in Passion

Analysis,Paralysis

(1,10)

03/ NeutralEmotions in Control

(10,1)

Loving Neurotic



03/ NeutralEmotions in Control

Continually checking what your heart communicates

(10,10)



1. Do not reveal what they are thinking or feeling

2. May (accidentally) reveal tension in face and posture

3. Emotions build up and explode occasionally

4. Cool and self-possessed conduct is admired

5. Physical contact, gesturing or strong facial expressions often taboo

6. Statements often read out in monotone

1. Reveal thoughts and feelings verbally and non-verbally

2. Transperancy and expressiveness release tensions

3. Emotions flow easily, vehemently without inhibition

4. Heated, animated expressions admired

5. Touching, gesturing and strong facial expressions common

6. Statements read dramatically

Neutral Vs Affective

Specific

• Specific cultures start with the elements, the specifics.• First they analyze them separately, and then they put

them back together again. • In specific cultures, the whole is the sum of its parts. • Each person's life is divided into many components: • Interactions between people are highly purposeful and

well-defined.

Diffuse

• Diffuse cultures start with the whole and see each element in perspective of the total.

• All elements are related to each other. These relationships are more important than each separate element; so the whole is more than just the sum of its elements.

• Diffuse individuals have a large private sphere and a small public one. A friend is a friend in all respects: tennis, cooking, work, etc.

In the case of one American company trying to win a contract with a South American customer, disregard for the importance of the relationship lost the deal. The AmericanCompany made a slick, well-thought presentation which it thought clearly demonstrated its superior product and lower price. Its Swedish competitor took a week to get to know the customer. For five days the Swedes spoke about everything except the product. On the last the product was introduced. Though somewhat less attractive and slightly higher priced, the diffuse involvement of the Swedish company got the order. The Swedish company had learned that to do business in particular countries involves more than overwhelming the customer with technical details and fancy slides.

Specific Vs Diffuse

Specific

Public

Private

Public Public

Specific Relationship

Specific

Public Private

Diffuse

Diffuse

Diffuse Relationship

PrivatePrivate

Encounter Specific and Diffuse

Public

Private

Danger ZoneDanger Zone

Private

SpecificityA boss asking to paint his house

The colleague argues:You don’t have to paint the house if you don’t feel like

it.He is your boss in the company. Outside the company, he has little authority

The subordinate argues:Despite the fact that I don’t feel like it, I will paint the

house anyway. He is my boss and you cannot ignore it outside your work either.

SpecificityWould not paint the house

• Tekst– Tekst

• Tekst– tekst

324647

5258

656667

697071

7882

878889

9191

0 20 40 60 80 100

ChinaNigeriaKuwait

VenezuelaSingapore

KoreaBelgiumGreece

ThailandMexicoJapan

AustraliaUSA

CanadaUK

DenmarkNetherlands

Sweden

1. Direct, to the point, purposeful in relating

2. Precise, blunt, definitive and transparent

3. Principles and consistent moral stands independent of the person being addressed

1. Indirect, circuitous, seemingly “aimless” forms of relating

2. Evasive, tactful, ambiguous, even opaque

3. Highly situational morality depending upon the person and context encountered

Specific Vs Diffuse


STATUS ?

What You Do Who You Are

Achievement

• Achieved status refers to what an individual does and has accomplished.

• Individuals derive their status from what they have accomplished.

• A person with achieved status has to prove what he is worth over and over again: Status is accorded on the basis of his actions.

Ascription

• Ascribed status refers to what a person is and how others relate to his or her position in the community, in society or in an organization.

• Individuals derive their status from birth, age, gender or wealth.

• A person with ascribed status does not have to achieve to retain his status: it is accorded to him on the basis of his being.

1. Use of titles only when relevant to the competence you bring to the task

2. Respect for superior in hierarchy is based on how effectively his or her job is performed and how adequate their knowledge

3. Most senior managers are of varying age and gender and have shown proficiency in specific jobs

1. Extensive use of titles, especially when these clarify your status in the organization

2. Respect for superior in hierarchy is seen as a measure of your commitment to the organization and its mission

3. Most senior managers are male, middle aged and qualified by their background

Achievement Vs Ascription


How We Manage Time

Past – Present –or Future

• Past-oriented culturesthe future is seen as a repetition of past experiences. Respect for ancestors and collective historical experiences

• Present-oriented culturesnot much value to common past experiences nor to future prospects. Day-by-day experiences tend to direct people's life.

• Future-oriented culturesmost human activities are directed toward future prospects. Generally, the past is not considered to be vitally significant to a future state of affairs. Planning constitutes a major activity in future-oriented cultures.

E.g.

American and French telecom company giving tightly scheduled presentation in South America….American company continuing presentation without minister, else would get “delayed”…French focused on the long history with the country, indefinite after sales support. Winner – French

Think of the past, present and future as being in the shape of circles. Please draw three circles, representing past, present and future. Arrange three circles in any way you want that best shows how you feel about the relationship of the past, present and the future. You may use different size circles.

How we manage time

1. Talk about history , origin of family, business and nation

2. Motivated to recreate a golden age

3. Show respect for ancestors, predecessors and older people

4. Everything viewed in the context of tradition or history

Past Vs Present Vs Future

1. Activities and enjoyments of the present are most important

2. Plans not objected to, but rarely executed

3. Show interest in present relationships. “here and now”

4. Everything viewed in terms of modern impact and style

1. Much talk of prospects, future achievements, aspirations

2. Planning and strategizing done enthusiastically

3. Show great interest in the youthful and in future potential

4. Present and past used, exploited for future advantage


Internal versus External Control

Internal vs External

• Relations with Nature

Every culture has developed an attitude towards the natural environment. Survival has meant acting with or against nature. The way we relate to our environment is linked to the way we seek to have control over our own lives and over our destiny or fate.

Control nature

• Internalistic people have a mechanistic view of nature. They see nature as a complex machine and machines can be controlled if you have the right expertise. Internalistic people do not believe in luck or predestination. They are 'inner-directed' - one's personal resolution is the starting point for every action. You can live the life you want to live if you take advantage of the opportunities. Man can dominate nature - if he makes the effort.

Live with Nature

• Externalistic people have a more organic view of nature. Mankind is one of nature's forces, so should operate in harmony with the environment. Man should subjugate to nature and go along with its forces. Externalistic people do not believe that they can shape their own destiny. 'Nature moves in mysterious ways', and therefore you never know what will happen to you. The actions of externalistic people are 'outer-directed' - adapted to external circumstances.

Another obvious example is the use of face masks that are worn over the nose and mouth. In Tokyo you see many people wearing them especially in winter. When you inquire, why, you are told that when people have colds or a virus, they wear them so that they will not “pollute” or infect other people by breathing on them. In London they are worn by bikers and other athletes who do not want to be “polluted” by the environment.

Attitude to the Environment

1. Often dominating attitude bordering on aggressiveness towards environment

2. Conflict and resistance means that you have convictions

3. Focus is on self, function, own group and own organization

4. Discomfort when environment seems “out of control” or changeable

1. Often flexible attitude, willing to compromise and keep the peace

2. Harmony and responsiveness, that is sensibility

3. Focus is on the “other” i.e. customer, partner, colleague

4. Comfort with waves, shifts, cycles if these are natural

Internal Control Vs External Control

What to do???

We need to reconcile differences, i.e.

to be ourselves, but yet see and

understand how the others' perspectives

can help our own.

Your choicesIgnoring other cultures - Sticking to your own cultural standpoint. Impose

your own way of doing things because you believe it is the best way or because you have not recognized others way or don’t respect them

Abandon your standpoint - Go native'. ‘When in Rome, do as Roman's do' approach. Acting or trying to keep up – still an amateur. Other cultures will mistrust you - and you won't be able offer your own strengths to the marriage.

Compromise - Sometimes your way, sometimes others. A win-lose solution or even lose-lose solution. Compromise can not lead to a solution in which both parties are satisfied.

Reconciliation - What is needed is an approach where the two opposing views can come to fuse or blend - where the strength of one extreme is extended by considering and accommodating the other. This is reconciliation.

Cultural Adaptation – how people can change

1

2

3

4

5

6

Integration

Adaptation

Acceptance

Minimization

Defense

Denial

Only we are human.

‘They’ are wrong.

We are all the same under

the skin

We are all different … & it’s OK

I can see it from your

point of view

I always see things more

than one way

CULTURE

DIMENSIONS

Three Step Approach

RECOGNITIONIncrease awareness

of one’s owncultural perspective

RECONCILIATIONResolve cultural

differences

RESPECTAppreciate cultural

differences.

Integrated view on Leadership Competence

Whereas managers

make decisions on issues

High performing leaders and entrepreneurs continually reconcile dilemmas

Transcultural Competence =

the propensity to reconcile seemingly opposing values

Other

Cultural

Issues

Hofstede’s Value Dimensions

• Power distance is the level of acceptance by a society of the unequal distribution of power in institutions.

• Uncertainty avoidance refers to the extent to which people in a society feel threatened by ambiguous situations.

• Individualism refers to the tendency of people to look after themselves and their immediate family only and neglect the needs of society.

• Masculinity refers to the degree of traditionally “masculine” values that prevail in a society.

Degree the society reinforce

High Low

Individualism

individual achievement

A High Individualism ranking indicates that individuality and individual rights are paramount within the society. Individuals in these societies may tend to form a larger number of looser relationships.

A Low Individualism ranking typifies societies of a more collectivist nature with close ties between individuals. These cultures reinforce extended families and collectives where everyone takes responsibility for fellow members of their group.

Power Distance

inequality, between people

High Power Distance ranking indicates that inequalities of power and wealth have been allowed to grow within the society. These societies are more likely to follow a caste system that does not allow significant upward mobility of its citizens.

Low Power Distance ranking indicates the society de-emphasizes the differences between citizen's power and wealth. In these societies equality and opportunity for everyone is stressed.

Uncertainty Avoidance

uncertainty and ambiguity

High Uncertainty Avoidance ranking indicates the country has a high level of uncertainty and ambiguity. This is reflected in a high concern for rules, regulations, controls, and issues with career security.

Low Uncertainty Avoidance ranking indicates the country has a low level of ambiguity and uncertainty. This is reflected in a society that more readily accepts change and takes more and greater risks.

Masculinity traditional masculine work role model of male achievement, control, and power.

A High Masculinity ranking indicates the country experiences a high degree of gender differentiation. In these cultures, males dominate a significant portion of the society and power structure, with females being controlled by male domination.

A Low Masculinity ranking indicates the country has a low level of differentiation and discrimination between genders. In these cultures, females are treated equally to males in all aspects of the society.

Guidelines for Effective Communication in the Middle East

• Be patient. Recognize the Arab attitude toward time and hospitality – take time to develop friendship and trust, as these are prerequisites for any social or business transactions.

• Recognize that people and relationships matter more to Arabs than the job, company, or contract – conduct business personally, not by correspondence or telephone.

• Avoid expressing doubts or criticism when others are present – recognize the importance of honor and dignity to Arabs.

Guidelines for Effective Communication in the Middle East

(contd.)

• Adapt to the norms of body language, flowery speech, and circuitous verbal patterns in the Middle East, and don’t be impatient to “get to the point.”

• Expect many interruptions in meetings, delays in schedules, and changes in plans.

Differences between Japanese and American Communication Styles

(Exhibit 4-8)

• Japanese Ningensei Style of Communication

• Indirect verbal and nonverbal communication

• Relationship communication• Discourages confrontational

strategies• Strategically ambiguous

communication• Delayed feedback• Patient, longer term

negotiators• Uses fewer words

• U.S. Adversarial Style of Communication

• More direct verbal and nonverbal communication

• More task communication• Confrontational strategies

more acceptable• Prefers more to-the-point

communication• More immediate feedback• Shorter term negotiators• Favors verbosity

Differences Between Japanese and American Communication Styles

(Contd.)

• Distrustful of skilful verbal communicators

• Group orientation• Cautious, tentative• Complementary

communicators• Softer, heartlike logic• Sympathetic, empathetic,

complex use of pathos• Expresses and decodes

complex relational strategies and nuances

• Exalts verbal eloquence• More individualistic

orientation• More assertive, self-assured• More publicly critical

communicators• Harder, analytic logic

preferred• Favors logos, reason• Expresses and decodes

complex logos, cognitive nuances


(Contd.)

• Avoids decision making in public

• Makes decision in private venues, away from public eye

• Decisions via ringi and nemawashi (complete consensus process)

• Uses go-betweens for decision making

• Understatement and hesitation in verbal and nonverbal communication

• Frequent decision making in public

• Frequent decisions in public at negotiating tables

• Decisions by majority rule and public compromise is more commonplace

• More extensive use of direct person-to-person, player-to-player interaction for decisions

• May publicly speak in superlatives, exaggerations, nonverbal projection


(Contd.)

• Uses qualifiers, tentative, humility as communicator

• Receiver/listening-centered• Inferred meanings, looks

beyond words to nuances, nonverbal communication

• Shy, reserved communicators

• Distaste for purely business transactions

• Mixes social and business communication

• Favors fewer qualifiers, more ego-centered

• More speaker- and message-centered

• More face-value meaning, more denotative

• More publicly self-assertive• Prefers to “get down to

business” or “nitty gritty”• Tends to keep business

negotiating more separated from social communication


(Contd.)

• Utilizes matomari or “hints” for achieving group adjustments and saving face in negotiating

• Practices haragei or belly logic and communication

• More directly verbalizes management’s preference at negotiating tables

• Practices more linear, discursive, analytical logic; greater reverence for cognitive than for affective

Managing Cross-Cultural Communication

• Developing cultural sensitivity

• Careful encoding

• Selective transmission

• Careful decoding of feedback

• Follow-up actions

Behaviors Most Important to Intercultural Communication Effectiveness

• Respect (conveyed through eye contact, body posture, voice tone and pitch)

• Interaction posture (the ability to respond to others in a descriptive, nonevaluative, and nonjudgmental way)

• Orientation to knowledge (recognizing that one’s knowledge, perception, and beliefs are valid only for oneself and not for everyone else)

• Empathy• Interaction management• Tolerance for ambiguity• Other-oriented role behavior (one’s capacity to be flexible and to

adopt different roles for the sake of greater group cohesion and group communication

Revering Hierarchy:Israel 13 rank and class are less important

Germany 35

Netherlands 38

USA 40

Japan 54

France 68

Hong Kong 68

India 77

West Africa 77

Indonesia 78

China 80

Russia 95 rank and class are very important

Individualism-Collectivism:USA 91 Highly individualistic

Netherlands 80

France 71

Germany 67

Israel 54

Russia 50

India 48

Japan 46

Hong Kong 25

China 20

West Africa 20

Indonesia 14 Highly collectivistic

Taking Care of Business:Japan 95 Tough values

Germany 66

USA 62

Hong Kong 57

India 56

China 50

Israel 47

West Africa 46

Indonesia 46

France 43

Russia 40

Netherlands 14 Paternalistic values

Risk Avoidance:Japan 92 Avoid risk

Russia 90

France 86

Israel 81

Germany 65

China 60

West Africa 54

Netherlands 53

Indonesia 48

USA 46

India 40

Hong Kong 29

Long-term Orientation:China 118 future orientation

Hong Kong 96

Japan 80

India 61

Netherlands 44

Germany 31

France 30

USA 29

Indonesia 25

West Africa 16

Russia 10 past and/ or present orientation

Israel N/ A

Monochronic Vs. PolychronicMonochronic Culture Polychronic Culture

Interpersonal Relations Interpersonal relations are subordinate to present schedule

Present schedule is subordinate to Interpersonal relations

Activity Co-ordination Schedule co-ordinates activity; appointment time is rigid.

Interpersonal relations co-ordinate activity; appointment time is flexible

Task Handling One task at a time Many tasks are handled simultaneously

Breaks and Personal Time Breaks and personal time are sacrosanct regardless of personal ties.

Breaks and personal time are subordinate to personal ties.

Temporal Structure Time is inflexible; time is tangible

Time is flexible; time is fluid

Work/personal time separability

Work time is clearly separable from personal time

Work time is not clearly separable from personal time

Organisational Perception Activities are isolated from organisation as a whole; tasks are measured by output in time (activity per hour or minute)

Activities are integrated into organisation as a whole; tasks are measured as part of overall organisational goal

Definitions of Cultural Terms

• Self-reference criterion refers to the unconscious reference point of one’s own cultural values.

• Parochialism occurs when a Frenchman, for example, expects those from or in another country to automatically fall into patterns of behavior common in France.

• Ethnocentrism describes the attitude of those who operate from the assumption that their ways of doing things are best – no matter where or under what conditions they are applied.

cross-cultural communication what is culture universalism versus particularism individualism versus...

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