csec study guide - feb 14, 2012

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | FEBRUARY 14-20, 2012 11

Front left: Jamila Litchmore, Stephanie Lyew, Racquel Simpson, Mikail Samuels, Arianne Hammond, Corey Lindner, Regina Bish &Suzette Hart (asst coordinator). Top left back: Biko Kennedy, Renee Whitelocke, Jovan Legister, Samantha Hay & Chad Bryan.

Meet our team!Meet our team!

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | 12 FEBRUARY 14-20, 2012

FFRRAANNCCIINNEE TTAAYYLLOORR--CCAAMMPPBBEELLLLContributor

POINTS TO NOTEm A homologous series represents a

family of organic compounds with itsmembers having a general formula andshowing similar physical and chemicalproperties.

m The general formula of the alkanesis Cn H2n+2 while that of the alkenes is Cn H2n.

m Alkanes are saturated compoundsand so react by substitution. Alkenes areunsaturated (possessing a double bond)and so undergo addition reactions.

m Isomers occur when compoundshave the same general formula but differin their structural formula.

m Alkenes can be differentiated fromalkanes as they decolourise bromine andacidified potassium permanganatesolution. This is also used as a positivetest for the C=C double bond.

Let us now examine a few reactions ofthese organic compounds.

COMBUSTION REACTIONSAlkanes and alkenes burn in air to

produce carbon dioxide and water. Ifoxygen is limited, carbon monoxide andcarbon can also be formed. Alkenes willproduce a more sooty flame due to ahigher proportion of carbon thanalkanes.

EEtthhaannee::2C2H6 + 7O2 = 4CO2 + 6H2O 2C2H6 + 5O2 = 4CO + 6H2O2C2H6 + 3O2 = 4C + 6H2O

EEtthheennee::C2H4 + 3O2 = 2CO2 + 2H2O C2H4 + 2O2 = 2CO + 2H2OC2H4 + O2 = 2C + 2H2O

REACTIONS WITH BROMINEAlkanes undergo substitution

reactions: this occurs when atoms in themolecule are replaced by other atoms.

Eg. CH4 + Br2 = CH3Br + HBrBromomethane

Alkenes undergo addition reactions:this occurs when atoms or radicles areadded to the molecule.

eexxaammpplleeC2H4 + Br2 = C2H4Br2 dibromoethane

ADDITIONAL REACTIONS OFALKENES

1. Hydrogenation – addition ofhydrogen; using a nickel or platinumcatalyst at 2000C – an alkane isobtained. C2H4 + H2 = C2H6

ethene ethane

2. Hydration – addition of water.Conditions: catalyst phosphoric acid onsilica 3000C, 60 atm.

H H H HC = C + H-OH = H—-C—-C—-OHH H H H ethanol

3. Addition of hydrogen halides. (HCl, HBr, HI)

eexxaammppllee::C2H4 + HCl = C2H5Cl chloroethane

POLYMERISATION OF ETHENEWhen ethane is heated to 2000C under

pressure with a catalyst, it polymerizesto form a white solid, polythene orpolyethene.

nC2H4 = (C2H4)nsmall molecules large molecules

SOURCES OF ALKANES &ALKENES

The sources are natural gas and crudeoil (petroleum) which are mixtures ofhydrocarbons. Natural gas contains CH4,C2H6, C3H8 and C4H10,and petroleumcontains liquid hydrocarbons withgaseous hydrocarbons dissolved in theliquid.

Francine Taylor-Campbell teaches at JamaicaCollege. Send questions and comments tokkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

Organicchemistry

yl:Chemistryyl: English Language

BBEERRYYLL CCLLAARRKKEEContributor

WELCOME TO ‘class’ this week. You with yourexcellent memories know what we willbe dealing with in this lesson.

Themes – yes, you are correct!

Let us begin byreminding ourselvesabout this element ofdrama. Naturally, we havethemes in prose and poetryas well, but for now we willconfine ourselves to drama. Weare able to identify themes whenthrough the working of plot andcharacter we can make generalconclusions about human beings. Anobvious aspect of our story is love; MissAggy loves her son, he loves Lois who loves him too. Pa Benseems to love all three. Missa Mac loves his wife, and so on.Here, we need to ask ourselves some questions. Can weconclude that this play is saying that everybody loveseverybody else, or should we take it a bit further and say whatlove demonstrates in OOlldd SSttoorryy TTiimmee? Think about it. Love, wehave to agree, is a theme that is explored and shown to be apowerful, forgiving and unifying force.

How can we come to such a conclusion? We must examinethe actions of the characters and learn from these actions howtheir motivation causes them to behave. Pa Ben, for instance, isa loving neighbour. Early in the play we see the warmrelationship that he shares with Miss Aggy and, mostimportant, his concern for Len and his attempts to save himfrom getting a whipping. Later, it becomes clear that he is Len’sconfidant, knowing that he has a black girlfriend and keepinghis secret from his mother.

I am suggesting here that it is his love for both mother andson that causes him to do this for he knows the terrible quarrelwhich would follow any revelation to Miss Aggy. When Lenfails to write his mother, it is Pa Ben who urges him to do sofor he does not want her to continue to suffer. Whenever hesees her doing or thinking something that he considers wrong,he tries to steer her in the right direction, a task that is not easyand leads to a break in their friendship. Even then, he does notgive up until they resume their former bond.

Consider how he works to persuade Pearl not to spreadrumour about the poor relationship between Len and hismother; how he tries to convince Miss Aggy not to work obeahagainst her daughter-in-law, Lois, how he accedes to Len’sappeal for help to protect Lois. What about his active role ingetting Miss Aggy to her son’s home (despite his age) and hiscommitment to saving her from her own mistake? You canunderstand, clearly, that his love for others is pure (although hedoes not constantly make references to the Bible) and that thisis why he treats others well.

We are aware that Miss Aggy loves Marse Len and has agreat deal of respect for him. She maps out a path for hissuccess in life and uses methods for his achievement, of which

wemay

disapprove.Yes, she flogs him,

keeps him tied to his booksand is determined to choose not

just his friends but his wife. All this, aswell as the substantial sacrifices that she

makes, is because of her love for him. She does notwant him, as so many Jamaican parents say, to suffer as

she does.

We laugh and, perhaps, feel embarrassment for Len whenMiss Aggy visits him at school with her basket of food, but weshould realise that she is doing the best she can and she isdoing it out of ignorance of the consequences and out of lovefor her child. It is this love that causes her to grieve when shedoes not hear from him when he is in England; it is this lovethat causes her to urge him to marry the brown-skin girl with‘tall’ hair for, as she says, “it’s advancement”. (There was a timein our history when some Jamaican men went to study abroad,particularly to England. You can talk to your grandparentsabout the results.)

Discuss among yourselves what ‘advancement’ means toMiss Aggy. She buys the house for Len because she loves him,and she objects to his marriage to Lois because she does notbelieve that a black woman is good enough for him. Finally, herdeep concern for her son’s safety drives her to turn to obeah toprotect him from a wife who could only, in her estimation, haveused underhand means to get him to marry her.

Do you see how love gets Lois in trouble? She, in givingfinancial support to Len for his studies, commits fraud. Thisopens the door for George to exploit her. Nowhere is loveshown in a better light than in her forgiveness of Miss Aggyand her strong resolve to save her.

Len, too, has love for others. Despite his mother’s harshtreatment of him in his childhood, her continued interference inhis life when he is a grown man and her contempt displayedtowards his wife, he cares intensely for her. There is a pointwhen, confused by the situation in which he has to seekprotection for his wife from his mother, he does not seem tocare but this is only a temporary lapse. Watch him pray asfervently as the others to save her from the result of her ownaction.

In the end, as Pa Ben points out to the audience, all is wellbecause of the caring, forgiving and unifying force of love.Your task now is to identify the other themes – racism,ignorance, etc – and put together the evidence for your choice.

Be good to yourselves and others as you grow intobecoming the worthwhile citizens our world needs. God bless!

Beryl Clarke is an independent contributor. Send questions and commentsto kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

Dealing with

themes


NNAATTAALLEEEE AA.. JJOOHHNNSSOONNContributor

STUDENTS, THIS is lesson 22 of our series of IT lessons. This week we will continue to look at controlstatements and flow charts.

THE ‘WHILE’ LOOPThe While loop syntax is shown below:While Variable not equal to Control_Variable Do

Block Statement(s)Endwhile

The While loop is an example of an indefinite loop; it facilitates the repetition of a block of instructionsuntil a certain condition is met. No one knows exactly how many times the block statements (instructions)will be carried out. Using the same example of having a bowl of soup with a spoon, no one can tell howmany sips you would take that will fill your stomach. It depends on the size of your stomach and the size ofthe spoon. The algorithm would look something like this:

EXAMPLE 1

Please note you use the WHILE LOOP when you do not know exactly how many times a block ofstatements will be carried out. In this case there will be some terminating condition.

EXAMPLE 2Write a pseudocode algorithm to read a set of integer numbers terminated by 999. The pseudocode

should find the sum and average of the numbers. The algorithm should also output the sum and average ofthe numbers

PSEUDOCODE VERSION

Algorithm Sum and Average This program will read a set of integer numbers and calculate the sum and average of the numbers.

THE ‘REPEAT-UNTIL’ LOOPThe repeat-until loop syntax is shown below:REPEAT

Block Statement(s)

UNTIL (condition) orREPEAT

Block Statement(s)

UNTIL <condition is true>

See you next week when we will continue to look at control structures and flow charts. Remember, if youfail to prepare, prepare to fail.

Natalee A. Johnson teaches at Ardenne High School. Send questions and comments to kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

Control statementsyl:Information Technology

part 2

The repeat-until loop is similar to the While loop except thecondition is tested at the end of the loop. Thus, the block ofstatement(s) will continue to execute as long as the specifiedcondition in the UNTIL statement is false. Using the same exampleof having a bowl of soup with a spoon, you would continue to sipyour soup as long as you have soup in your bowl.


HHYYAACCIINNTTHH TTUUGGMMAANNContributor

IN BUSINESS departments the duties of the clerk are just as important as his/hersuperior. The duties will involve many activities such as filing and word-processing, but a clerk in the factory office will be involved specifically with the

following duties:m preparing documents used in productionm chasing progressm ensuring safety proceduresm liaising with other departmentsm preparing job cards, progress chartsm maintaining time cards for workers

In addition to these tasks, the clerk may be asked to organise the hours of work forthe factory workers. If production takes place on a 24-hour basis then it is likely thatworkers will be placed on a shift system. For this, the clerk will need to organiseworkers on a roster, placing each worker on the shift system and allocating adequatetime off.

A daily report of how productivity levels and output have gone for that day is veryimportant. This information is used for future planning by management and assistsin ensuring that jobs are proceeding to plan. A progress chaser is what determineseach stage of production so that delays do not arise where one stage of productionmay be slowing up work elsewhere.

DOCUMENTS USED IN FACTORY OFFICEm JJoobb ccaarrddss Give the details and description of the job and the necessary requirements for the

job to be carried out. It accompanies each job or batch as it progresses through thestages of production.

m PPllaannnniinngg mmaasstteerr This contains every detail about the entire production process to enhance the use

of equipment and labour, keep the production process running, meet deadlines andreach for better quality. It will show the rate of production that should be attaineddaily or weekly and will give details of the factors to be employed in order to achievethis.

m JJoobb ccoosstt ccaarrddss This is specific information to the organisation about the cost for producing a

particular unit of production. The cost may include utility, labour and material, andsalaries.

m TTiimmee ccaarrddss This shows the time that the worker ‘clocks-in’ and ‘clocks-out’ of work. The time

card is usually used with a mechanical clock machine. When the worker arrives atwork, it is placed in the machine where the time is printed and is also done at the endof the working day. This card is now used to calculate the number of hours workedper week.

m QQuuaalliittyy ccoonnttrrooll ccaarrdd It is important that organisations maintain their quality standards, hence persons

are employed specially to make checks on finished products.

Factorycontrol office

(part 2)

yl:Office Administration

Students, I am going to give you a sample of some of these documents. It is important that you learn them and practise fillingthem out.

WINSTON SILL/FREELANCE PHOTOGRAPHER

DJ Bambino and Karen Clarke hanging out at the Pepsi Blue Carpet celebrity party, held at Fiction Lounge,Market Place, Constant Spring Road, on Thursday, February 2.

Hyacinth Tugman teaches at Glenmuir High School.Send questions and comments to kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm


CCLLEEMMEENNTT RRAADDCCLLIIFFFFEEContributor

IDO expect that by now you are comfortable with finding the length,gradient and midpoint of the line joining two given points. Thesewill be further illustrated by giving you the solution to the

homework.

HOMEWORKGiven the points A(-8, 2) and B(3 , - 2) find the following with

respect to the line AB:(i) Gradient, m(ii) midpoint, M (iii) length of the line AB(iv) Gradient of XY which is parallel to AB (v) the gradient of AC which is perpendicular to AB

SOLUTION

We will continue coordinate geometry by considering the equationof straight lines

REMINDERSm All straight lines have the equation: y = mx + c where m is the

gradient and c is the intercept; m and c are constants.

m When the axes cut at the origin (0 , 0), the equation of the x axisis y = 0 and for the y axis it is x = 0.

m y = 2x + 3 is the equation of a line if for each point (x , y) on theline the y coordinate is equal to twice the x coordinate of the samepoint plus 3. The points (2 , 7) and (- 1 , 1) are, therefore, on the line.

This fact about an equation is not usually emphasized but must beclearly noted.

m The point (x , y) is on the line y = mx + c if it satisfies theequation. You may show that (1 , - 2) is a point on the line y = 3x - 5by substituting x = 1 and y = - 2 into the equation. (Substitution showsthat - 2 = - 2).

m The value of c, the intercept of a line, is found by substituting x =0 into its equation. Do you know why? If not, please investigate.

METHODS OF FINDING THE EQUATIONThe following are the three methods which are commonly used to

find the equation of a straight line.(i) Evaluating the equation given the gradient m and the intercept c.

EXAMPLEFind the equation given that m = 3/4 and c = 1.

The equation is y = mx + c. Substituting y = 3x + 1 or 4y = 3x + 4.4

Answer is 4y = 3x + 4.

This method can be extended to a given line on a graph. In thiscase, both the gradient and the intercept can be found from the graphand the equation determined.

(ii) A feature of the second method is:Given the coordinates of two points, (x1 , y1) and (x2 , y2),the equation is: y - y1 = y2 - y1

x - x1 x2 - x1

Using the points A(4 , - 1), B(1 ,1) in the above, theny - -1 = 1- -1 = 2x - 4 1 - 4 -3 y + 1 = -2x - 4 33y + 3 = -2x + 83y + 2x = 5.

Answer is 3y + 2x = 5.

(iii) The formula given in (ii) may be expressed as y - y1 = m wherem is the gradient of the line. x - x1

I am sure you realize that m = y2 - y1

x2 - x1

This formula is used, given the coordinates of a point on the lineand the gradient of the line.

EXAMPLEFind the equation of the line if the gradient m = ? and the point

(1 , 2) is on the line.y - y1 = m, that is y - 2 = 2/3x - x1 x - 1

3y - 6 = 2x - 23y - 2x = 4Answer is 3y - 2x = 4

Here is another example.

(a) The equation of the line above is y = mx + c.(i) State the value of c.(ii) Determine the value of m.(iii) Determine the coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment AB.

(b)The point (-2, k) lies on the line. Determine the value of k.

SOLUTION 2

HOMEWORK1. A straight line HK cuts the y axis at H (0 , -1). The gradient of HK is ?.Show that the equation of the line HK is 2x - 3y = 3.

2. A straight line is drawn through the points A(- 5 , 3) and B(1 , 2).(i) Determine the gradient of AB.(ii) Write the equation of the line AB.

I must emphasize again that the problems based on this topic arefairly routine. It will do you well to practise them so as not to miss outon the opportunity to score full marks for the question if it is presentedin the June exam this year.

Have a productive week.

Clement Radcliffe is an independent contributor. Send questions and comments tokkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

Coordinategeometry

yl:Mathematics


accountsRROOXXAANNNNEE WWRRIIGGHHTTContributor

THE QUESTION below is presented with the recommended solution. You are to read it carefully thenmatch your thoughts with the reasoning given before you attempt to work it. After you are finishedworking the question, match your answer with the one given. This should help tremendously in

correcting your mistakes, as well as enabling recollection of principles applied.

QUESTION:(a) During the year 2011, Kirk Lee held an average stock at cost price of $22, 560. His selling prices were

obtained by adding 25% to the cost prices. [>1] his turnover for 2011 was $338, 400.His selling and administrative expenses were 12% of turnover.

Calculate:i. Lee’s gross profit for 2011ii. The rate of turnover of stock for 2011iii. The net profit for 2011

(b) For the year 2011, Lee has reduced his mark-up on cost price to 20%. [>2] He has also spent $4, 000on advertising. His average stock remains the same in amount and cost as in 2011, and selling andadministrative expenses (excluding the additional advertising) will be $37, 792 for the full year.

Calculate the minimum rate of turnover of stock if he is to earn, at least, a net profit of $30, 400. [>3]

REASONING:

Interpretationof final

yl:Principles of Accounts

SOLUTION(a) (i) Turnover of Sales (125%) = $338, 400 Gross Profit (25%) = $ 67, 680

======

25% x $338, 400125%

OR

Turnover of Sales (125%) = $338, 400Cost of Goods Sold (100%) = 100% x $338, 400 = $270, 720

125%

Therefore, Gross Profit = Sales - Cost of Goods Sold= $338, 400 - $270, 720= $67, 680

(ii) Rate of turnover of stock = Cost of Goods SoldAverage Stock

= 100% /125% x $338, 400$22, 560

= 12

(iii) Net Profit = Gross Profit - Selling and Administrative Expenses= $67, 680 - (12% x $338, 400)= $27, 070

(b) Net Profit = Gross Profit -(Selling & Administrative Expenses + Advertising)$30, 400 = Gross Profit - ($37, 792 + $4, 000)$30, 400 = Gross Profit - $41, 792Gross Profit = $30, 400 + $41, 792= $72, 192

Gross Profit (20%)= $72 ,192

Cost of Goods Sold (100%) = 100%/20% x $72, 192 = $360, 960

Rate of turnover of stock = Cost of Goods SoldAverage Stock

= $360, 960$22, 560

Rate of turnover of stock = 16

EXAMINATION PREPARATION TIP:As you get closer to your examination, to assist with your preparation we encourage you to form a small

study group, four is a good number. Ensure the other three members have the same goal to achieve goodresults in their external examination as you do. Make a team commitment to stay focus whenever andwherever you meet and choose the least distracting place and time to study.

Visit with me again next week when I present on the Manufacturing Account. See you then.

Roxanne Wright teaches at Immaculate Academy. Send questions and comments to kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

Yellow and gold macaws remain faithful to one partner for life; humans could learn a lotfrom them.


YYVVOONNNNEE HHAARRVVEEYYContributor

HELLO AGAIN. It is a pleasure forme to continue the lessons onmarketing. This week the lesson

will surround the factors that influenceconsumer behaviour.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCECONSUMER BEHAVIOUR:

PRICE Consumers will adjust their demand

for particular goods and services as theprices of them change. Generallyspeaking, the lower the price the greaterthe quantity demanded.

PRICE OF SUBSTITUTESIf the price of substitutes is lower,

then consumers will switch from therelatively dearer goods and services tothe relatively cheaper goods andservices.

QUALITYConsumers will gravitate towards the

better quality products and may even bewilling to pay more for them.

TASTEPeople differ in their preferences for

goods and services so the marketer hasto identify these preferences.

TRADITIONLong-standing traditions and customs

may influence demand. For example,some households purchase Graceproducts because their mothers andgrandmothers before them purchasedthis brand of products and they see noreason to stop.

INCOME/AFFORDABILITYThe amount of money earned affects

one’s ability to purchase goods andservices. Therefore, some highly pricedgoods and services will only bepurchased by the higher paid wage-earners.

SPENDING PATTERNSSome consumers are accustomed to

spending a certain amount of money. Ifprices fall they may not spend any onthose goods and services because theyhave already established a pattern ofspending which they are not willing tochange.

BRAND LOYALTYMarketers often try to create loyalty

for their products among consumers.The hope is that the customer will staywith their existing products because theyhave satisfied them for some time.Customers who are loyal to certainbrands cannot be easily wooed orenticed away from these products sincethey are satisfied with them.

Now we will consider another aspectof marketing – market structures. Wewill start the topic this week andcontinue it next week.

MARKET STRUCTURESDDeeffiinniittiioonnThis refers to market classification

according to number of firms in theindustry, type of product, theexistence or non-existence of barriersto entry, and level or degree ofcompetition.

MAIN MARKET STRUCTURES:m Perfect competitionm Monopolym Monopolistic competitionm Oligopoly

FOR EACH MARKET STRUCTURETHE CANDIDATE SHOULD KNOWTHE FOLLOWING:

m Definitionm Characteristics or featuresm Advantagesm Disadvantagesm Short-run and long-run profits

PERFECT COMPETITIONDDeeffiinniittiioonnPerfect competition refers to a market

structure in which there are numerousfirms in the industry, each selling ahomogeneous product. There are no real

examples of perfect competition in reallife. However, some markets approachnear to perfection. These includeagricultural markets, stock markets andmarkets for foreign exchange.

CHARACTERISTICSSome of the key characteristics of

perfect competition are:

1. Numerous buyers and firms inthe industry. This means thatneither one firm nor one buyer can

affect the price in the market. Each is aprice taker.

2. The product being sold ishomogeneous. This means thatthere are no differences in what

each firm is selling, whether real orimaginary. Thus, if a firm increases itsprice, its sales will fall to zero as thebuyers will buy from the other sellerswho have exactly the same product.

3. Perfect knowledge of the market.Both buyers and sellers knowexactly what is happening in the

market. For example, if prices changethey are immediately aware of it.

4. Perfectly elastic demand curve.This indicates that the firms cannotcontrol price but can sell any

amount at the ruling price.

5. Firms are independent. Thismeans that they do not take intoconsideration what the other firms

in the industry do.

6. Very high levels of competition.Competition among firms is due tothe fact that there are numerous

firms selling exactly the same product,each competing for the same consumerdemand.

7. No advertising. Advertising is notnecessary since everybody sellsthe same thing. In the space of

competitive and persuasive advertising,there may be a small amount ofinformative advertising.

Your task, in preparation for nextweek’s lesson, is to continue to look atperfect competition in terms of theheadings listed above. See you then.

Yvonne Harvey teaches at Glenmuir HighSchool. Send questions and comments to kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

Marketing(part 2)

yl:Principles of Business

The Team from GC Foster emerged winners in the 4x800 Mens Relay at the JAAA/Puma/Jamalco TrackMeet recently. The team received a prize of $20,000 from sponsors Flow. In the photo accepting theaward from Jeanette Lewis, Public Relations Manager at Flow are Otaine Bartley, Ryon Reid, AndreHeadley and Elton Whitely.


DDEEBBBBIIOONN HHYYMMAANNContributor

WHAT IS PEASANT FARMING?Peasant farming describes small-

scale farming for subsistence as well asfor cash sale in the market. Initially,small famers in the British Caribbeanproduced crops for domestic use as wellas for sale in the market. However, after1860 these farmers began to export theircrops.

REASONS FOR DEVELOPINGALTERNATIVE CROPS

1. After 1834, small-scale agriculturegrew out of the free-village movement asfree blacks were determined to leave thesugar estates. Ex-slaves wanted tobecome independent of estate labourand to earn a living from the cultivationof small crops.

2. The decline of the sugar industryduring the 19th century led to thecultivation of alternative export crops.Blacks needed to find new ways ofearning a living. These new cropsdeveloped fastest from the 1890s whensugar prices slumped.

3. Peasant farmers were able tocultivate new crops as no large amountof capital or expensive equipment wasrequired. Land was available and smallplots could produce favourable yields.Markets were available locally andabroad for the sale of these crops.

HOW EX-SLAVES WERE ABLE TOACQUIRE LAND

1. Ex-slaves pooled their resources to buy land (in the case of British Guiana).

2. Planters sold unused estate lands to the ex-slaves.

3. Ex-slaves squatted on Crown land.

4. Land speculators sold land to the ex-slaves.

5. The missionaries in Jamaica assisted ex-slaves in acquiring land.

GROWTH OF THE PEASANTRYPeasant farming was confined to

territories where land was available forex-slaves to acquire it. Large territoriessuch as Jamaica, British Guiana andTrinidad had land available so ex-slaveswere able to develop peasant farming.However, in these territories sugar wasthe main export crop. In the WindwardIslands, sugar became unprofitable sonew crops were cultivated. Land wasavailable in the hills of the Windward

Islands for cultivation of these newcrops. In Antigua, St Kitts and Barbadosthe scarcity of land made it difficult towithdraw from plantation labour. Thepeasantry was slow in developing inthese areas.

The Royal Commission of 1896-7made a number of recommendationsencouraging the development of small-crop cultivation in the British Caribbean.

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE1896 ROYAL COMMISSION

1. Diversification of crops, especially fruits.

2. There should be the establishment of agricultural departments and agricultural education in schools to help with the scientific cultivation.

3. Small farming was encouraged and there was the suggestion of a land-settlement scheme. In addition, there should be the creation of banks to provide financial assistance to farmers.

4. There should be the improvement of communication, in particular with the steamers from New York.

COLONIAL GOVERNMENTPOLICIES THAT ASSISTED THEPEASANTRY

a. In the 1860s, the colonial officebegan to encourage local governmentsto allow black farmers to acquire land. InTrinidad, Sir Arthur Gordon took the leadin 1868 by beginning the sale of Crownland to freemen at low prices. In British

Guiana, the price of land was reduced somore blacks were able to acquire it. Inother colonies, farmers were encouragedto buy wasteland from uncultivatedplantations. In Grenada, sugarcultivation was abandoned so thenumber of small farmers increased by1910. In Jamaica, the number of smallfarmers doubled in the period 1860-1910. In St Vincent, abandoned estateswere given to arrowroot farmers. Thiswas the colonial government’s effort toprovide land to farmers through a land-settlement scheme.

b. The Imperial Department ofAgriculture suggested suitable crops tobe grown in the different islands. It alsoaimed at introducing new crops in areaswhere sugar was not the ideal crop.

c. Botanical gardens were establishedto experiment with new varieties of seedsand to demonstrate new farmingmethods to small farmers, distributeplants and seeds, and organise coursesin agriculture.

d. Government grants and loans wereprovided to improve the steamshipservice between Canada, the UnitedStates and the West Indies. For example,the government gave £20, 000 to Eldersand Fyffe to carry 40, 000 bunches ofbananas to England every fortnight. Thisassistance was to enable fruits and otherfoods to be transported quickly to themarkets.

e. The price of land was reduced toencourage small farmers to purchase itfor the cultivation of new export crops.

NEW CROPS TERRITORIES1. Cocoa Trinidad, Grenada,

St Lucia, Dominica

2. Bananas Jamaica

3. Rice British Guiana

4. Limes Dominica, St Lucia

5. Sea Island Montserrat, Cotton St Vincent

6. Arrowroot St Vincent

7. Coconuts Trinidad, Nevis

8. Rubber Trinidad, British Guiana

CONTRIBUTION OF THEPEASANTRY TO THE SOCIAL LIFEAND ECONOMIC LIFE OF THECARIBBEAN

1. The peasant farmer class grew innumber and importance as sugarplantation agriculture declined, sopeasant production became vital to theeconomies of many territories,particularly in the Lesser Antilles.

2. Peasant farmers were able toimprove their standard of living from theincome earned from the sale of newcrops.

3. The establishment of banksencouraged small farmers to save moneyearned from the sale of crops. Perhaps,later, this money was used to buy newequipment or more land.

Debbion Hyman teaches at St Hugh’s HighSchool. Send questions and comments to kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

Peasantryyl:History

WINSTON SILL/FREELANCE PHOTOGRAPHER

From left: Tifa, Pepsi Brand Manager Ayanna Kirton and Ce’cile hanging out at the Pepsi Blue Carpetcelebrity party, held at Fiction Lounge, Market Place, Constant Spring Road on Thursday night,February 2.


NNAATTAASSHHAA TTHHOOMMAASS--FFRRAANNCCIISSContributor

THIS WEEK we turn our attention topersuasive/argumentative writing. This lessonis particularly helpful in assisting you with

section 4 of Paper 02. This section of the CXCEnglish A paper tests your persuasive/argumentative skills, so it is important that youmaster these areas.

Persuasive speech or writing aims at convincingthe reader to agree with a particular viewpoint. It issupported by evidence and relies on persuasivedevices to make its appeal. The main focus ofpersuasive language is the audience, reader orlistener.

So, what then are the elements that you need toconsider? In persuasive discourse, the writer makesuse of content, rhetorical devices, structure andlanguage. All the choices are guided byconsideration of the audience.

Are you familiar with thefollowing strategieswriters or speakersuse to persuadetheiraudience?

m Use of evidencem Use of analogym Use of contrastm Use of repetitionm Use of reliable sources of authoritym Appeal to emotionm Use of rhetorical question (a question which does not require a verbal response)m Direct personal appealm Irony/sarcasmm Hyperbole

(overstatement/exaggeration)m Pun (a play onwords)

m Metaphorsand similes

There are many great public speakers whom youcan emulate. Can you think of any who inspire you?Many of our politicians are quite skilful inpersuading the electorate to vote for them; this wasquite evident in our recent general election. Whatare some of the strategies from the list above thatthey employed?

Well, read the following extract taken from afamous speech by Dr Martin Luther King, Jr andidentify the strategies employed in the speech:

I say to you today, myfriends, that in spite of

the difficulties andfrustrations of the

moment I still

have a dream. It is a dream rooted in the Americandream.

I have a dream that one day this nation will riseup and live out the true meaning of its creed: “Wehold these truths to be self-evident; that all men arecreated equal.”

I have a dream that one day on the red hills ofGeorgia, the sons of former slaves and the sons offormer slaveowners will be able to sit at the table ofbrotherhood.

I have a dream that one day even the state ofMississippi, a desert state sweltering with the heatof injustice and oppression, will be transformed intoan oasis of freedom and justice.

...I have a dream today....This is our hope. This is the faith with which I

return to the South. With this faith we will be able tohew out of the mountain of despair a stone of hope.With this faith we will be able to transform thejangling discords of our nation into a beautifulsymphony of brotherhood. With this faith we will beable to work together, to struggle together, to go tojail together, to stand up for freedom together,knowing that we will be free one day.

Isn’t this a powerful speech? How manypersuasive strategies were you able to identify? Innext week’s class I will discuss a few strategiesfound in the extract. Until then, touch someone’s lifeby extending a helping hand.

Natasha Thomas-Francis teaches at Glenmuir HighSchool. Send questions and comments to

kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

Let’s getargumentative!

yl:English Language


MMAAUURREEEENN CCAAMMPPBBEELLLLContributor

THE WORD demography comes from the Greek wordmeaning description of people. It is further defined as thestudy of human populations. In its extensive outlook,

demographers will examine the size and composition ofpopulations as well as the movement of people from one area toanother. A demographer, as part of his job, will look at theeffects of population growth and its control.

Demography is, therefore, the study of the characteristics ofhuman populations, looking at various aspects of a human life.It relies a lot on statistical data, collecting, interpreting andpresenting the information to determine trends. Most of the dataused by demographers come from censuses taken every 10years in most countries. Some areas looked at bydemographers include information about basic life events likebirth and death rates, migration, employment, divorce,contraceptive use, economics, access to running water,education, life expectancy, and the list goes on. These statisticsare used by various individuals, groups and organisations in avariety of different ways.

Demographers will always try to predict what will happen inthe future as they need to avoid or plan for the future andpotential problems. They may study why things happen andtheir consequences, including the effects of population trendson the environment. Having this information will help todetermine how governments allocate their hard- earned fundsand where and how resources will be used. It is very importantfor people to respond to surveys giving accurate answers at alltimes. This is because the analyzed results are often used, forexample, to advocate for disadvantaged groups of people, todetermine policies and decide where a new school will be built

or to decide on the location of a new health clinic or job-creation resources.

CONCEPTSThere are many concepts and or terms associated with the

study of human populations. These include fertility andfecundity, mortality and life expectancy, migration, crude deathrate and crude birth rate.

FERTILITY AND FECUNDITYFertility refers to the number of children that an average

woman bears during her reproductive years – from puberty tomenopause. Fecundity refers to the number of children anaverage woman is capable of bearing. Factors such as health,finances and personal decision will affect fecundity.

Crude birth rate is the number of live births for every 1,000people in a population. This is calculated by dividing thenumber of live births in a year by the total population and thenmultiplying the result by 1,000.

MORTALITY AND LIFE EXPECTANCYMortality refers to the number of deaths in a nation’s

population; this will also greatly influence population size. Thecrude death rate or the number of deaths annually per 1,000people in the population is calculated by dividing the number ofdeaths in a year by the total population and then multiplying theresult by 1,000.

Infant mortality rate is the number of deaths among infantsunder age one for each 1,000 live births in a year. A low infantmortality correlates with a higher life expectancy, which is theaverage lifespan of a society’s population.

MIGRATIONMigration is the movement of people from one place to

another to settle, which will affect population size. While somemigration is involuntary, such as the slave trade into theCaribbean, other migration is voluntary, such as when familiesmove from the rural areas to the cities.

Migration into an area, such as from America to Jamaica iscalled immigration and is measured as the immigration rate,which is the number of people entering a region per 1,000people in the population. Migration out of an area, oremigration, is measured as the emigration rate, which is thenumber leaving per 1,000 people in the population. Internalmigration is the movement from one area to another within acountry.

POPULATION GROWTHFertility, mortality and migration all influence the size of a

society’s population. Poorer countries tend to grow mostly frominternal causes such as high birth rates. Richer countries, onthe other hand, tend to grow from both internal causes andmigration. Demographers determine a population’s naturalgrowth rate by subtracting the crude death rate from the crudebirth rate.

ACTIVITIESa. Define demography.b. Why do we need to study the population of a country?c. What areas of a country do demographers usually study?d. Suggest to your government three reasons they must inform citizens of the need to be truthful on population surveys.

Maureen Campbell teaches at St Hugh’s High School. Send questions andcomments to kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

yl:Social StudiesDe

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MMOONNAACCIIAA WWIILLLLIIAAMMSSContributor

HELLO AGAIN, students. How are you this week? I hopeall your days have been good so far and that everythingis going well with you.

Last week we looked at the structure and function ofteeth in preparation for our study of digestion. This weekwe will begin to look at the process of digestion. To dothis properly you will need to know the different parts ofthe alimentary canal. This is the section of the body inwhich digestion takes place. You need to know thesequencing of the different parts as well as theirnames and functions. Do not be surprised if youare asked to label these parts in an exam. Oneadvantage of getting this type of question is thatthis is one of the easiest sections of thesyllabus to learn and remember. Wewill begin by taking a generallook at the process and then amore detailed look at whathappens in each section ofthe canal.

What happens to thefood we eat and wheredoes it happen?

The alimentary canal isa long, muscular tuberunning from the mouth tothe anus. The walls of the tubecontain muscles which contractand relax to send food throughits lumen. This movement isknown as peristalsis.

Along the tube at specificplaces there are special muscles which serve to block off the tubecompletely, causing the section that is blocked off to act independentlyof the others. These muscles are known as sphincter muscles. Thealimentary canal also has special cells which secrete mucus. Thesecells are called goblet cells. Mucus helps the food to slide easily alongthe tube.

The parts of the canal are: the mouth, the buccal cavity, theoesaphagus, the stomach, the duodenum, the small intestines, thelarge intestines and the colon followed by the anus.

The process by which food is taken in to the buccal cavity throughthe mouth is known as ingestion. The food contains large molecules;remember that these large molecules cannot enter or leave the cell bydiffusion. This means that they must be broken down into smallermolecules so that they can be absorbed. This process is known asdigestion. After the food is digested, it has to be sent from thealimentary canal to the blood stream. This process is known asabsorption. Food which cannot be digested and hence cannot beabsorbed is egested.

Two types of digestion take place in the alimentary canal. These are:m Mechanical This is carried out by the teeth and the churning actions of the canal.

m Chemical This involves a chemical change from one molecule to another, for

example, large molecules converted to smaller ones using enzymes.Simple sugars, water, minerals and vitamins are small molecules and,hence, do not need to be digested. Starch, proteins and fats are largemolecules and must be digested before they can be of use to the body.Starchy foods, for example yam, potato, cassava and bread are brokendown/digested by the enzyme amylase/diastase to produce simplesugars. Proteins, for example milk, eggs and meat are brokendown/digested by protein enzymes known as proteases to give aminoacids. Lipids/fats, for example, butter and oil are brokendown/digested to produce fatty acids and glycerol.

A CLOSER LOOK AT THE DIGESTIVE PROCESS

MOUTHm Digestion begins in the buccal cavity – some textbooks will state that it begins in the mouth but the scientifically correct term is the buccal cavity, the mouth being the opening or entrance to the cavity.m Food is ground to a pulp by the molars and premolars.m Food is mixed with saliva produced by the salivary glands.m Saliva contains the enzyme amylase which begins the digestion of the starch in the food.m The pH of the solution in the mouth is neutral - pH 7. This pH is the one in which amylase works best.

m Food isformed into a

bolus or ballwhich the tongue

pushes to the back of the

mouth.m Digestion of the

starchy material in thefood is not complete

because the food does notremain in the mouth for

very long.

OESAPHAGUSThe oesaphagus lies beside

the larynx. The larynx is the tubeleading to the lung. While the

bolus is being swallowed theepiglottis closes the trachea to

prevent the bolus from going into it.The bolus passes through the

oesaphagus by alternate relaxation andcontraction of its muscles in the walls.

Do you remember what this movement iscalled? Of course, you do; you just read it!

It is called peristalsis.

STOMACHThe sphincter muscles at the entrance to the

stomach opens and the food is released into thestomach. The food remains in the stomach for two

to three hours. Peristalsis continues and the food ismixed with enzymes and mucus to form a mixture

called chyme. Mucus is secreted by the goblet cells.

GASTRIC PITS PRESENT IN THE STOMACH:m Protease enzymes – pepsin and renninm Hydrochloric acid (HCl):

v changes the pH of the stomach making it acid.v Kills any bacteria that might be in the food.

m Pepsin – begins the digestion of proteins breaking them downinto polypeptides. The pH required for pepsin is pH 1-2. This meansthat the digestion of starch will stop because amylase cannot work inan acid medium.

m Rennin – produced in the stomach of young animals – changesthe casein, the soluble protein in milk to caseinogen, causing it tobecome insoluble and clot. The clotted milk can now be broken downby the enzyme pepsin.

The sphincter muscles at the lower end of the stomach now opensand food is released into the duodenum, the first part of the smallintestine.

Next week we will continue to trace the journey of food through thealimentary canal.

Monacia Williams teaches at Glenmuir High School. Send questions and commentsto kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

The digestive processyl:Biology


MMAARRJJOORRIIEE HHEENNRRYYContributor

THERE ARE three papers by which students are assessed in thegeography examinations:

Paper 01 - Comprising 60 multiple-choice itemsPaper 02 - Commonly referred to as the essay paper.

Rather than continuous writing as in an English essay, this paper has constructed -response questions.

Paper 03 - The school-based assessment

Aspects of Paper 03 were discussed at the start of this series oflessons. By now, you should have completed and submitted this fieldstudy report which is assessed by your teacher. The marks for them aresubmitted to the examination office some time before you write Papers01 and 02.

My discussion this week focuses on Paper 02. This paper has foursections: A, B, C and D. Section A - which is Question 1 - is thecompulsory map-reading question. For several weeks have Idiscussed some of the skills that you must have for this section of thepaper. I hope you have taken my advice to practise them in order toperfect them and ensure a good mark for this question. The total marksfor Paper 02 is 100. Of that, Question 1 is allotted the most marks: allof 28.

Section B tests Natural Systems; Section C – Human Systems andSection D – Human-Environment Systems.

In contrast to Section A where you are given one compulsoryquestion, you have a choice of questions in Sections B, C and D.Three questions are given in each of these sections from which you

choose only one to do. Twenty-four marks areallotted to each of these questions. The onecompulsory question of Section A andone question from each of the otherthree sections will give you a total offour questions, the required numberof questions you must do in theexaminations.

With the aid of theavailable geographytextbooks, this week Iwill begin somediscussions onselected topics fromSection A – NaturalSystems. In reference to thesyllabus, the broad topics listed in thecontent under Natural Systems are:

1. Internal forces2. External forces3. Rivers4. Limestone environment5. Coasts6. Weather, Climate, Vegetation and Soil

My focus for this lesson will be on internal forces. What are they?These are forces acting beneath the Earth’s crust and resulting in theformation of the major relief features of the Earth. I could also mentionhere the second topic listed in the content: external forces – those thatare constantly affecting the surface rocks.

To putthings in

perspective, Ishould first

explain thatchanges are always

taking place bothbeneath and on the

surface of the Earth. Thereare many kinds of changes

brought about by the action oftwo forces, namely:

(i) Tectonic forces(ii) Denudative forces

Tectonic forces (tectonism) are internalforces and they encompass all the movements

of the solid parts of the earth with respect toeach other. They give rise to upheaval, subsidence, folding, fracturingand eruption. The features produced by tectonism, namely, folds andfaults, are not usually seen until they have been exposed by theprocess of erosion.

Denudative forces, on the other hand, are external forces that giverise to the etching, smoothing and polishing of the land surface; theydestroy, carve and mould the major relief features to form suchtopographic features as hills, valleys, spurs and cliffs.

From the broad topic of internal forces I am selecting aspects ofcrustal plates for our discussion. The earth is made up of three mainlayers: the core, the mantle and the crust. Our interest now is on thecrust.

The DDiiccttiioonnaarryy ooff GGeeooggrraapphhyy informs us that the crust of the Earth isthe outermost concentric layer of the Earth, varying between five and40km in thickness. It is mainly composed of crystalline igneous rockswhich crack when subjected to intense orogenic forces. (That is, forcesresponsible for the process of mountain building.)

There are different types of crusts. These I will share with you in thenext lesson.

References:DDiiccttiioonnaarryy ooff GGeeooggrraapphhyyGGeeoollooggyy MMaaddee SSiimmppllee - William H. MatthewsMMoorrpphhoollooggyy aanndd LLaannddssccaappee - Harry Robinson

Marjorie Henry is an independent contributor. Send questions and comments tokkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

yl:Geography

Our focus:

paper 2

From left: Professor Kahwa, congratulates the grade-10 champions Andre Maxwell (bronze medal), Cornwall College;Romario White (silver medal), Campion College; and Janielle Walters (gold medal), Glenmuir High School.

csec study guide - feb 14, 2012

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