Cultural & Linguistic

Discrimination:

Building Bridges After

Crossing Borders

Elisabeth L. Chan

TESOL International Convention 2015

Toronto

Agenda

Background

2013 Study Results compared to

Initial Results of 2015 Study

Implications

Conclusion

Linguistic Discrimination

“Are you concerned that

Americans are increasingly

being made to adapt to the

languages of foreign-

language speakers who are

immigrating here in greater

numbers?”

(Lawton, 2013)

Linguistic Discrimination

“ideologies, structures and practices which are used to legitimate, effectuate, and reproduce an unequal division of power and resources (both material and immaterial) between groups which are defined on the basis of language”

(Phillipson, 1992; as cited in Bleichenbacher, 2012) (Han, 2014)

particular

language

varieties and

accents,

speech

dysfluency,

and

nonstandard

grammar

Linguicism

(Clement & Gardner, 2001, and Lippi-Green, 1996; as cited in Ng, 2007)

indicators of

low intelligence

relational

disharmony

and social

unacceptability

Ken asked Tom for help with his English

homework.

What color is

Tom’s shirt?

(Romney 2010)

(Kang & Rubin 2009)

(Rubin 1992;

Roberts et al 1992

as cited in

Han 2014)

Cultural Discrimination

“Rationalizes the subordination of people of color on the basis of culture, which is of course acquired through acculturation within an ethnic group, while traditional racism rationalizes it fundamentally in terms of biology. Neo-racism is still racism in that it functions to maintain racial hierarchies of oppression.”

(Spears, 1999; as cited in Lee & Rice, 2007)

Acculturation

“Acculturation is defined as the

process of adapting to a new culture,

including the behavioral and other

internal changes that take place during

this process.”

(Sodowsky and Plake (1991, 1992) as cited in

Nilsson, Butler, Shouse & Chetan, 2008)

Acceptance of

U.S. & its people

Proficiency in

English

Perceived

Prejudice &

Acceptance by

the U.S.

School as a Racializer

great societal equalizer

forming identities

order rank

sort

equip

(Pollock, 2004 as cited in Talmy, 2010)

Silence Race Talk

Future Talk Silenced

Systemic Change

Reduced

Gaps, Inequities

Patterned Privilege & Oppression

(Castagno 2008)

Linguistic Imperialism Cycle

Linguistic & Ethnic Groups

Targeted

Schools Keep Majority Culture

Children Vulnerable to Ideology

English-Only Measures

(Pac 2012)

Linguistic Imperialism Cycle

Linguistic & Ethnic Groups

Targeted

Stigmatization

Low Self-EsteemHigh Attrition

Low Academic

Achievement

Low Representation

in Higher Ed

(Pac 2012)

Linguistic Imperialism Cycle

Low Academic

Achievement

(Pac 2012)

Low

Socioeconomic

Status

Low Political

Representation of

Language Group

Capability

Deprivation

Acculturative

Stress

Acculturative Stress“Sources of acculturative stress often include

English language difficulties,

academic struggles,

cultural adaptation,

problematic perfectionism,

lack of social supports,

homesickness,

and perceived discrimination.”

(Tung, 2011)

“Perceived

discrimination

is a unique

source of

stress that is

different from

general

stress”

(Harrell, 2000; Meyer,

2003; as cited in Wei

et al., 2008)

Effects on Success

(Grant & Zwier, 2011)(such as gender, race,

ability)

Effects on Recruitment

“The most important influence leading a

student to recommend the host university

to others was the perception of receiving

fair and equal treatment.” (Lee, 2010)

“Compared with U.S. counterparts,

international students are at greater risk of

perceiving or experiencing discrimination”

(Poyrazli & Lopez, 2007)

Discrimination? A Matter of Perception?

“Also, some people have been impolite when I have reached their office with an appointment: I was

not invited to have a sit, but I had to talk from the door.” (Chilean

male)

“Experiencing the whole issue of racism was surprising, I had never

in my life even given thought to racism. And never before had I tick a

box for my race when filling out documents.” (Estonian female)

2013 & 2015

Study Comparisons

2013 vs 2015 Studies

2013 56 Participants

24 male, 32 female

Ages 17-30+ (avg: late

20s)

International students

4-year public university

In the US average 4 years

(range 1-21 years)

2015 40 Participants

13 male, 26 female, 1 n/a

Ages 18-72; (avg: 28)

11 Int’l, 24 Immigrant, 5

other (ex: DACA students)

2-year community college

In the US average 6 years

(range 1-51 years)

Race of Study Participants

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

White Black S, SE, E Asian Arab, MiddleEastern

Latino/a Multiracial Other

2013 Study 2015 Study

Top Countries & Languages

2013 Study 2015 Study

TOP COUNTRIES TOP LANGUAGES TOP COUNTRIES TOP LANGUAGES

India Chinese Ethiopia Spanish

China French & Spanish Bolivia French

Mexico Hindi Pakistan Arabic

42 languages &

80% self-

identified as

English speakers

28 languages &

48% self-

identified as

English speakers

Questions in Focus

How do the 2015 study results compare to the 2013

study?

What new themes arise in the 2015 data?

Does there seem to be a difference between

international students’ and immigrant students’

perceptions?

Race of City Populations

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

White Black Asian Hispanic Other

% Populations by Race

2013 Study (123k) 2015 Study (149k)

Race of Campus Populations

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

White Black Asian Hispanic Native Am Other

% Populations by Race

2013 (35k students; 121 countries) 2015 (18k students; 183 countries)

Comparison of Languages Spoken at

Home & Birthplace

2013

22.9% of population 5+ speak a

language other than English at

home

13.8% Foreign-born

2015

29% of population 5+ speak a

language other than English at

home

29.5% foreign born

2013 THEMES

1• Significant change in students’ perceptions of

Americans’ knowledge and opinions of their countries

2• Students’ lack of accurate knowledge and awareness

of discrimination

3• Challenges to students’ acceptance & intelligence

4• On campus discrimination

11%

66%

13%4% 7%

2013 Study

Knew nothing/little

Had a negative view

Had a positive view

Had a positive &negative view

Other/unclear

1

Before coming to the U.S., I thought

Americans…

48%

30%

10%3% 10%

2015 Study

“I thought that they feel contempt to people from my country. It made feel fear, because I

would have to study with them.” (Mexican Male)

“I thought that they think Arabs are terrorist and very conservative. I was afraid that I not gonna be accepted by [this] culture.” (Saudi

female)

12013 Study: 66% believed Americans had a

negative view of their home country

“When I was a child I thought that Americans new little or cared little about my country.”(Bolivian

female)

“Not much, only the stereotype.” (Brazilian female)

“None they have a completely miss conception of my country and our beliefs.” (Panamanian male)

12015 Study: 48% believed Americans had

little or no knowledge of their country

How did students’ perceptions change?

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

Changed Perceptions Added Positive Views Added Negative Views Think Know Little/Nothing

% Change in Perceptions

2013 Study 2015 Study

“People seem to be very polite and to follow all the "politically correctness" that the system forces them to follow.” (Greek

female)

“after I came, I feel that Americans are very sensitive about racism than I thought before.” (Turkish female)

"dark ages" impression of my country… showed how ignorant and uneducated they mostly were.

People thought my language and culture was barbaric and restrictive. (Nigerian female)

2013 Study: Perception Changes1

“They are curious to know about itbecause most of them do not know much

about it.” (Albanian female)

“ranges from shock that mexico has cars and television and that I dress ‘normal’ to more educated views.” (Mexican female)

“Most people think it is none civilized country.” (Saudi male)

2015 Study: Perception Changes1

19%

30%26%

16%9%

2013 Study

Knew nothing/littleof racism

Knew some, didn'taffect

Knew some,affected

Thought racism nolonger exists

Other/Unclear

2Students’ Knowledge of Race Relations

33%

33%

20%

15%

2015 Study

“…from media that showed everything is "peace". However, some of my

friends who had ever studied in U.S. told me that this is not true.”

(Taiwanese male)

“I knew… slavery and racism in the U.S. but thought that things had completely

turned around… a consulate officer told me that things were still not 100%

perfect… I freaked out a little.” (Cameroonian female)

22013 Study: Inaccurate Knowledge

22015 Study: Lack of Knowledge

“i was ignorant about it because i was so young. i was very innocent.”(Eritrean

male)

“racism used to exist before the Civil War… now everyone is treated as

equal.”(Colombian female)

“Americans were over racism. [with] immigrants from all over the world, I figured the only way they could live is by tolerating each other.”

(Ethiopian female)

“[acts of discrimination are] often invisible to the casual observer, and they are sometimes not even articulated as forms of oppression” (Eriksen,

1992)

Those who reported not

experiencing

discrimination were

unaware of racism or

knew little and did not

worry about it prior to

studying abroad.

“One can be oppressed unknowingly but

offense requires (logically or conceptually)

the awareness and acknowledgment of its

victim” (Gay, 1998)

2Importance of Accurate Knowledge

2013 Results

Discrimination By race By Language By Culture

YES 32 37 22

NO 18 10 18

Other 3 7 13

Did not answer 3 2 3

Race reported as

racism

Linguicism

reported as

racism

Neo-racism

reported as

racism

Unclear

16 8 10 8

47%reported linguistic

and/or cultural

discrimination as racism

2

Racism is used as an umbrella term for

any type of discrimination2

“my coworkers will mimick my accent (which I didnt think I have), in HS people would bash immigrantsunknowingly that I am an immigrant.”

(El Salvadorian female)

“I had a few guys who kept distant after learning I was gay. I have also

been asked about killing Jesus Christ. (I'm Jewish)” (Israeli male)

Discrimination By race By Language By Culture

YES 32 37 22

NO 18 10 18

Other 3 7 13

Did not answer 3 2 3

NO RACISM NO RACE,

LANGUAGE,

CULTURE

LANGUAGE

ONLY

CULTURE

ONLY

LANGUAGE

AND

CULTURE

18 4 5 2 7

14 (78%) experienced

differential treatment

based on language

and/or culture

Only 4 (7%)reported

experiencing

no differential

treatment

2013 Results2

Comparing Students’ Experiences

2013 Study

52 of 56 (93%) reported

differential treatment on the basis of race, language, and/or culture

Of those who reported NO differential treatment based on race:

78% DID report differential

treatment based on language and/or culture

2015 Study

30 of 40 (75%) reported

differential treatment on the basis of race, language, and/or culture

Of those who reported NO differential treatment based on race:

52% DID report differential

treatment based on language and/or culture

Challenges to Acceptance &

Intelligence3

“But the rest… look at us when we are talking in our own

language like we are so strange and unacceptable.” (Iranian

male)

“Every time… in a group project, I always had to prove my intelligence

to the other Americans. Even as a graduate student. Many other

international students… had the same experience.” (Barbadian female)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

White (n=8) Black (n=6) Asian (n=30) Latino (n=7) Middle East(n=4)

West Indian(n=1)

% Reported Discrimination by Race

Racial Linguistic Cultural Any

2013 Study3

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

120%

White(n=9)

Black(n=6)

Asian (n=10) Latino(n=9)

Multiracial(n=3)

Other (n=2) MiddleEastern (n=1)

% Reported Discrimination by Race

Racial

Linguistic

Cultural

Any

2015 Study3

Visible Minorities Reported More3

“I have heard and witnessed many situations… Most of them are about the black people, Hispanic, and

Asians. But most of cases are black people.” (Vietnamese female)

“I didn't have any positive or negative experience. The main

reason because I am white girl and most at time people think that I am

American.” (Ukrainian female)

“Jokes about being asian.” (Thai female)

“Name callings, hiring process on campus,being scolded at the supermarket”

(Malaysian male)

“People calling me racist names a few times or people like me (from Hispanic/Latino

origin).” (Mexican female)

2013: 68% Non-acceptance by Race 3

“I never have been mistreated because of my race. I learned to express myself properly and whenever anybody has made an attempt to do so I put them

in its proper place.” (Nicaraguan male)

“I did not feel anything much different from people. Sometimes people would stare at me specially if I was wearing my cultural dress.”

(Pakistani male)

“NO AT ALL ,NEVER” (Moroccan student)

2015: 52% Acceptance by Race 3

People would not talk to me as often as with other local people. They might not

understand what I said sometimes. (Hong Kongese male)

“I have experienced a hidden racism… they have shown intolerance to my difficulties with the language even when they knew that I was

coming to study English. (Chilean male)

“…ask very rudely for me to repeat what I say like I'm speaking some alien language. Others seem to like my accent… Either way, I feel like an animal on display” (Cameroonian female)

2013: 84% Non-acceptance by

Language3

“Yes. Many time I experienced different treatment negative because American

English is not my first language.” (Mauritania female)

“I have negative experience with people who were not English native speaker, their would be more judgmental.”

(Lithuanian female)

“Also a stupid question. People tease the ones without fluent speaking. Certainly.

You will too.” (Chinese female)

2015: 68% Non-acceptance by

Language3

“In Russia women are not very emancipated, it makes me look like immature and [dependent] person in the US. Some people like it and think that it is charming, other think that it is ridiculous.” (Russian female)

“And they use to make fun of me because I use knife and fork to eat that. Sometimes one

person or another would talk about my clothes” (Brazilian female)

“People not wanting to shake your hand. People not wanting to sit next to you. And

people condemning our meals/foods.” (Nigerian female)

2013: 70% Non-acceptance by Culture3

“I am working with American people.They love my culture, speciality my

food.” (Peruvian female)

“Positive, since i tried to explain to people about where im from and

so on.”(Sudanese female)

“No, because I don't stand out culturally… slight differences between my cultural background and their's (and they're not even all that different).”

(Gabonese male)

2015: 52% Acceptance by Culture3

“they know I am not an native speaker, they don’t take my talking seriously… think like "oh they would not do anything good". They do not say

that, but I am sensitive enough to understand.” (Vietnamese female)

“I had a lady in the Student Accounting Department treat me like an idiot once I

started talking and she heard the accent. I was mad walked away…”(Barbadian female)

“I've been treated as if I was mentally incapacitated, I was made fun of both in a bad

and in a good way.” (Italian female)

2013 Challenges to Intelligence3

“I experienced a positive treatment becuasemy family and I got used the new culture

easily and there was no problem.” (Bolivian male)

“i never been in my religious place(Temple) and i don't celebrate my won festivals. It is impossible and will be, because of big fish always eat small fish.” (Nepalese male)

“Yes, by just living in different place I have to go with the culture of this place without forgetting my culture.” (Sudanese

male)

2015 References to Acculturation3

“[It’s hard in group discussions] the member might think I am an international student so I might not have a great answer to contribute

the assignment.” (Taiwanese female)

“In my English class we formed small groups to work… my group pretty much ignored me and any comments I had to make. I could see they thought

my input was valueless.” (Mexican female)

“people [in class] show surprise at my knowledge and experience with technology because they did not expect that we have ‘such things’. Americans

really think that life in my country is like living in hell.” (Nigerian female)

2013: Discrimination by Students4

“once (here, [Southern University]) a professor thought my Asian education

didn't work with her taste.” (Taiwanese female)

I got all As with one C, then I don't need to explain why I got that C in that class.

Racism is real…” (Chinese female)

Professors like those who talk fluently.... and they easily pass viva exams just because of that... But though we are good in subject...

we fail... This is not fair (Indian male)

2013 Discrimination by Professors4

“I only had one bad experience that was when I got a job at school and the person… asked my

boss: "are you sure you want to hire an international student?". (Brazilian female)

I attended a university in Mississippi and I believe that I wasn't given an assistantship because of my nationality. (Cameroonian

female)

“I couldn't get a proper on campus job due to this. It's a cliched mind that they have got thinking we

don't speak proper English and we are not so very good in getting things done.” (Indian male)

2013 Discrimination in Campus Jobs4

“difficult to communicate with Americans, who have never traveled, and… not interested in learning about different cultures. My first supervisor was like that

and our work relationship did not work well." (Ukrainian female)

“Yes [I experienced different treatment by culture] especially around work areas.”

(Ethiopian female)

“in my job… continue hearing ‘white manager is good than black manager’, ‘black employees are

lazy’, ‘the company will be out of business because there're a lot of black employees’ and so

on.” (Sudanese male)

2015 Discrimination in the Workplace4

IMPLICATIONS

Reform Student Orientations

Unmet expectations =

poorer adaptation & isolation

Realistic & social expectations

Pre-departure & on-arrival

Smith & Khawaja, 2011

Khawaja & Stallman, 2011

Ramburuth & Tani, 2009;

Ych & Inose 2003 as cited in

Nilsson Butler, Shouse & Chetan, 2008)

Designated Support Systems

Lee & Rice, 2007;

Ly, 2008;

Curran, 2003;

Smith & Khawaja, 2011;

Nilsson, Butler, Shouse & Chetan, 2008

Intercultural Communication

(Lee, 2007;

Charles-Toussaint & Crowson, 2010;

Hung & Hyun, 2010;

Nilsson, Butler, Shouse & Chetan, 2008;

Alfred, 2009)

Faculty

StudentsStaff

Incorporate Diversity & Intercultural

Issues in Curriculum

Materials on Race & Ethnicity

Counter Narratives

Anti-Racist PedagogySocially Responsible

Teaching

Change School Environment

(Glass, 2012;

Curran, 2003;

Briscoe, 2003 as cited in

Grant & Zwier, 2011)

Global Issues & Peace Content

(Swenson & Cline, 1993; Yoshimura, 1993 as cited in Kruger, 2012)

Examples

http://gameslearningsociety.org/

http://www.gamesforchange.org/play/

(Using Games to Bridge Social Responsibility & Language Learning, Fri 3:00-3:45 802A)

Limitations

Number of Participants

Number of Factors

Self-reported*

Follow-up Needed

*(Saperstein, 2006)

Summary

Environmental Differences

Seem to Be a Large Factor

Divergent foci of on-campus versus off-

campus

Majority Add Positive Views

References

Faez, F. (2012). Linguistic Identities and Experiences of 1.5 Generation Teacher Candidates: Race Matters.

TESL Canada Journal, 29(6), 124-141.

Glass, C. R. (2012). Educational experiences associated with international students' learning, development,

and positive perceptions of campus climate. Journal of Studies in International Education, 16(3), 228-251.

doi: 10.1177/1028315311426783

Grant, C. A., & Zwier, E. (2011). Intersectionality and student outcomes: Sharpening the struggle against

racism, sexism, classism, ableism, heterosexism, nationalism, and linguistic, religious, and geographical

discrimination in teaching and learning. Multicultural Perspectives, 13(4), 181-188. Retrieved from

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15210960.2011.616813

Han, H. (2014). “Westerners,” “Chinese,” and/or “Us”: Exploring the Intersections of Language, Race,

Religion, and Immigrantization. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 45(1), 54-70.

International student statistical report. (2012). Unpublished raw data, International Students & Scholar

Services, Retrieved from http://international.unt.edu/sites/default/files/advising/UNT-Statistical-Report-

Fall-2012.pdf

Kang, O., & Rubin, D. L. (2009). Reverse linguistic stereotyping: Measuring the effect of listener

expectations on speech evaluation. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 28, 441-456.

Khawaja, N. G., & Stallman, H. M. (2011). Understanding the coping strategies of international students: A

qualitative approach. Australian Journal of Guidance and Counseling, 21(2), 203-224. doi:

10.1375/ajgc.21.2.203

Kruger, F. (2012). The role of TESOL in educating for peace. Journal of Peace Education, 9(1), 17-30.

Lawton, R. (2013). Speak English or Go Home: The Anti- Immigrant Discourse of the American ‘English Only’

Movement. Critical Approaches to Discourse Analysis across Disciplines, 7(1), 100-122.

Lee, J. J. (2010). International students' experiences and attitudes at a us host institution: Self-reports

and future recommendations. Journal of Research in International Education, 9(1), 66-84. doi:

10.1177/1475240909356382

Lee, J. J., & Rice, C. (2007). Welcome to America? international student perceptions of discrimination.

Higher Education, 53, 381-409. doi: 10.1007/s10734-005-4508-3

Ly, P. (2008). Caught between two cultures. Diverse Issues in Higher Education, 25(14), 24-25.

Mahboob, A., & Szenes, E. (2007). Linguicism And Racism In Assessment Practices In Higher Education.

Contact Info: References & Handout available at:

ElisabethLChan@gmail.com http://www.slideshare.net/ElisabethChan

TESOL Diversity & Inclusion Committee

Co-chair, TESOL Social Responsibility Interest Section www.tinyurl.com/tesol-sris

That not all states

are equally

progressive when it

comes to matters

of race. I would

have liked to know

this before applying

to schools

US is good, US is

fun, but US can

also be very

lonely. And I

mean very, very

lonely.

I should have known

that all the

opportunities on

campus are given to

Americans and there is

no equal opportunity in

real. If I want some

hands on experience by

working on campus it is

very difficult.

I tried to read books

about US culture before

coming here, but to be

honest, I couldn't

understand it until I

experienced it. I wish I

just didn't take a lot of

things too personal.

It is important not to

judge the whole nation

by one unpleasant

person. I am for the

transparent media, but I

think sometimes in a

pursuit of sensation it

polarizes the country and

created disagreements

inside of the nation.

1+1=2 in math,

but white+ black

=1 at all

"Human". Thank

you.

Immigrant students are

an important because

they come from different

parts of the world and

have different knowledge

which we can learn from

each other. there should

be more opportunities to

make us succeed equally

not leaving us behind.

Either [Americans] have to

adapt to it or I have to

adapt to their likings,

after all, this is not my

country. I understand a lot

of international students

have trouble of surviving

in America because they

are reluctant to change.

But the experiences made

me grow up, hardened my

heart a little, and gave

me more confidence in

myself and to be proud of

my country. I do not

regret coming here. It

was a hard and lonely

road for 8 years.

Many new comer

don't know

language and

culture. They feels

discrimination only

because of lake of

their knowledge.

Thank you for

this chance

to share my

own

thoughts!!!!