CULTURE IN MANAGEMENT: THE MEASUREMENT OF DIFFERENCES

Dony Eko Prasetyo, S.IP.

CULTURE????

• A way of life of a group of people• That complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art,

morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society

• Everything that people have, think, and do as members of society

• Social heritage of a person• Way of life of a society, consisting of prescribed ways of

behaving or norms of conduct, beliefs, values, and skills• Sum total of life patterns passed on from generation to

generation within a group

Cont’d• SUATU SISTEM PEMAKNAAN YANG DIMILIKI OLEH SEKELOMPOK

ORANG, YANG TERCERMIN DALAM BAGAIMANA MEREKA MEMPERSEPSIKAN SESUATU, BERPIKIR DAN BERTINDAK.

• BERSIFAT RELATIF, ORANG DALAM BUDAYA YANG BERBEDA MEMPERSEPSIKAN DUNIA SECARA BERBEDA, DAN MEMPUNYAI CARA BERTINDAK YANG BERBEDA.

• BUDAYA DIPELAJARI MELALUI PENGALAMAN ORANG DALAM LINGKUNGAN SOSIAL DI MANA IA DIBESARKAN, (TIDAK DITURUNKAN).

• BUDAYA ADALAH FENOMENA KELOMPOK, BUKAN FENOMENA INDIVIDUAL.

• Budaya merupakan cara pemecahan masalah berkenaan dengan problem external adaptation dan internal integration.

Cont’d• (broadly) learned norms, values,

knowledge, artifacts, language and symbols

• (more specifically) facial expressions, religious beliefs, religious rituals,  importance of time,  paintings,  values,  literature,  child-raising beliefs,  ideas about leadership,  gestures,  ideas about fairness,  ideas about friendship,  ideas about modesty,  eating habits,  understanding of the natural world,  concept of self,  the importance of work,  concept of beauty,  general world view,  concept of personal space,  rules of social etiquette,  housing

The Iceberg Metaphor

• The metaphor of culture as an “iceberg” is extremely helpful in that it identifies aspects of culture that are:

• Immediately visible= explicit, visible, taught (above the water line). Only about one-eighth of an iceberg is visible above the water. The rest is below.

• Part of the iceberg that emerges & submerges with the tides= “now you see it, now you don’t” (at the water line)

• Deep beneath the surface= “hidden culture” (below the water line)

“The Cultural Iceberg”

CULTURALLY COMPETENT PRACTICE

DEFINING CULTURAL COMPETENCE

• Refers to a set of academic and interpersonal skills that allow individuals to increase their understanding and appreciation of cultural differences and similarities within, among, and between groups

CULTURAL COMPETENCE MODEL

• Competency One: (Sue, 2006)Becoming aware of one’s own assumptions, values, and biases about human behaviors

9 THINGS WE NOTICE ABOUT PEOPLE

• Skin color

• Gender

• Age

• Appearance

• Facial expressions

• Eye contact

• Movement

• Personal space

• Touch

CULTURAL IDENTITY EXERCISE

• What is your culture? How important is your culture to you? What are beliefs/values of your culture? What are your cultural biases?

CULTURAL COMPETENCE MODEL

• Competency Two:Understanding the worldview of culturally diverse clients

RESPECTFUL APPROACH

• Refrain from judgments or assumptions• Practice respectful curiosity• Help me to understand you better• Take a “tell me more” approach• Respect diversity and differences• Seek out cultural brokers• Promote cultural competence

CULTURAL COMPETENCE MODEL

• Competency Three:Developing appropriate interventionstrategies and techniques

CULTURAL BRIDGING EXERCISE

• Discuss a time when you were able to effectively bridge across cultures with a student? How did you practice cultural competence? What strategies did you use?

CULTURAL COMPETENCE MODEL

• Competency Four:Understanding organizational and institutional forces that enhance or negate cultural competence

SYSTEM CHALLENGES EXERCISE

• Discuss a time when your system enhanced or negated your efforts towards cultural competence? What was this like for you?

Classifications of culture• Broad classifications: Hall’s High-Context and

Low-Context Cultural Framework• Detailed classifications:

– Tonnies and Loomis’s amplification – Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s Variations in Values

Orientations– Hofstede’s definition of culture & Bond’s addition– Schwartz's classification– Trompenaars’ 7 Dimensions of Culture

Hall’s High-Context and Low-Context Cultural Framework

High-Context Low-Context

China AustriaEgypt CanadaFrance DenmarkItaly EnglandJapan FinlandLebanon GermanySaudi Arabia NorwaySpain SwitzerlandSyria United States

Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s Variations in Values Orientations

• Framework to describe how different societies cope with various issues or problems

• Includes 6 Values Orientations• A culture is defined by one or more

variations of a values orientation

Kluckhohn & Strodbeck definition of national culture

Type of national culture

Traditional-high context

Mixed Modern—Low context

•Relation to nature

Subjugation Harmony Mastery

•Time view Past Present Future

•Human nature Evil (theory X) Mixed Good (theory Y)

•Activity Being Containing Doing

•Relationships Hierarchical Group Individualistic

•Spatial Public Mixed Private

Kluckhohn dan StrodtbeckAsumsi Dasar

Relationship with nature

Hidup itu buruk Hidup itu baik Hidup itu buruk, tetapi manusia wajib berikhtiar spy hidup menjadi baik

Human activity

Karya itu untuk nafkah hidup

Karya itu untuk kedudukan dan kehormatan

Karya itu untuk menambah karya

Human nature Manusia tunduk kepada alam yang dahsyat

Manusia berusaha menjaga keselarasan dengan alam

Manusia berhasrat menaklukkan alam

Relationship with people

Orientasi kolateral, rasa ketergantungan dengan sesamanya(mis. Jiwa gotong royong)

Orientasi vertikal, rasa ketrgantungan kepada tokoh atasan dan berpangkat

Individualisme, menilai tinggi usaha atas kekuatan sendiri

Time Orientasi ke masa kini

Orientasi ke masa lalu

Orientasi ke masa depan

Relation to Nature

• SubjugationAccept nature; don’t try to change it

• HarmonyCoexist with nature (feng shui)

• MasteryChange nature through technology when necessary

or desirable

Time Orientation

• PastEmphasizes tradition

• PresentFocuses on short-term

• FutureEmphasizes long-term

Basic Human Nature

• GoodPeople trust each other

• Mixed-NeutralGenerally trusting but need to be cautious and

protect self• Evil

Lack of trust•

Activity Orientation

• DoingEmphasis on action, achievement, learning

• Containing/ControllingEmphasis on rationality and logic

• BeingEmphasis on enjoying life and working for the

moment

Relationships among People

• IndividualisticPeople define themselves through personal

characteristics and achievement

• Group-orientedPeople relate to and take responsibility for members of

the family, network, or community

• HierarchicalPeople value group relationships but also within the

society emphasize relative ranking of groups

Space Orientation

• PublicSpace belongs to all

• MixedThere is a combination of public and private space

• PrivatePeople consider it important to have their own

space

Hofstede’s Dimensions of Cultural Values

• Focuses specifically on work-related values

• Developed in 1980 with data over 116,000 employees in 72 countries

• Average scores for each country used to develop national profiles to explain differences in work behaviors

Hofstede’s definition of culture & Bond’s addition

– individualism-collectivism– uncertainty avoidance– power distance– masculinity/femininity– Confucian work dynamism (time orientation)

Hofstede’s definition of culture & Bond’s addition

Type of culture

Traditional-High context

Mixed Modern- Low context

•Relationships Collectivism Combination Individualism

•Uncertainty avoidance

Extensive Combination Limited

•Power distance

High Combination Low

•Activity Femininity Combination Masculinity

•Time orientation

Long term Combination Short term

Individualism/Collectivism

• CollectivisticPeople value the overall good of the group

• IndividualisticPeople have concern for themselves and their

immediate families

Power Distance

• The extent to which less powerful members of organizations accept that power is unequally distributed

• Large– Differences among people with different ranks are

acceptable

• Small– Less comfortable with power differences

•

Uncertainty Avoidance

• Indicates preferred amount of structure • Weak

– People prefer unstructured situations

• Strong– People prefer more structure

Masculinity/Femininity

• Extent to which people prefer traditional male or female values

• Feminine– “Tender” values dominant - personal

relationships, care for others, quality of life, service

• Masculine– “Tough” values dominant - success, money,

status, competition

The Chinese Value Survey

• Reaction to the Hofstede study• Developed in Chinese based on traditional

Chinese values• Translated and administered to students in

23 countries• 4 dimensions, 3 match Hofstede (PD, I/C,

and M/F) plus Confucian Work Dynamism

Long-term/Short-term Orientation

• High Confucian work dynamism/Long-term orientedConcern with future, value thrift and

persistence• Low Confucian work dynamism/Short-

term orientedOriented toward past and present, respect for

tradition but here and now is most important

Schwartz's classification

• Focuses on universal aspects of individual value content and structure

• Based on issues that confront all societies – The nature of boundaries between the individual

and the group.– How to support responsible behavior.– How to regulate the relation of people to the

social and natural world.

Embeddedness Versus Autonomy • Embeddedness

– People view others as inherently part of collectives. Meaning in life comes from social relationships & shared way of life & goals.

• Autonomy– Individuals seen as autonomous, bounded entities who

find meaning in their own uniqueness• Intellectual autonomy - people follow their own ideas

and value curiosity, creativity, and open-mindedness• Affective autonomy - individuals independently pursue

positive experiences that make them feel good

Hierarchy Versus Egalitarianism

• HierarchyThe social system has clearly defined roles to

identify obligations & rules of behavior • Egalitarianism

Think of each other as equals sharing basic human interests that values equality, justice, honesty & responsbility

Mastery Versus Harmony

• HarmonyEmphasizes understanding and fitting in with the

environment, rather than trying to change it • Mastery

Encourages people to master, change, and exploit the natural and social environment for personal or group goals

Trompenaars’ Dimensions of Culture

• Dimensions represent how societies develop approaches to managing problems and difficult situations

• Over a 14 year period, data collected from over 46,000 managers representing more than 40 national cultures

Trompenaars’ 7 Dimensions of Culture

• Particularism vs. Universalism• Collectivism vs. Individualism • Affective vs. Neutral Relationships• Diffuse vs. Specific Relationships• Ascription vs. Achievement• Relationship to Time• Relationship to Nature

Global Strategic Options : creating synergy amongst diverse cultures

Cultural Dominance(fight)

Cultural Synergy (fit and develop new solutions)

Cultural Compromise(combination of dominance and accomodation)

Cultural Avoidance (flight)

Cultural Accomodation (follow)

“their culture’s way”

“my

cultu

re’s

way

”

Management Implications of Power DistanceManagement Processes

Low PowerDistance

High PowerDistance

HRM Mngt Selection Training Evaluations/Promotion Remuneration

Leadership styles

Motivational Assumptions

Decision making/Organizational DesignStrategy Issues

Educational achievementFor autonomyPerformance

Small wage difference between management and workerParticipative; less direct supervisionPeople like work; extrinsic and intrinsic rewardsDecentralized; flat pyramids; small proportion of supervisorsVaried

Social class; elite education.For conformity/obedienceCompliance; trustworthinessLarge wage difference between management and workerTheory X. authoritarian, with close supervision.Assume people dislike work coercion.Tall pyramids; large proportion of supervisors.

Crafted to support the power elite or government.

Management Implications of UAIManagement Processes

High UAI Low UAI

HRM : Mngt Selection Training Evaluations/ Promotion Remuneration

Leadership styles

Motivational Assumptions

Decision making/Organizational Design

Strategy Issues

Seniority; expected loyalty

SpecializedSeniority; expertise; loyalty

Based on seniority or expertiseTask-oriented

People seek security, avoid competition.

Larger organization; tall hierarchy; formalized, many standardized proceduresAverse to risk

Past job performance; educationTraining to adaptObjective individual performance data; job switching for performance

Based on performanceNon directive; person-oriented; flexible.

People are self-motivated, competitive.Small organizations; flat hierarchy, less formalized, with fewer written rules and standardized proceduresRisk Taking

Management Implications of IndividualismManagement Processes

Low Individualism (Collectivism)

High Individualism

HRM : Mngt Selection Training Evaluations/Promotion Remuneration

Leadership styles

Motivational Assumptions

Decision making/Organizational DesignStrategy Issues

Group membership; school or universityFocus on company-based skillsSlow, with group; seniority

Based on group membership/organizational paternalismAppeals to duty and commitment

More involvement

Group; slow; preference for larger organizationIncremental changes with periodic revolutions

Universalistic based on individual traitsGeneral skills for individual achievementBased on individual performanceExtrinsic rewards (money, promotion) based on market valueIndividual rewards and punishments based on performanceCalculative; individual cost/benefitIndividual responsibility; preference for smaller organizationsAggressive

Management Implications of Masculinity/FemininityManagement Processes Low Masculinity High Masculinity

HRM : Mngt Selection Training Evaluations/Promotion Remuneration

Leadership styles

Motivational Assumptions

Decision making/Organizational Design

Strategy Issues

Independent of gender;school ties less important; androgyny.Job-orientedJob performance, with less gender-based assignments.Less salary difference between levels; more time off.More participativeEmphasis on quality of life, time off, vacations, work not central.

Intuitive/group; smaller organizations

Preference for consistent growth

Jobs gender identified; school performance and ties importantCareer orientedContinues gender-tracking

More salary preferred to fewer hoursMore Theory X; authoritarianEmphasis on performance and growth; excelling to be best; work central to life; job recognition important.

Decisive/individual; larger organization preferred.

Aggressive

Management Implications of Long-Term OrientationManagement Processes

Short-Term Orientation Long-Term Orientation

HRM : Mngt Selection Training Evaluations/Promotion Remuneration

Leadership styles

Motivational Assumptions

Decision making/Organizational DesignStrategy Issues

Objective skill assessment for immediate use to companyLimited to immediate company needsFast; based on skill contributions

Pay, promotionsUse incentives for economic advancement

Immediate rewards necessary

Logical analysis of problems; design for logic of company situationFast; measurable payback

Fit of personal and background characteristicsInvestment in long-term employment skillsSlow; develop skills and loyalty

SecurityBuild social obligations

Subordinate immediate gratification for long-term individual and company goalsSynthesis to reach consensus; design for social relationshipsLong-term profits and growth; incrementalism.