cunningham - cunningham - saigo: environmental science 7 th ed. agriculture and food
TRANSCRIPT
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
Agriculture and Food
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
Outline
• Nutrition and Food Supplies• Soil
Structure Erosion
• Agricultural Resources Water Energy
• Genetic Engineering• Sustainable Agriculture
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
Subsistence agricultureCommercial agriculture
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
NUTRITION AND FOOD SUPPLIES
• World food supplies have more than kept up with human population growth over the past two centuries. 1950 - 2.5 billion people - average daily
diet was less than 2,000 calories/person. 2001- 6.0 billion people - world food supply
can provide more than 2,500 calories/person.
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
Nutrition
• The most common dietary problem in wealthy countries is over-nutrition. In NA and Europe, average daily caloric
intake is 3,500 calories.• Sub-Saharan Africa has not kept food
production up to pace of population growth.• Collapse of Soviet Union also led to significant
collapse in food production.
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
Chronic Hunger and Food Security
• About 1 in 5 people in the developing world are considered chronically hungry. 200 million children
- Can lead to permanently stunted growth, mental retardation, and other developmental disorders.
Poverty is the greatest threat to food security (The ability to obtain sufficient food on a daily basis).
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
Chronic Hunger and Food Security
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
Essential Nutrients
• Malnourishment - Nutritional imbalance caused by a lack of specific dietary components. In poorer countries, people often cannot
afford to purchase an adequate variety of foods, including meats and vegetables.
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Risk of Inadequate Nutrition
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
Famines
• Famines are characterized by large-scale food shortages, massive starvation, social disruption, and economic chaos. Mass migrations often occur because
productive capacity has been sacrificed. Environmental conditions are immediate
trigger, but politics and economics are often underlying problems.
- Arbitrary political boundaries block historic access to refuge areas.
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
Famines
• Aid policies of rich countries often serve to distribute surplus commodities and produce feeling of generosity. Food camps have serious drawbacks:
- Stress and crowding- Lack of sanitation- Close contact to epidemic diseases
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
MAJOR FOOD SOURCES
• Three crops deliver majority of world’s nutrients: Wheat, Rice and Corn
- Potatoes, barley, oats and rye are staples in cool, moist climates.
- Cassava, sweet potatoes, and other roots and tubers are staples in warm wet climates.
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
Meat and Milk
• Meat and Milk distribution highly inequitable. Core makes up 20% of world population,
but consumes 80% of meat and milk. 60% of production occurs in lesser
developed countries. 90% of grain grown in NA is used to feed
livestock.
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
Meat
• Every 16 kg of grain and soybeans fed to beef cattle in feedlots produce about 1 kg of edible beef. If we ate the grain directly, we would obtain
21x more calories and 8x more protein than we get from eating the beef.
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
Seafood
• Seafood is an important protein source.• Since 1989, 13/17 major fisheries have
declined or become commercially inviable.• Between 1970-1990, number and average
vessel size of world fishing fleet doubled. Now have twice the capacity needed to
extract total annual sustainable harvest.- Catching $70 billion cost $124 billion.
1/4 animals considered by-catch.
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
SOIL: A RENEWABLE RESOURCE
• Soil - A complex mixture of weathered minerals, partially decomposed organic materials, and a host of living organisms. At least 20,000 different soil types in the US.
- Vary due to influences of parent material, time, topography, climate, and organisms.
Can be replenished and renewed.
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
Ways we use and abuse soils
• Approximately 11% of the earth’s land area is currently in agricultural production. Up to four times as much could potentially
be converted to agricultural use.- Much of this additional land suffers from
constraints.
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Soil Degradation
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
Land Resources
• In developed countries, 95% of recent agricultural growth has been from altered agricultural practices (pesticides - fertilizer). Less land cultivated in NA now than 100
years ago.• Many developing countries are reaching limit
of lands that can be exploited for agriculture without unacceptable social and environmental costs.
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Land Degradation
• Estimated nearly 3 million ha of cropland ruined annually via erosion, 4 million ha transformed into deserts, and 8 million ha converted to non-agricultural uses.
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
Land Degradation
• Definitions of degradation are based on both biological productivity and expectations of what land should be like. Generally, land is considered degraded
when soil is impoverished or eroded, run-off is contaminated, or biodiversity is diminished.
- Water and wind are the driving forces for vast majority of soil degradation.
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Land Degradation
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
Erosion• Erosion is an important natural process,
resulting in redistribution of the products of geologic weathering, and is part of both soil formation and soil loss. Worldwide, erosion reduces crop
production by equivalent of 1% of world cropland per year.
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
Mechanisms of Erosion
• Rill Erosion - Small rivulets of running water gather together and cut small channels in the soil.
• Gully Erosion - Rills enlarge to form bigger channels too large to be removed by normal tillage.
• Streambank Erosion - Washing away of soil from established streambanks.
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
Mechanisms of Erosion
• Wind can equal or exceed water as an erosive force, especially in a dry climate and on flat land. Intensive farming practices:
- Row crops leave soil exposed- Weed free-fields- Removal of windbreaks- No crop-rotation or resting periods- Continued monocultures
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
CHEMICALINPUTS
Fertilizers
Pesticides
Fungicides
Herbicides(weed killers)
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
Fertilizer
• Lack of nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus often limits plant growth. Adding nutrients via fertilizer usually
stimulates growth and increases crop yields.- 1950 - 90 Average of 20 to 91 kg/ha
fertilizer used. Manure and nitrogen-fixing bacteria are
alternative methods of replenishing soil nutrients.
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
Pesticide Problems
• Non-Target Species Up to 90% of pesticides never reach
intended target.• Pesticide Resistance
Resistant members of a population survive pesticide treatment and produce more resistant offspring.
- Pest Resurgence
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Pesticide Resistance
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Environmental Persistence and Mobility
• Many persistent organic pollutants were banned globally in 2001. Use was banned or restricted in
developing countries for years, but between 1994 and 1996, the US shipped more than 100,000 tons of DDT and POP’s annually.
- Many returned to US in agricultural products and migrating wildlife.
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DDT pesticide effect on birds;U.S. recovery since ban
Still exported to Periphery
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
Human Health Problems
• WHO estimates between 3.5 and 5.0 million people suffer acute pesticide poisoning, and 20,000 die, each year. At least two-thirds resulting from
occupational hazards in developing countries.
Long-term health effects difficult to conclusively document.
- PCB’s have been linked to learning deficiencies in children.
Intake during mother’s pregnancy.
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Alternatives to Pesticide Use
Crop Rotation Mechanical Cultivation Flooding Fields Habitat Diversification Growing in Pest-Free Zones Adjusting Planting Times Plant Mixed Polycultures
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
ENERGY
• Farming in industrialized countries is highly energy-intensive. Between 1920-1980, energy use rose
directly with mechanization of agriculture, and indirectly with spraying of chemicals.
Altogether, US food system consumes 16% of total energy use.
- Most foods require more energy to produce, process, and transport than we yield from them.
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
Energy
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NEW CROPS AND GENETIC ENGINEERING
• Most of world food comes from 16 widely grown crops. At least 3,000 species of plants have been
used for food at some point in time.- Many new or unconventional varieties
might be valuable food supplies. Winged-bean Triscale
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
Green Revolution
• Most major improvements in farm production have come from technological advances and modification of a few well-known species. Corn yields jumped from 25 bushels per
acre to 130 per acre in last century.- Most of gain accomplished through
conventional plant breeding. Also seen rise of dwarf varieties.
• Green Revolution - Spread of new varieties around the world.
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Green Revolution
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“Green Revolution”benefits
• Core exports high-yield “miracle” seeds
• Needed oil-based fertilizers, pesticides
• Asian rice crop up 66% in 1965-85
• Favored areas with good soil, weather
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“Green Revolution”
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“Green Revolution”drawbacks
• Favored farmers who could afford seeds, inputs, machines, irrigation
• Indebted farmers lost land, moved to cities
• New “monocrops” lacked resistance to disease/pests
• Environmental contamination, erosion
• Oriented to export “cash crops,” not domestic food
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
Genetic Engineering
• Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO’s) Contain DNA possessing genes borrowed
from unrelated species.- Can produce crops with pest-resistance
and wider tolerance levels.- Opponents fear traits could spread to
wild varieties, and increased expense would largely hurt smaller farmers.
70% of all processed foods in NA contain transgenic products.
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Genetic Engineering
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Genetic Engineering
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
Biotechnology: Using organisms to…
• Make or modify products
• Improve plants or animals
• Develop new microorganisms
• Crossing different species Genetic engineering
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO)
Consumer concernsbegan in Europe,
now in U.S. too
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Biotechnologybenefits in agriculture
• Increase yields
• Increase pest resistance
• Grow crops in new areas
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Biotechnologydrawbacks in agriculture
• High costs (available to few)
• Monocrops have less tolerance to disease
• Possible health effects, contamination of crops
• Corporate patents on life forms
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Bovine GrowthHormone (BGH)
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Starlink corn
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Monarch butterfliesand corn pollen
Possibleeffects of
Bt-modifiedcorn pollen
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Cloning
First calf cloned inWisconsin, 1997.
Many clones dieof complications.
Ethical andeconomic conflicts
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
• Soil Conservation Managing Topography
- Contour Plowing - Plowing across slope to slow flow of water.
- Strip Farming - Planting different crops in alternating strips along land contours.
- Terracing - Shaping land to create level shelves of earth to hold water and soil.
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
Soil Conservation
• Providing Ground Cover Annual row crops cause highest rates of
erosion because they leave soil bare for much of the year.
- Leave crop residue after harvest.- Plant cover crops after harvest.
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.
Soil Conservation
• Reduced Tillage Minimum Till - Chisel plow Conserv-Till - Coulter (Disc) No-Till - Drilling
• Often farmers using conservation tillage must depend relatively heavily on pesticides. Traditional tillage helped control weeds
and pests.
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Summary
• Nutrition and Food Supplies• Major Food Sources• Soil
Structure Erosion
• Agricultural Resources Water Energy
• Genetic Engineering• Sustainable Agriculture
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Cunningham - Cunningham - Saigo: Environmental Science 7th Ed.