Curand

ROBERT T

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H~STORY

Curanderismo, from the Spanish verb curar (to heal),is a healing tradition found in Mexican-Americancommunities throughout the United States. Its his-toric roots are common with traditional healingpractices in Puerto Rican and Cuban-American com-munities, as well as traditional practices foundthroughout Latin America. At the same time it has ahistory and a set of traditional medical practices thatare unique to Mexican cultural history and to theMexican-American experience in the United States.

Seven historic roots are embedded in modem cu-randerismo. Its theoretical beliefs partly trace theirorigins to Greek humoral medicine, especially theemphasis on balance, and the influence of hot andcold properties of food and medicines on the body.

Many of the rituals that provide both a frameworkand a meaningful cultural healing experience in cu-randerismo date to healing practices contemporaryto the beginning of the Christian tradition and eveninto earlier Judeo-Christian writings. Other healingpractices derive from the European Middle Ages, in-cluding the use of traditional medicinal plants and

magical healing practices.The Moorish conquest of Southern Europe is vis-

ible in the cultural expression of curanderismo. Somecommon Mexican-American folk illnesses originatedin the Near East and then were transmitted through-out the Mr-diterranean, such as belief in mal de ojoJ orthe evil eyeJ.the magical influence of staring at some-one). Homeopathic remedies for common healthconditions such as earaches, constipation, anemia,cuts and bruises, or bums were brought from Europe

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412 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE

to the New World to be passed down to the presenttime within curanderismo. There also is significantsharing of beliefs with Aztec and other Native Ameri-can cultural traditions in Mexico. Some of the folk ill-nesses treated in pre-Columbian times, such as afallen fontanelle (caida de la moiler a) and perhaps the.blockage of the intestines (empacbo) are parts of thistradition. The pharmacopeia of the New World also isimporr;ant in curanderismo (and added significantlyto the plants available for treatment of diseases inEurope from the 1600s to the present): Some healers( curanderos) keep track of developments in parapsy-chology and New Age spirituality, as well as acupunc-ture and Eastern healing traditions and have incorpo-rated these global perspectives into their own practices.

Finally, curanderismo is a traditional healing sys-tem, but it exists within the modem world. Biomed-ical beliefs, treatments, and practices are very much apart of curanderismo and are supported by curan-deros. On the border between the United States andMexico, it is not unusual for healers to recommendthe use of prescription medications (which can oftenbe purchased in Mexico over the counter) for infec-tions and other illnesses. These healers also use infor-mation obtained from television and other sources toprovide the best advice on preventive efforts such asnutrition and exercise and on explanations for bio-medical illnesses. Individual healers vary greatly intheir knowledge of the practices that stem from eachof these seven historical sources: The overall systemof curanderismo is complex and not only maintainsits cultural link to the past but evolves toward ac-commodation with the future as well.

extensive knowledge of the medical system in urbanand rural areas. However, unlike attitudes reported inearlier studies of the area (Madsen, 1961; Rubel,1966); curanderos and their patients accept the use ofmodern medicine. These multiple environments ofcuranderismo practice create a complex healing sys-tem with core elements that are common to eachplace and modifications that respond to local cul-tural, policical, and legal circumstances.

The earliest systematic research was done on cu-randerismo in the late 1950s, when modem medicine~was inaccessible, or only recently available to signifi-cant segments of the Mexican-American population.~ince that time, the efficacy of modem medicine hasbeen-demonstrated empirically numerous times, so itis an integrated part of the cultural system, althoughmany access barriers still exist to prevent its full useby everyone. These barriers reflect the same reasonsthat the holistic health movement and the chai-is-matic healing movements are becoming increasinglypopular. Although traditional healers in Mexican~American communities believe that modern medicineis as capabte in certain types of healing, their experi~ence shows that their own practices are notrecog-nized in hospitals and clinics and that they can ac-comr:'~h those same t.asks better thanmo~~m,~medicine. Thus curandensmo and modern medicme""ijii,"often assume complementary roles in themind~Q"fi:the curanderos and their patients, althoughn~~°ri~5?essarily in the minds of the -.

the area.

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This chapter is based pardy on research that was con-ducted in theLPwer Rio Grande Valley of Texas formore than 15 years. That information is enhanced bydata from other regions llear the U.S.-Mexican bor-der, and from Mexican-American communities inColorado, Nebraska, Chicago, and Florida. A multi-plicity of research environments, both rural and ur-ban, has affected the practice of curanderismo. Alger(1974) has described one possible outcome of urban-ized curanderismo, in which the folk healing systemmimics the 1l?-°dern medical system. Yet this mimicrydoes not exist to any significant extent in southernTexas; where both curanderos and their patients have

Traditional Mexican-Americanand illness to contain a duality of"~a~!al:pernatural" illnesses. This dualitycal base onnatural source of illness is essentiaIlyamodel of illness that includes lay.some diseases inspired by Mexican-ArneBiomedical aspects such as the ge~

dietary causes for medic~ conditio~sar~,These natural illnesses areherbal remedies.ness also is recognized by thisThese illnesses are not considered ~ment by the medical establishment.

CHAPTER 23 Curanderismo 413

psychotherapeutic role in Mexican-American com-munities (Galvin & Ludwig, 1961; KIineman, 1969;

Torrey, 1972).Another element of curanderismo that forms an

important intellectual foundation for its practicesis the concept that healers work by virtue of "a gift

0.£ healing" (el don) (Hudson, 1951; Madsen, 1965;Romano, 1964; Rubel, 1966). This inherent ability al-lows the healer to practice his or her work, especiallyin the supernatural area. In the past this was believedto be a gift from God. However, a secular interpreta-tion of the don is competing with the more traditional

explanation. Many healers still refer to the don as agift from God and support this premise with Biblical

passages (Corinthians 12:7 and James 5:14), but otherhealers explain the don as an inborn trait that is pres-ent in all human beings, just like the ability to sing,run, or talk. Almost any human being can do thesethings, but some do them berter than others, and afew people can do them extremely well. Curanderos,according to this theory, are the individuals with abetter ability to heal than is normative for the popu-lation as a whole. Healers refer to this concept as "de-

veloped abilities."Another element common to Hispanic-based folk

medicine is the hot-cold s~drQme (Currier, 1966;

Foster, 1953; Ingham, 1940). This belief system is notcommon in southern Texas (Madsen, 1961), wherethe only indications of a hot-cold s~drome foundamong the patients were scattered folk beliefs suchas not eating citrus during menses, not ironing bare-foot on a cement floor, or taking a cold shower after

prolonged exposure to the sun. None of these beliefswere organized in a systematic fashion, nor were they

extensively shared within the Mexican-Americanpopulation. In other areas there is extensive knowl-edge and use of this system of classifying foods,treatments; and elements of illnesses to provide thebasis for deciding which remedies apply to specificillnesses.

paired only by the supernatural manipulations of cu-randeros. The curanderos fault the scientific medicalsystem for its failure to recognize the existence ofmagic or of supernatural causation. One curanderocommented that as many as 10 percent of patients inmental institutions Were really embrujados (hexed orbewitched), and because doctors could not recognizethis condition, it went untreated.

$upernaturally induced illnesses are most com-monly said to be initiated by either evil spirits (espiri-tos malos) or by brujos (individUals practicing antiso-cial magic). They form a significant part of thecuranderos' work; these healers explain that any par-ticular illness experienced by a patient could becaused theoretically by either natural or supernaturalprocesses. For example, they believe there is a naturalform of diabetes and a form that is caused by a su-pernatural agent, such as a brujo. The same is true foralcoholism, cancer, and other diseases. Identifyingthe nature of the causal agent for a particular illnessis a key problem for the curandero. Some identifymore supernatural causes for illnesses, and otherstake a more biomedically balanced approach. In ei-ther case there is far less dichotomizing of physicaland social problems within curanderismo thanwithin the medical care system (Holland, 1963; Kiev,1968).

Curanderos routinely deal-with problems of a so-cial, psychological, and spiritual nature, as well asphysical ailments. Many cases overlap into two ormore categories. Bad luck in business is a commonproblem presented to curanderos. Other problemsencountered were marital disruptions, alcoholism oralcohol abuse, infidelity, supernatural manifesta-tions, cancer, diabetes, and infertility. One healerdis-tinguishes between the problems presented bywomen and men. The central focus of the problemsbrought by women is the husband-the husbanddrinks to<? much, does not work, does not give themmoney, or is seeing other women. Men bring prob-lems of a more physical nature, such as stomach pain,headaches, weakness, and bladder dysfunction. Menalso bring problems that deal directly with work; theyneed to find a job, cannot get along with people atwork, or are having trouble setting up a business. Thewife rarely is the focal point of their problems. The to-tal list of problems presented to curanderos includesnearly every situation that can be thought of as anuncomfortable human condition. Curanderismoseems to play an important, culturally appropriate

THEORRTTrAT. RA."TS.-

The community-based theoretical structure for cu-randerismo has three primary areas of concentration,called levels (niveles) by the healers: the material level

(nivel.materialh the spiritUal level (nivel espiritual), andthe mental level (nivel mental). More curanderos havethe don for working at the material level, which is or-

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~414 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE

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separate gift for healing. They involve different typesof training and different methods of dealing withboth the natural and the supernatural world. The ma-teriallevel involves the manipulations of traditionalmagical forces found in literature on Western witch-craft. Spiritualism involves the manipulation of acomplex spiri~ world-that exists parallel to our ownand the manipulation of comentes espirituales) spiritualcurrents that can both heal and provide informationor diagnosis from a diStance. The mental level neces-sitates the control and use of the previously men-tioned vibraciones mentales. Thus the levels are separatemethods of diagnosing and treating human problemsthat are embedded into a single cultural tradition.

Not "all problems can be dealt with successfullyusing each level. An example of this is serious alcoholabuse (Trotter, 1979; Trotter & Chavira, 1978). Alco-hol abuse and alcoholism are treated by curanderos,using techniques of both the material and the mentallevel. The techniques of the spiritual level, however,were considered ineffective in dealing with alcohol-related problems. So if one has the don for workingwith the spiri~ level alone, he or she is excludedfrom the process of curing alcohol problems. '"

One theme that is common to the practices ofillthree levels is the use of energy to change the patient'~,health status. On the material level this energy ofteqis discussed in relation to the major ritual of~at"level, known as the bamda or limpia (a sweeping orcleansing). In that ritual a person is "swept" fromhead to foot with an object that is thought to be able"to either remove bad vibrations (vibraciones maios) of:to give positive energy (vibraciones positives) to thepa2'tient. The type of object used (e.g.,crucifix, broom) depends on the nature 'o.f~~

or to replace energy. On

viously mentioned comeiites espirituales. Thelevel is nearly totally orientedchanneling vibraciones mentales. The followingtions provide more detail on the actual .

the curandero's work on each level.

ganized around the use of physical objects to heal or~to change the patient's environrn,ent. This theoreticalarea can be subdivided into physical and supernat-ural manipulations. Physical treatments are thosethat do not require supernatural intervention to en-sure a successful outcome. Parteras (midwives), hue-sems (bone setters),yerberos (herbalists), and sobadores(people who treat sprains and tense muscles) arehealers who work on the nivel material and effectcures without any need for supernatural knowledgeor practices. All of the remedios caseros (home reme-dies) used in Mexican-American communities arepart of this healing tradition.

The supernatural aspect of this level is involved incures for common folk illnesses found in Mexican-American communities, such as Justo) empacho) caw demollera) espanto) and mal de ojo. These illnesses areunique to Hispanic cultural models of health and ill-ness. This area of healing also includes the spells andincantations that are derived out of medieval Euro-pean witchcraft and earlier forms of magic) such asthe cabala, that have been maintained as supernaturalhealing elements of curanderismo. Supern~ral ma-nipulations involve prayers and incantations in con-j~nction with such objects as candies, ribbons, water,fire, crucifixes, tree branches, herbs, oils, eggs, and liveanimals. These treatments use a combination of com-mon objects and rituals to cure health problems.

The spiritual level (nivel espiritual) is an area ofhealing that is parallel to the channeling found inNew Age groups and in shamanistic healing ritualsaround the world (Macklin, 1967, 1974a, 1974b,1974c; Macklin & Crumrine, 1973). Individuals enteran altered state of consciousness and) according tothe curanderos, make contact with the spirit world byone or all of the following methods: opening theirminds to spirit voices, sending their spirits out of thebody to gain knowledge at a distance, or allowingspirits the use of the body to communicate with thisworld, or all three.

The mental level (nivel mental) is the least com-monly encountered of the three levels. One healer de-scribed working with the mental level as the ability totransmit, channel, and focus mental vibrations (vibra-ciones ~entales) in a way that would affect the patient'smental or physical condition directly. Both patientsand healers are confident that the curanderos can ef-fect a cure from a distance using this technique.

The three levels are discrete areas of knowledgeand behavior, each necessitating the presence of a

The material level is the easiest of the three

describe; it is the most extensively practicedmost widely

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415CHAPTER 23 Curanderismo

nipulates physical objects and performs ritUals (ortrabajas, spells). The combination of objects and ritU-als is widely recognized by Mexican Americans as hav-ing curative powers. Practitioners of the material leveluse common herbs, fruits, nuts, flowers, animals andanimal products (chickens, doves, and eggs), andspices. Religious symbols, such as the crucifix, pic-tures of saints, incense, candles, holy water, oils, andsweet fragrances are widely used, as are secular items,such as cards, alum, and ribbons. The curandero al-lows the patients to rely extensively on their own re-sources by prescribing items that either are familiaror have strong cultUral significance; thus a significantcharacteristic of the objects used at the material levelis that they are common items used for daily activitiessuch as cooking and worship.

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vaginal discharges; andpeilos de elate are used for kid-ney problems. Herbal baths usually are prescribed todeal with skin diseases; fresno (ash tree, Praxinusspecies) is used to treat scalp problems such aseczema, dandruff, and psoriasis; and linaza is pre-scribed for body sores. For specific sores such as boils,malva (probably a Malvastrum) leaves are boiled uritilsoft and then applied to the sores as a poultice. Otherherbs are used as decongestants. A handful of oregano(oregano: Oregenum vulgare L) is placed in a humidifierto treat someone with a bad cold.

Some herbal lore is passed on as an oral tradi-tion, and other information is available in Spanishlanguage books for Mexico that are widely circu-lated among both curanderos and the public (Arias;Wagner). These works describe and classify numerousherbs. Herbal remedies are so important to Mexican-American folk medicine that their use often is con-fused with the art of curanderismo itself by the massculture. Indeed, some curanderos known as yerberosor yerberas) specialize in herbs, but their knowledgeand skills go beyond the mere connection of one dis-ease to one herbal formula. For curanderos to be gen-uine, even at the material level, an element of mysti-cism must be involved in their practice. Herbs areused commonly for their spiritual or supernaturalproperties. Spiritual cleansings (barridas) often aregiven with ruda (Ruta graveolens L.J. romero (rosemary,Rosmarinus officiates L:), and albacar (sweet basil, Oci-mum basiticum L.), among. others. Herbs are used asamulets; verbena (verbena, Verbena officinalis L.J. wornas an amulet, is used to help open a person's mind tolearn and retain knowledge.

Some curanderos have successful practices on thematerial level without resorting to the use of herbs.Some nonherbal treatments are described in the fol-lowing section.

Supernaturally Caused ll1nessesand Ritual CuresSupernatural illnesses, which occur when supernat-ural negative forces damage a person's health, some-times can be confused with natural illnesses. Onehealer stated that these supernatural illnesses maymanifest as ulcers, tuberculosis, rheumatiSm, or mi-graine headaches, but in reality, they are believed tobe hexes that have been placed on the person by anenemy. Supernatural izifluences also disrupt a per-son's mental health and his or her living environ-ment. Physicians cannot cure a supernatural illness.

Naturalll1nesses and Herbal Cures

Curanderos recognize that illnesses can be broughtabout by natural causes, such as dysfunction of thebody, carelessness or the inability of a person to takeproper care of himself or hersel£ and infection. Cu-randeros at the material level used large amounts ofmedicinal herbs (plantas medicinales) to treat these nat-ural ailments. Some traditional curanderos classifyherbs as having the dichotomous properties consid-ered essential for humoral medicine, based on a hot-cold classification system common throughout LatinAmerica (Foster, 1953). They use these dual propertiesto prescribe an herb or combination of herbs, de-pending on the characteristics of the illness. If a per-son's illness supposedly is caused by excessive "heat,"an herb with "cold" properties is given. Conversely, ifa person's illness is believed to be caused by excessive"coldness and dryness," a combination of herbs hav-ing "hot and "wet" properties is administered.

Other curanderos recognize herbs for their chem-ical properties, such as poisons (yerba del coyote.) Kar-winskia humboldtuna Roem. et Sch.).) hallucinogens (pey-ote.) Lophaphora williams Lem.).) sedatives (flor de tila.)Talia mexicana Schl.).) stimulants (yerba del trueno).) andpurgatives (cascara sagrada). These individuals refer tothe beneficial chemical properties of the herbs that al-low them to treat natural illnesses.

Curanderos prescribe herbs most frequently asteas, baths, or poultices. The teas act as a sort of for-mative chemotherapy. Borraja (borage: Borajo officialiS

-.~L.).) for example, is taken to cut a fever; flor de tila, amild stdative, is taken for insomnia;yerba de la golond-rina (Euphorbia prostrate Ait.) is used as a douche for

FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE416

The curandero commonly deals with social disrup-tion, personality complexes, and sometimes with seri-ous psychological disturbances. One healer gave thefollowing description of a case that contained severalof these elements:

This patient worked for the street maintenance depart-ment of (a small city in south Texas). ~very day after worka voice would lead him out into the brush and sometimeskeep him there until 2:00 AM. This activity was wearingout the man and his family and he was going crazy. A badspirit was following this man and would not leave himalone. The man was cured, but it took three people tocure him: myself, a friend, and a master (maestro) fromMexico. This man was gtven three bamdas each day forseven days, one by each of us. The tools used were eggs,lemons, herbs, garlic, and black chickens. The man wasalso prescribed herbal baths and some teas to drink. Hewas also gtven a charm made from the haba mijrina de-signed to ward off any more negative influences whichmight be directed at him. This patient regained his sanity.

There also are a number of illnesses that are both su-pernaturally caused and of a supernatural natUre,which can be treated on the material level. The fol-lowing account is an example of such an illness and

cure.

My brother-in-law was working at a motel. ..in Weslaco.When he started working they laid off this other guy whohad been working there for several years. This guy didn'tlike it, and he's been known to be messing around withblack magic. I don't know what he did to my brother-in-law, but every other day he'd have to be taken home be-cause he was sick. He started throwing up, had shakyknees, and weak joints. So my mother and I went over tosee this lady in Reynosa, and she told my mother justwhat to do. My sister rubbed her husband with a lemonevery night for three days. She also gave him some kind oftea. ...On the third day, a big black spot appeared on thelemon, so we threw it away, and he's been fine ever since.

pain. While sweeping the patient, the curandero re-cites specific prayers or invocations that appeal toGod, saints, or other supernatural beings to restorehealth to the patient. The curandero may recite theseprayers and invocations out loud or silendy. Standardprayers include the Lord's Prayer, the Aposdes' Creed,and Las Doce Verdades de Mundo (The Twelve Truths of

the World).The following description of a barrida illustrates

how the material objects, the mystical power of theseobjects, the invocations, the curandero, and the pa-tient come together to form a healing ritual designedfor a specific patient and a specific illness: In this case,five eggs, four lemons, some branches of albacar(sweet basil), and oil were used.. To begin the healingprocess, the lemons and eggs were washed With alco-hol and water to cleanse them spiritUally. Before be-ginning the ritUal, the participants were instructed totake off their rings, watches, and other jewelry; high~frequency spiritual and mental vibrations canpro~duce electrical discharges on the metal, which might

"disturb the healing process. The sweeping itself iscdone by interchanging an egg and a lemon s~c~s-sively. Sweeping With the egg is intended to transfer,

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the problem from the patient to the egg by meansRtconjures (conjures) and invocations (rechasos).:;Th~:lemon is used to eliminate the trabajo (magical hatm)that has been placed on the patient. The patienti~swept once With albacar (sweet basil) that c,c

rinsed:"ing purifies the patient,to his spiritual being. The ritual ends by

crosseson the principal joints of the patients, such~:

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neck, under the knees, and, above the elbow.

-, -c,c'surround the patient, which have beenpliCed,by whoever is provoking the harm. The

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brations. Agua preparada is then rubbed?rltient's forehead and occiput (cerebrO) toand to give mental strength- All the objeqs

Rituals and the Material LevelCuranderos use several types of rituals for supernat-ural cures. The bam"da is one of the most commonrituals. These cleansings are designed to removethe negative forces that are harming the patient,while simultaneously giving the patient the spiritualstrength necessary to enhance recovery. Patients arealways "swept" from head to toe, with the curanderomaking sweeping or brushing motions with an egg,lemon, herb, or whatever object is deemed spirituallyappropriate. Special emphasis is given to areas in

censing. The sahumerio is a purifica1ionmarily for treating businesses,and other places of work or habitation.,-, ,

cense.

417CHAPTER 23 Curanderismo

dles are burned for serenity or tranquility; red candlesare burned for health, power, or domination; pinkcandles are burned for good will; green candles areburned to remove a harmful or negative influence;and purple candles are burned to repel and attack badspirits (espiritus obscuros) or strong magic. Once theproper color of candle has been chosen to producethe proper mental atmosphere, the candles arearranged in the correct physical formation and acti-vated by the conjuros y rechasos. If a patient asks forprotection, the candles might be burned in a triangle,which is considered to be the strongest formation,one whose influence cannot be broken easily. If theywant to dominate someone-a spouse, a lover, or anadversary-the candles might be burned in circles.Other formations include crosses, rectangles, andsquares, depending on the results desired (Buckland,1970).

Another relatively common use of candles is to di-agnose problems by studying the flame or the ridgesthat appear on the melted wax. A patient may beswept with a candle while the healer recites an invo-cation asking the spirit of the patient to allow its ma-terial being to be investigated for any physical or spir-itual problems that may be affecting the person. Thisritual also can be performed by burning objects usedin a bamda. Lighting the candle or burning the objectafter the bamda helps the curandero reveal the causeand extent of the patient's problems. Similarly, if apetitioner asks for candling, the wax of the candlesburned for the velacion may be examined for figuresor other messages that point to the source of a pa-tient's problems.

One of the organizing principles of the materiallevel of curanderismo is synchronicity with Christian-ity in general and the Catholic Church in particular.Special invocations often are directed _at saints orspirits to bring about desired results. For example,San Martin de Porres is asked to relieve poverty, SanMartiq Caballero is asked to ensure success in busi-ness, San Judas Tadeo is asked to help in impossiblesituations, and Santa Marta is asked to bring har-mony to a household. Ritual materials used by thechurch, such as water, incense, oils, and candles, areextensively used by folk healers. The ways in whichthese religious objects are used and the theories fortheir efficacy closely mirror the concepts foundwithin the healing ministry of the Church, which arenot incompatible with European witchcraft, fromwhich curanderismo partly derives.

he may prescribe some commercially prepared in-cense such as el sahumerio maravilloso (miraculous in-cense). A pan with the smoking incense is carriedthroughout the building, making sure that all cor-ners, closets, and hidden spaces, such as under thebeds, are properly filled with smoke. While "incens-ing," the healer or someone else recites an appropriateprayer. If the sahumerio maravilioso is used, the prayeroften is one to Santa Marta, requesting that peaceand harmony be restored to the household. After thesahumerio) the healer may sprinkle holy water on thefloor of every room in the house and light a whitecandle that stays lit for 7 days. The sahumerio is an ex-ample of the curandero treating the general social en-vironment, seeking to change the conditions of thepersons who live or work there. Incensing of a houseremoves negative influences such as bad luck (sa/a-ciones), marital disruptions, illness, or disharmony.For business and farms, incensing helps ensure suc-cess and groWth~ and protects against jealous com-petitors. These ritUals are designed to affect everyonein the environment that has been treated.

Another type of ritual, called a sortilegio (conjure),uses material objects such as ribbons to tie up thenegative influences that harm the curandero's pa-tients. These negative influences are often personalshortcomings such as excessive drinking, infidelity,rebellious children, unemployment, or any otherproblem believed to be imposed by antisocial magic(un trabajo). One sortilegio that I observed requiredfour ribbons in red, green, white, and black, each ap-proximat~ly 1 yard in length. The color of each rib-bon represents a type of magic, which the curanderoscan activate to deal with specific problems. Red magicinvolves domination, green deals with healing, whitewith general positive forces, and black with negativeor debilitating forces.

When working with a specific area of magic, oneuses material objects that are the appropriate colornaturally or that have been made that color artifi-cially. The color-based division of magic also is car-ried over into another type of ritual system used onthe material level, velacione) or burning candles to pro-duce supernatural results. The velaciones and the col-ored material objects used in the sortilegios tie into theenergy theme that runs throughout curanderismo,

the colors and objects are believed to havevibratory power or energy that can affect thewhen activated by the incantations used in

, with the:objects. For example, blue can-

418 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE

The Spiritual Level~Nivel R_~..i1iritual,)

sions that have positive or negative connotations as-sociated with them, for example, heaven, limbo, pur-gatory, or hell. Other people see the spiritual realm asparallel to the physical world. They state that the spir-itual is a more pleasant plane on which to live, butfew attempt any suicidal test of this belief. One healercommented that "spirits" [espiritos], "souls" [a/mas],are the same thing. These spirits' activities closely par-allel their former activities in this world. Because thepersonality, knowledge, and motivation of the spiritsare much the same as they were for the living being,there are both good and evil spirits, spirits who healand spirits who harm, wise spirits and fools.

These spirits might communicate with or act onthe ph:rsical plane. Some have left tasks undone intheir physical lives they wish to complete; others wantto help or cause harm; many wish to communicatemessages to friends and relatives, telling them of theirhappiness or discontent with their new existence.Therefore curanderos with the ability to work on thespiritual realm become the link between these twoworlds. Some curanderos believe that there are multi-tudes of spirits who want to communicate with thephysical world, and they tend to hover around those

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Curanderos who have the don for working on the spir-itual level (nillel espiritual) of curarideris~o are less nu-merous than those who work on the material leveLThese practitioners also must go thr~ugh a develop-mental period (desarrollo) that can be somewhat trau-matic. Spiritual practices in communities revolvearound a belief in spiritual beings who inhabit an-other plane of existence but who are interested inmaking contact with the physical world periodically.Healers become a direct link between this plane of ex-istence and that other world. In some cases the cu-randeros claim to control these spirit beings, and inother cases, they merely act as a channel throughwhich messages pass. Some of these practices are car-ried out by individual healers, whereas other activitiesoccur in conjunction with spiritual centers (centros es-piritistas) that are staffed by trance mediums andother individuals with occult abilities. These centersoften work through two prominent folk saints: ElNino Fidencio from Northern Mexico and DonPedrito Jaramillo from southern Texas (Macklin,1974a, 1974b, 1974c). This trend in visiting spiritual-ist centers appears to be relatively recent, having notbeen reported during the 1950s and 1960s by thosedoing research on Mexican-American folk medic~e

(Clark, 1959; Madsen, 1964; Rubel, 1960, 1966).The practice of spiritualism rests on "soul con-

cept," a belief in the existence of spirit entities derivedfrom once-living humans. The soul is thought to bethe immortal component, the life and personalityforce of human beings-an entity that continues tomst after physical death on a plane of reality separatefrom the physical world. This concept is importantnot only to curanderismo but also to the religionsand mystical beliefs found in all Western cultures.

The soul is alternatively described by curanderosas a force field, ectoplasm, concentrated vibrations, orgroup of electrical charges that exist separate fromthe physical body. It is thought to retain the person-ality, knowledge, and motivations of the individualeven after the death of the body. Under proper condi-tions the soul is ascribed the ability to contact and af-fect persons living in the physical world. Althoughsouls occasionally can be seen as ghosts or appari-tions by ordinary human beings, they exist more of-ten in the spiritual realm previously mentioned.Some people view this realm as having various divi-

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opportunity to enter their bodies and

pIe with a strong potential to be trancewho have not had the opportunity to learncontrol this condition.

The ability to become acentered in the cerebra) that portion of thefound at the posterior base of the skull.

, ---

whereas those who do not are said to havecerebros (un cerebra debil).tionship either to the intelligence orture of the individual, only to his or

Ij r '"

:jl.,

l

if 1 '! ..,

!

represent a danger fora medium. Only rare .-umistic potential spontaneously

ten test their patients and

fig,their ability.desa1TOUo and is a fairly lengthy processlast from 2 months to more than 6with periodic refresher encounters

-~11"r !:j

'11419CHAPTER 23 Curanderismo

from the maestro (teacher). DesarroUo is a gradualprocess of increasing an apprentice's contact with thespirit world, giving him or her more and more experi-ences in controlled trances and possessions, as well asthe knowledge necessary to develop and protect him-self or herself as a spiritualist. The teacher also is re-sponsible for giving the apprentice knowledge at asafe pace. The curandero does not always explainwhat each sensation means; each person, as he or shedevelops, becomes more sensitive to his or her envi-ronment. The apprentice must expect to encounter

odd sensations such as bright light, noises, changes inpressure; and other sensations associated with devel-oping powers. At the end of these desarrollo sessions,the conversation reverts to social chatting for sometime before the apprentice takes his leave. This devel-opmental process continues, with variations, untilthe apprentice is a fully developed medium.

Fully developed mediums control how, where,and when they work, and several options are availableto them. Some mediums work alone and treat onlyfamily problems (Box 23-1); others might use their

, ROX 2~-1

Curanderos

~

420 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE

cousin," I said. "Yes,exactly, I am your cousin." "Look,"he said, "You have come here with your husband." Onother occasions I really had been there with my husband,mother and different relatives. "You have come here withyour husband because you think he is hexed and that iswhy he is sick. But that's not true. He has a physical ill-ness that the doctor can cure. Don't believe it's anythingbad."

He said, "I'm going to prove who I am by coming toyour house. Tell my cousin I'm going to see her." You see,I have a sister who's not nervous at all and who isn'tafraid of anything. On Tuesday, as my sister was leaningby the window watching a television show, she felt some-one embrace her. She turned and saw no one.

These spiritual centers vary according to their size,their oWners, and the spirits who are associated withthem, yet there is considerable regularity in the ser-vices they perform. Sometimes me<:fiums prescribesimple herbal remedies for physical problems. Theserecipes are virtually identical to the ones presentedi~the previous section on the material level, althoug~;:jcoccasionally, it is said that a spirit will recommend anew use for an herb. The mediums might suggestf4~f;~l.'i;the patient perform the already familiar ritu~9fi~;;curanderismo, such as the bamda. The spirits :lre~thought to be able to influence people's lives direcdy;in addition to imparting knowledge about remedie~iThe curanderos state that spirits control.spiritu¥c

c c"

(vibraciones mentales)j they can manipulate thetient's health by directing positive or negative,_c'at them from the spiritual realm.

spiritual center in southern Texas,

abilities only for their own knowledge and gratifica-tion. Some mediums work in groups with other medi-ums or with other persons whom they believe havecomplimentary spiritUal or psychic powers. Somemediums work in elaborate spiritUal centers (centrosespiritistas) that are formal churches, often dedicated toa particular spirit (e.g., Fidencio, Francisco Rojas, DonPedrito Jaramillo). The spiritUal centers and the activi-ties surrounding them take on the major aspects of aformalized religion.

Sometimes a trance session is open to more thanone person at the same time. This group session canbe carried out by a lone curandero but more oftenis found at spiritUal centers. The process of the de-velopment of these centers is described elsewhere(Trotter & Chavira, 1975a). Once a temple has beenestablished, it may house from 1 to 20 mediums. Themore meqiums, the better; otherwise, a medium mayhave to let his or her body be used by too many dif-ferent spirits, exhausting them and laying them opento supernatUral harm. Larger temples might havefour or five videnntes (clairvoyants), as well as themediums, and might be putting several apprenticesthrough desarrollo at the same time. Many of the ac-counts provided to these authors about spiritUalhealing were from individuals who had had experi-ences with spiritUal temples in Mexico. Some templeswere located in Espinaso) the home of El Nino Fiden-cio and a center of pilgrimage for mediums practicingin his name, and others were in urban centers such asTampico and Mexico City. Large numbers of peoplemake pilgrimages to cl1ese healing centers in Mexicoto deal wicl1 health care problems that they have notresolved in the United States.

One healing center is called Roca Blanca) after thespirit that speaks qlost often in that place. The owner,Lupita, founded it 25 years ago, after discovering herability to cure. She was granted permission to prac-tice by a spiritual association. This report is from avisitor to Lupita's healing center:

with lower back pain.buy a bandage and bri.ng it to the next

~

lowing instructions correcdy. The bandagenarrow and not long enough. Them~st~cted to buy a new bandage and place.window ledge to catch the morning dew;

,. .co

thought to have healing properties.place a glass 6fwater under the headjar of alcohol at the side of the bed.himself in the bandage according totions and lie quiedy on his bed for'2 hours, during which time the spiritvisit him and complete the cure. The

I went to this place simply because I was curious. I wasswept with albacar and the medium was at my side. WhileI was being swept, the medium went into trance. The sis-ter who was sweeping me asked the spirit who he wantedto talk to. He said, "with the one you are sweeping." Then,the sist~r finished sweeping me and directed me to talkwith the person who was addressing me. When she (themedium in trance) talked to me, she sounded like a man.He asked me, "Do you know who (am?" I have a cousinwho got killed in a place in Tampico. "You must be my

:HAPTER Curanderism, 421

practitioners, which severely limits d1e number ofpeople who could be approached for an opportunityto investigate d1e phenomenon. All of d1e casesd1e aud1or observed followed a similar pattern. For

example:

After the curandero chatted with the patient and askedthem about the basic problem, he asked the patient tostate her complete name (ei nombre completo). The curan-dero Wrote the name on a piece of paper. Sitting behindthe desk he used for consultations, he leaned his arms onthe desk, bent forward slightly, closed his eyes, and con-centtated on the piece of paper. After a few minutes, heopened his eyes, told the patient more about his or herproblem, and stated that it was being resolved.

The curandero stated that he had learned to use hismind as a transmitter through desarrollo. He could chan-nel, focus, and direct vibraciones mentales at the patient.These mental vibrations worked in two ways-one physi-cal, one behavioral. Ifhe was working with a physical ill-ness, such as cancer, he channeled the vibra!=ions to the af-flicted area, which he already had pinpointed, and usedthe vibrations to retard the growth of damaged cells andaccelerate the growth of normal cells. In a case of desiredbehavioral changes, he sent the vibrations into the per-son's mind and manipulated them in a way that modifiedthe person's behavior. The curandero gave an example ofone such case in which a husband had begun drinking ex-cessively, was seeing other women, was being a poor fa-ther to his children, and was in danger of losing his job.The curandero stated that he dominated the man's

thought processes and shifted them so that the husband~topped drinking to excess, and became a model husbandand father (Trotter, 1981, p. 473).

these instructions and stated that he did gain relieffrom his back pain. The same spirit treated a youngcollege girl who periodically had asthma attacks. Thegirl's mother, a regular member of the group,brought her to the sessiqn. The spirit, in the person ofthe medium, stood and clasped the girl's head Withone hand on her cerebra and the other on her fore-head; sending Corrientes espirituales through her brain.The spirit then told her to take a sip of agua preparadaand sit back down in the circle. The treatment wassuccessful in overcoming this particular attack, andthe mother mentioned after the session that thesecures relieved her own asthma for several months.

Another patient requested a social and emotionaltreatment. Her husband recently had begun to prac-tice Witchcraft (btujeria)" and she was worried that heor his friends might attack her or members of herfamily. A considerable amount of tension existed be-tween the couple's families. She felt under continualstress and had gone to a doctor for help. The doctorprescribed a mild se_dative, which she had taken for 3weeks without relie£ The medium's spirit probed hermind and told her to take three sips of agua preparadato break any spells that had been cast on her. Thespirit promised to provide her With protection andhelp from the spiritual realm to counteract anythingthat her husband might do. She appeared to be con-tent with the spirit's activities on her behalf and wasgreatly relieved.

Several ~pects of the spiritual level have not beencovered in this brief description but are described inmore detail elsewhere (Trotter, 1975). These includethe actual techniques of testing for el don" the physicaland supernatural dangers of trance mediumship, theacquisition of spiritual protectors to' overcome thosedangers, deta:iled descriptions of the trance statefrom the subjective perspective of the developingmedium and the objective perspective of ~ observer,and finally, the existence and purpose of mediums'associations.

I(~/I

IMMen t --alLe vel ~ N i 1.1 ~ I Me.tlta;l) -L

Conducting observation3.l, descriptive, and experi-ment3.l research on the practices of the ment3.llevelhas proven to be the most difficult task in exploringall of the aspeqs of curanderismo. The mental levelhas the fewest rirualsand the least outward complexbehavior associated with it. To date, it has the fewest

~

There also are a number of syncretic beliefs drawnfrom other alternative healing traditions-such asNew Age practices, the "psychic sciences," and East-ern philosophy-that have been incorporated intothis area of curanderismo. For example, some heal-ers state that they are able to perceive "auras"around people and that they can use these auras todiagnose problems that patients are encountering.They conduct the diagnosis on the basis of the coloror shape of the patient's aura. Some state that theylearned these practices from other healers, whereasothers indicate that they learned them from bookson parapsychology. .

The mental level is practiced most ofren by indi-vidual healers working with individual patients,rather th~ in groups. It appears to be a new additionto this healing system and does not have, as yet, a cod-ified body of ritual associated with it. It therefore con-

422 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE

stitutes an area in which additional descriptive workwill be necessary to unify healers' behavior.

TheQrPtir~1 TJnifir~tinnr",,'...C"

The three levels of curanderismo unify the theories ofdisease and illness found in the Mexican-Americanfolk medical model. They create a framework fo.rde-terniining the therapeutic apprpaches of curanderosin southern Texas. The system emphasizes a holisticapproach to treatment and relies heavily on the inti-mate nature of the referral system and the extensivepersonal knowledg~ of the patient's social environ-ment that is normally held by the cur~dero. Christ-ian symbols and theology provide both tools (can-dles, incense, water) and organization models (rituals,prayers, animistic concepts) for the material and thespiritual levels, but not to a similar degree for themental level. An energy concept is the central ideathat integrates the three levels and forms a systematicinterrelationship between them. This energy conceptderives from belief in forces, vibration, and currentsthat center in the mind of those who have the gift forhealing and that can be transmitted to cause healingfrom a distance, by affecting the patient's social,physical, spiritual, or psychological environment.

All three levels of healing are still evolving. Thevariations in the practices of curanderismo can be ex-plained partly by differences in the curanderos' per-sonality, differences in their treatment preferences orabilities, and differences in their emphasis on theo-retical or experiential approaches. There also are vari-a:tions produced by individual interpretations of anunderlying body of theory. A study of these variationswould be useful, now that the underlying theoreticalsystem provides a common starting point and com-mon objectives.

SETTINGS FORCURANDERISMO i

iHEALING SYSTEM !,

Curanderismo is a community-based healing system.It is complex and widespread. At one level it may bepracticed an~here that there exist Mexican Ameri-cans who know about it. Part of this healing traditionis the information that is spread throughout theMexican-American cultUre on home treatments for

common physical ailments (colds, flu, arthritis,asthma, or diabetes) ~d for common spiritual or"folk illnesses" (susto) mal deojo) and empacho). This isanalogous to the biomedical information that isspread throughout all European cultures, includingthe Mexican-American culture, where the home is thefirst line of defense and diagnosis of illnesses thateventually might necessitate a doctor or a hospital.On the other hand, some aspects of curanderismo re-quire the use of special locations, preparations, andtools. This is especially true of spiritual practices onthe spiritual level and for the effective treatment ofsupernatural harm on the material level.

The first setting where this knowledge is used is athome. When pedple become ill, they use their existingcultural model of health and illness to come up withsolutions. One type of solution is home diagnosisand home treatment. Therefore both biomedical con-cepts and folk medical concepts are applied immedi-ately, and home treatments are attempted. In the caseof curanderismo this often results in the use of homeremedies (remedio caseros) that have been part of theculture for generations, especially herbal cures. whe;the diagnosis identifies a magical or supernaturallycaused illness, the illness results in a home-basedritual. These interventions are done by mothers,grandmothers, cousins, friends, or knowledgeable.acq~tances. c

illnesses that appear to be too serious to handle at,

home, both natural and supernatural, are taken toprofessional healers who have a locally widespread;reputation for being able to treat both biomedical '

and traditional health care problems. Most of these ,healers work in a silent, but positive, partnership withphysicians, although the physicians often are un-,aware of the link. The curanderos interviewed in vari-ous studies of Mexican-American folk medicine-Meconsistent in their positive regard for modernmedi-cine. They consistendy refer patients to modernhealth care services, where they see the efficacy of that;approach to be equal to or greater than their own, A~jthe same time they note significant differ~nces in th~1models of health and illness between their own prac-{'tices and modern medicine, especially in theareas~f,;Jsupernatural illnesses, in addressing soci~ (marital~i:business, interpersonal) problems, and inwith psychological problems. In these cases the treat-ments take place either in the patient's home or work

environment or in special workroomsthe curanderos as part of their practices. The

423CHAPTER 23 Curanderismo

might call for working directly in the environmentthat is affected In other cases the venue of choice is.the curandero's area because the cure depends oncareful preparation and protection from outside in-fluences. These work areas contain altars, medicinalplants, tools for supernatural rituals, and other items,and the atmosphere is considered most beneficial forthe healing process, particularly in the case of super-natural problems and treatments (Trotter & Chavira,1981).

~

the consensual data on what is available to a signifi-cant segmenL of the existing Mexican-American pop-ulation but spend less time describing the profes-sional actions of curanderos, because these masscultural phenomena are generally thought of as hav-ing themes or UI:lifying elements rather than a theo-retical Structure. This viewpoint is well represented inarticles about curanderismo and its form and func-tion within Mexican-American communities (Clark,1959b; Edgerton, et al., 1970; Foster, 1953; Martinez& Martin, 1966; Torrey, 1969). /

Later research maintains the strengths of this ap-proach but adds folk theoretical concepts. Early epi-demiological approaches to folk illnesses give an ideaof the geograp~cal spread and variation in beliefs, ill-nesses, and healing tituals, whereas later studies iden-tify or discuss the common denominators that unifycuranderos-their underlying perception of illness.Traditional anthropological research techniques wereused to gather the data for these studies, primarilyparticipant observation and interviewing over pro-longed periods. Most of the authors used personalnetworks to identify individuals who were known lo-cally as healers. Emphasis often was placed on findingindividuals who were full-time healers rather thantalking to those who treated only family membersand neighbors. Therefore a curandero can be definedas an individual who is recognized in his communityas having the ability to heal, who sees an average offive or more patients a day, and who has knowledgeof and uses the theoretical structure described inthis chapter. These people can be viewed as both spe-cialists and professionals. Several areas of curan-derismo have received a considerable amount of re-search attention.

RESEARCH ANDEVAT,TJATTONSA PPROArHFS

The research that is available on curanderismo is

broad in interest and historic depth. Unlike specific

healing techniques, such as acupuncture, which canbe studied in relation to specific illnesses with relative

ease, curanderismo is a complex brew of both theo-retical approaches to healing and an interrelated set

of healing techniques. The techniques range from

herbal cures, which must be approached from an

ethnopharmacological perspective; to rituals, whichcan be studied symbolically as projective psychiatric

techniques; to methods such as massages, natural

birth, nutritional prescriptions, and dietary practices.

Some .studies have investigated the scientific efficacy

of the practices of curanderismo, whereas others have

approached it from a sociopolitical or symbolic view-

point. Some practices have not been studied at all.

Therefore, although the efficacy of some parts of

the system are clearly defined, others remain to be

explored.Early research on curanderismo can be found

in the classic anthropological works on Mexican-

American folk medicine, published primarily in the

1960s (Clark, 1959a; Currier, 1966; Kiev, 1968;

Madsen, 1961, 1964; Romano, 1965; Rubel, 1960,1964, 1966). These authors produced descriptive

baseline data on the prominent folk medical practices

of Hispanic communities in the United States. They

provide an initial view of curanderismo that is rich in

descriptions of MexiCan-American folk illnesses such

as Justo) empacho) mal de ojo) caida de mollera) bilis) and es-

Fanta (Nail & Speilberg, 1967). These works generallytreat traditional healing in Mexican-American com-

munities as a body of knowledge that is widely dis-

tributed throughout the culture, rather than as a the-

oretical healing system. Therefore the works consider

!;Home Remedies,~,

Herbal and chemical treatments for both natural andsupernatural illnesses are very common in Mexican-American communities. More than 800 remedioscaseros have been identified on the U.S.-Mexican bor-der alone (Trotter, 19813, 1981b). Many of the reme-dies have been tested for biochemical and therapeuticactivities (Etkin, 1986; Trotter, 1981, 1983; Trotter &Logan, 1986). Overall, the remedies are not only bio-chemically active; more than 90 percent have demon-strated therapeutic actions that matched the folkme~cal model for their uses. At the same time only a

424 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE

~

groups, their frequency of treatment, belief and men-tion in various communities, and their relationshipsto medical conditions and to the treatment of med-ical conditions' (Collado-Ardon et al., 1983; Trotter;1991; Trotter et al., 1989). In the case of Justo there isclear evidence that it is linked directly to serio1,1S mor-biditypattems in Latin-American communities andacts as an excellent indicator that biom~dical person-nel should investigate multiple conditions ~d prob-lems among patients complaining of its symptoms.Caida de la mollera) on investigation, is a folk medicinelabel that corresponds to severe dehydration in in-fants caused by gastrointestinal problems. It is life-threatening and, when identified by parents, is an ex-cellentindicator that the child should be brought inimmediately for medical care. Empacho is a severeform of constipation based on its description and istreated with numerous remedies that cause diarrhea.Because it is thought to be a blockage of the in::testines, the purgative effect of these remedies signalsthat treatment has been effective. To date, no studieshave linked mal de ojo to any biomedical condition;however, because the symptoms include irritabilio/,lethargy, and crying, it is possible that some connec-tion will be made in the future.

~

small proportion of the herbs have been tested. Thislack of information is being overcome by an ongoingproject to study the efficacy of the complete range ofherbal cures available in Mexican-American commu-nities (Graham, 1994), by use of combined ethno-graphic and biomedical methods (Browner et al.,1988; Croom, 1983; OrtiZ de Montellano & Browner,1985; Trotter, 1985).

The exceptions to the general rule of efficacy arethe use of remedies for illnesses such as the commoncold, where they relieve symptoms but do not direcdytreat the illness. The actions of these remedies, someof which are described earlier, include diuretics, treat-ments for constipation, abortifacient, analgesics,sedatives, stimulants, cough suppressants, antibacte-rial agents, coagulants and anticoagulants, vitaminand mineral supplements, and plants with antipara-sitic actions. Most have proven safe and effectivewhen used in the manner described and recom-mended by the curanderos. This area, and the thera-peutic, culturally competent counseling practices ofthe healers are the most clearly acceptable and usefulfor articulation with modem medicine.

Additional Information on theEpidemiolog¥ of Folk T1lne~~p~:,

~I

Another area of signIficant endeavoris the identificationibility between the processes and rituals ofderismo and the use of psychiatry insettings. The time period1970s saw the analysis and publication ofseminal works in this area (Kiev, 1968;1969; Torrey, 1969: Trotter, 1979:Velimiro~c!ccThe parallels are clear, especially when healers

C y

nize from ilieir knowledge ofatry. This is an area in whichcollaborations have been conductedtional healers and individuals from ~establishments in several states:

Of all dIe complex areas of Mexican-American tradi-tional healing, dIe one dIat has received dIe most re-search attention has been dIe study of common folkillnesses dIat are experienced and treated in Mexican-American communities. The most commonly reportedare susto) an illness caused by a frightening event; mal deojo) an illness dIat can be traced to the Near East) whichinvolves a magically powerful glance taking away someof dIe vital essence of a susceptible persQn; empacho) ablockage of dIe intestines caused by eating dIe wrongtype of food at dIe wrong time or by being forced to eatunwanted food; and caida de la mollera) a condition offallen fontanel in infants. A number of odIers also arewell defined, if not as commonly studied, but dIesefour take up most of dIe research attention.

The epidemiology and dIe cognitive models ofdIese illnesses have been well documented (Rubel,1964; Trotter, 1982, 1985; Weller et al:) 1993).. Theyhave been studied bodI singly and in combination(Baer et al., 1989; Logan & Mortin, 1979; Rubel et al.,1984; Weller et al., 1991, 1993), in tertns of dIeir cog-nitive structure within and between Hispanic cultural tains a very high ratio of useful,

425CHAPTER 23 Curanderismo

turally competent healing strategies that work wellin Hispanic communities. As seen preViously, theserange from proven herbal cures to therapeutic mod-els to culturally important labeling systems thatcan help physicians identify the culturalla:bels forcertain types of biomedical problems. The complex-ity of cu~derismo ensures that these findings will.mcrease.

At the same time no health care system exists thatdoes not have side effects and unexpected results.With allopathic medicine, these range from the birthdefects of thalidomide to dreadful side effects ofchemotherapy and the limited ability of psychologyto deal with chronic mental health conditions such asalcohol and drug abuse. In curanderismo conditionsare not the bulk of the effects of its use, a few unex-pected consequences have been discovered in treatingempacho (Baer & Ackerman, 1988; Baer et al., 1989;Trotter, 1983b). These occurrences are rare but mustbe taken into account and understood within theoverall cultural context of curanderismo and withinthe context of the far more pervasive positive benefitsthat the communities derive from haVing these alter-native health care practices available. With the com-plexity and the diversity of practices within this tradi-tional healing system, there remains a great deal ofuseful and insightful research that can be conductedbeneficially in relation to curanderismo.

AcknowledgmentsThe initial phase of the research findings reported bythe author was supported by a grant from the Re-gional Medical Program of Texas (RMPT Grant No.75-108G). Further efforts at data collection were sup-ported by the Texas Commission on Alcoholism, PanAmerican University, and the author himsel£

11'I

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427CHAPTER 23 Curanderismo

~

Weller SC, Pachter LM, Trotter RT ll, BaerRM. 1993. Em-pacho in four latino groups: a study of intra- and inter-cultural variation in beliefs. Med Arithropol 15(2):109-136

1.[

II

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Guerra F. 1961. Monardes. Diologo de Hierro. CompaniaFundido de Fierro y Acero de Monterrey, SA., Mexico.D .LosCronistas- Hispanoamericano.sdelaMate-riaMed-icinaColonial.al Professor Dr. Teofilo Hernando porsus amigos y in Homenaje 0 di$cipulos. Libreria y CasaEditorial Hernando. SA., Madrid

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428 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE

Samora J 1961. Conceptions of disease among SpanishAmericans. Am Cath Soc Rev 22:314-323

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