current trends in athletic training education and
TRANSCRIPT
Marshall UniversityMarshall Digital Scholar
Theses, Dissertations and Capstones
2003
Current trends in athletic training education andcertification in JapanYuriko Ohashi
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Recommended CitationOhashi, Yuriko, "Current trends in athletic training education and certification in Japan" (2003). Theses, Dissertations and Capstones.Paper 736.
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Current trends in athletic training education and certification in Japan
Thesis Submitted to
The Graduate College of
Marshall University
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for
The Degree of Master of Science
in Health and Physical Education
by
Yuriko Ohashi
Dr. R. Daniel. Martin, Committee Chairperson
Dr. T. Jeff Chandler
Mr. Gary E. McIlvain
Marshall University
Huntington, West Virginia
Spring, 2003
Marshall University
Division of Exercise Science, Sport and Recreation
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ABSTRACT
“Current trend in athletic training education and certification in Japan”
By Yuriko Ohashi
Athletic trainer is a well-established profession in the U.S., but its definition is
unclear in Japan because of no certification until recently. Japan Amateur Sports
Association (JASA) has started in curriculum to prepare, educate and certify athletic
trainers since 1994. This study researched the current trends in athletic training education
and certification in Japan. It defines the historical and present athletic training situation, and
clarifies education and certification with questionnaires. Questionnaires were sent to 43
sports medicine professors at JASA athletic trainer accredited and non-accredited program
schools, and 26 (61%) responses were returned. The current problems include lack of
clinical settings. JASA athletic trainer certification has had much attention to organize
several certifications. It cannot guarantee a profession as an athletic trainer due to lack of
recognition of athletic trainers and it is not considered a medical profession. This certification
should become more standardized in the Japanese sports medicine field.
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ACKNOWLEGEMENTS
The author wishes to explain the appreciation to people who help for this thesis.
Without the support and guidance of everyone involved, this research project would not
have become a reality.
I would like to thank Dr. Dan Martin for his guidance and countless hours of
advising. I would also like to express my sincere appreciation for the support and help from
Dr. Jeff Chandler and Mr. Gary McIlvain.
Next, I would like to express my sincere appreciation to Mr. Sean Fugate for his
suggestions and help. I would also like to thank Dr. Kenji Hirohashi for his all help from
Japan. In addition, I really appreciate the subjects of my questionnaire to help my study.
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Table of contents
Abstract-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ⅱ
Acknowledgements-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------ⅲ
Table of contents--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ⅳ
Chapter Ⅰ
Introduction----------------------------------------------------------------------------------1
Purpose--------------- ---------------------------------------------------1
Significance-------------------------------------------------------------2
Thesis Statement-------------------------------------------------------4
Definitions--------------------------------------------------------------4
Chapter Ⅱ
Review of Literature------------------------------------------------------------------------8
History-------------------------------------------------------------------9
JASA--------------------------------------------------------------------11
NATA-------------------------------------------------------------------17
JATO--------------------------------------------------------------------22
Other athletic trainers’ associations in Japan----------------------24
Athletic trainer in other countries-----------------------------------30
Current trend-----------------------------------------------------------33
Summery---------------------------------------------------------------35
Chapter Ⅲ
Method---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------37
Subjects-----------------------------------------------------------------37
Questionnaire-----------------------------------------------------------38
Analysis-----------------------------------------------------------------39
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Chapter Ⅳ
Result--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------40
Respondents---------------------------------------------------------40
Descriptive statistics------------------------------------------------41
Program----------------------------------------------------43
Education--------------------------------------------------43
Clinical Setting--------------------------------------------44
Students---------------------------------------------------- 46
Chapter Ⅴ
Summary and Conclusion----------------------------------------------------------------49
Discussion-------------------------------------------------------------49
Program------------------------------------------------------50
Education----------------------------------------------------53
Clinical Setting----------------------------------------------55
Students------------------------------------------------------57
Summary and Conclusion--------------------------------------------59
Bibliography---------------------------------------------------------------------------------62
Appendix A
Tables and Figures--------------------------------------------------------------------------65
Appendix B
Cover letter and Questionnaire-----------------------------------------------------------88
Cover letter in English------------------------------------------------89
Cover letter in Japanese-----------------------------------------------90
Questionnaire in English----------------------------------------------91
Questionnaire in Japanese--------------------------------------------93
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Appendix C
Pictures---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------95
Tokai University-------------------------------------------------------96
Osaka University of Health and Sports Sciences---------------97
Nagoya Grampus Eight-----------------------------------------------98
Appendix D
Curriculum vitae----------------------------------------------------------------------------99
1
Current trends in athletic training education and certification in Japan
Chapter Ⅰ
Introduction
Playing sports has always been one of the most popular past-times in Japan.
Unfortunately, sports participation is commonly associated with injury. One of the most
important professionals to oversee health conditions of athletes is an athletic trainer.
Although athletic training is the well-established profession in the United States, the
definition is unclear in Japan because there has been no certification for athletic trainers
until recently. In addition, there are different types of certified people who use oriental
medicine in a sports setting. They are also described as a “trainer”. Therefore, there is
not any common standard certification like the National Athletic Trainers’ Association
(NATA) in Japan, but education programs have been initiated to prepare, educate and
certify individuals as athletic trainers.
Purpose
Because of the lack of the athletic training education and certification in Japan,
people have called themselves trainers even though they possess different types of
certifications, such as acupuncturist, massage therapist, shiatsu therapist, Judo therapist,
bachelor in physical education, physical therapist (PT), athletic trainer certified (ATC),
master in physical education, and others (Sports medicine quarterly, 1995). It is necessary
to go to a vocational school, college, or graduate college to obtain these certifications. In
addition to these, there is a new certification from the Japan Amateur Sports Association
(JASA) that is called an “athletic trainer.”
In 1994, JASA started to organize education and certification programs for athletic
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trainers. The NATA originated in the United States in 1950 and has developed into a large
and well respected allied health care organization. There are several differences between
American and Japanese education and certification routes for athletic trainers. There are
some studies about athletic training education and certification in Japan, but they do not
discuss the demand for athletic trainers. As an individual who has been studying athletic
training in the U.S., it will be interesting to study the current trends in athletic training
education and routes to certification. It will also be good to discuss the future of athletic
training in Japan.
The purpose of this study was to examine the past, present, and future of athletic
training in Japan. It describes the present status and future demand with a questionnaire
for professors who teach athletic training or related subjects, such as sports medicine or
athletic rehabilitation. Moreover, it considers developing the athletic training programs
and certification by comparison with other countries organizations. It would be interesting
to know the history and future of athletic training education and certifications, and
hopefully to help with the development of athletic training in Japan.
Significance
Athletic trainers are not well-established professionals in Japan. In general there
are a few full-time athletic trainers in college, and there are no full-time athletic trainers at
high school. Most of the college teams have student trainers or managers, who do not
have any formal education and certification in athletic training, and they also manage the
team, including travel, budget, and equipment maintenance. In addition they need to
participate in meetings, such as college sports associations and student organizations.
This could decrease their availability to adequately take care of their athletes. Some active
student trainers study athletic training individually or voluntarily attend seminars on
athletic training. A few teams have both student trainers and managers to better provide
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responsibility for each work area. College sports are not established as a business as much
as in the United States, so they do not have enough the funds to hire a full time or even a
half time athletic trainer. There are very few education programs of athletic training at the
college sports setting due to lack of faculty in athletic training.
In some case, sponsors of industrial and commercial teams decrease or stop their
support because of the business depression, and sometimes these teams have to terminate
the activity. It has been reported that several teams were dissolved due to lack of support
from 1995 to 1999 (MECSST, 2002). As a result, the athletic trainers do not have a
chance to obtain a job with these teams, and it gets to be more and more competitive. As
it is difficult to find a full-time athletic trainer position for college and industrial and
commercial teams, athletic trainers have to fill multiple roles such as athletic trainer,
teacher, and/or strength conditioning coach. In addition, some athletic trainers work for
some teams as a “volunteer”, even though they have earned appropriate credentials. The
Japanese athletic training profession is not as advanced as in American.
On the other hand, professional teams have some positions for full-time athletic
trainers. Although Japan does not have many professional teams as in the U.S., there are
two major professional sports, baseball and soccer. They primarily hire “trainers” who
have a certification as a Judo therapist, massage therapist, or acupuncturist. It is common
to call a massage therapist a “trainer” in Japan because traditional therapy has helped
athletes to be comfortable to play sports especially if they need relief of their pain. This is
a competitive profession due to small budgets and various other specialists serving as an
athletic trainer. However, it is essential to have athletic trainers in sports settings because
these individuals know the most appropriate methods of injury prevention, emergency care,
as well as athletic rehabilitation. All individuals working with sports need to know the
importance of having an athletic trainer available at all sports settings.
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This study investigated the following three areas pertinent to Japanese athletic
training: 1) the history and background of athletic trainers at various sports setting; 2) the
situation of athletic training education and certification systems related to athletic training;
3) the demand on athletic training education to produce qualified athletic trainer.
Thesis Statement
This study researched the current trends in athletic training education and
certification in Japan. It helped explain the history, the present athletic training situation
and clarify the present and the future of athletic training education and certification. This
was accomplished with a written questionnaire of professors in the area of athletic training
in Japan.
Definitions Medical Certification Physical therapist
Japanese federal government started to make the certification of physical therapist
(PT) in 1965. Before 1965, traditional therapists such as acupuncturist, massage
therapist, and Judo therapist took responsibility of rehabilitation. PT’s can work
at the clinic or hospital to help rehabilitation and treatment of patients. However,
they do not open private clinics because they have to work under the direction of a
physician. Japanese PT student may take the certification examination when they
complete the three years’ vocational school or college instead of the four years of
college required to be eligible to take the exam as in the U.S.
Acupuncturist
Acupuncturist is one of the traditional therapists originating from China.
Acupuncture has several thousands of years of history in China but the Japanese
history is from 701, AD. It is an oriental medical therapy involving the
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manipulation of small needles into specific body points (called meridians) in order
to relieve pain, treat disease and improve general health. Acupuncturist can open
their own clinic, but patients cannot use their health insurance for the treatment.
They go to three years’ vocational school to be eligible for the certification
examination.
Judo therapist
Judo therapists are also one of the traditional therapists and legally certified expert
in first aid for fracture, dislocation, sprain, and contusion. The history of Judo
therapy is retroactive to 8th century. They can open clinics and use electrotherapy
as a treatment, and patients can use their health insurance for payment. It is less
costly for patients to obtain the treatment from a judo therapist; the equivalent of a
three – four dollar co pay in the U.S. since insurance pays for part of the treatment.
They must complete three years’ vocational school to be eligible for the
certification examination. It has become difficult to enter this type of school
because many individuals are entering the field. Once they become certified and
open a clinic, they will be able to receive stable payment from patients’ health
insurance.
Massage therapist
Massage therapist specialize in massage using a variety of techniques and for a
variety of purposes. This includes shiatsu therapist, who is a Japanese massage
technician who utilizes techniques such as finger pressure and meridian stretches.
An Acupuncturist can also apply massage therapy as permitted by law. They attend
two or three year vocational school to prepare for the certification examination. It
is rare to open a clinic with only a massage therapist certification. People usually
have several certifications, such as Judo therapist or acupuncturist before opening a
clinic. Patients cannot use their health insurance for the massage treatment.
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Sports setting Professional team
Japanese professional sports include baseball and soccer leagues, and golf, tennis,
ski and sumo wrestling. Some of the athletes have professional status including
volleyball, basketball, and rugby. Generally, the money generated by professional
athletes is not as large as in the U.S. The Japanese soccer league is called the
J-league beginning in 1991 and was popular. However, popularity did not last and
while the J-league has tried to gain popularity including world cup game
participation. Not many audience or fun, which was not used to be, make a bad
cycle for J-league systems because they cannot make money if they do not
audience or fun. All professional sports are struggling due to the business
depression. They usually have a full-time athletic trainer on medical staff
Industrial and Commercial team
Industrial and Commercial team includes basketball, volleyball, rugby, football,
baseball, softball, handball, track& field, and ice hockey. Companies will invest
in a sports team as a form of advertisement. The company expects the benefit of
television broadcasting to enhance the popularity of the company’s name.
Athletes are expected to do office work as employees whenever they have a day-off
or during the off-season. In addition, they might have to work in the morning and
go to the practice in the afternoon. When an athlete retires many will stay and
still work as employees. While there are full-time athletic trainers with larger
teams, it is more common to hire part-time athletic trainers.
College team
There are sports teams at Japanese colleges. Unlike the U.S., there are few
scholarships for the athletes. Budgets to hire the coaches and sports medicine
staff in Japan are very limited. Many teams have a volunteer coach and medical
staff which could include students. Student trainers may be part of a team as a
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volunteer which means that they must learn on their own. Because of limited
budgets, athletes have to buy their own equipment and uniforms. If they have to
travel to an away game, they would have to pay for transportation and meals.
While larger schools provide some monetary support for their teams they certainly
cannot compare with the U.S. college sports programs. There are very few
full-time athletic trainers at larger colleges and it is uncommon to even hire
part-time athletic trainers.
High school team
There are high school teams at each high school. Teachers usually coach the
teams and a school nurse takes care of the athlete’s injury. However, school
nurses rarely are at the school when athletes practice, because it is in the evening
after normal school hours. There are a few full-time or part-time coaches and
medical staff for some private high schools, but rarely in the public high school.
There is almost no budget from the school to support their sports teams.
Little league
Japanese little league is very similar to the U.S. program. Children’s teams include
baseball, soccer, and basketball. Coaches and medical staff are typically parents
or volunteers. Some of the larger teams have a more organized and formal system
for staffing, but it is rare to have an athletic trainer at games. Should a participant
sustain an injury, they would go to a local hospital or clinic for appropriate
treatment.
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Chapter Ⅱ
Review of the literature
Japanese people have an interest in sports as well as health and fitness including
playing or watching sports. The Japan Amateur Sports Association (JASA) is an
organization of amateur sports which promotes participation as well as correct and safe
techniques. It was founded in 1911 to promote sport and fitness activity and also assisted
with the Tokyo Olympic Games in 1964. As the popularity of sports has increased, the
JASA now encourages sports leaders, promotion of lifetime activities, international sport
competition as well as supports research in the areas of sports medicine and sports science
(JASA, 2002).
In Japan, the “athletic trainer” is not well known as one of the sports leaders
because the coach or doctor has typically performed these responsibilities. As previously
mentioned, the traditional “trainer” could also be a massage therapist or acupuncturist in
Japan. These people are admitted as healthcare professionals by law and are able to treat
patients. On the other hand, athletic trainers are not recognized as healthcare providers
and are unable to treat patients. Becker-Doyle (1996) states “In Japan, the athletic trainer
is not considered an allied health professional, but someone who is affiliated with sports.”
This literature review will detail several issues to better clarify the current state of
Japanese athletic training education and certification. Included will be: 1) History of
Japanese sports society and athletic training; 2) JASA athletic trainers’ education and
certification; 3) National Athletic Trainers’ Association education and certification; 4) Japan
Athletic Trainer Organization; 5) other athletic trainers’ associations in Japan; 6) other
country’s athletic trainer certifications; and 7) current trends including three on-site visits at
Japanese colleges and professional settings.
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History
After World War II, sports competition has changed to being more competitive.
This includes the development of a national sports meet that is hosted annually by a
different city within Japan. The main purpose is to promote competition rather than just
physical and mental health. These became even more competitive after the Tokyo
Olympic games. However, many Japanese Olympic sports events remain as amateur
sports except for baseball, soccer, tennis and golf. Amateur sports have increased from
public support as well as support from a variety of businesses. The Los Angeles Olympic
Games in 1984 were provided commercial support from a variety of businesses. Today, the
International Olympics and the Federation International de Football Association (FIFA)
World cup grant television rights based on monetary gains. The Japanese sports
environment has adapted to these changes to these changes in the 21st century in both the
professional and amateur sport levels. As the sports environment changes, more leaders
are needed to educate and coach the athletes. One reason Japanese athletes at all levels
have not developed very well and some teams have even been dropped is due to the lack of
qualified sports leaders. In addition, some of the more advanced athletes have gone to other
countries specialized training. (Sports Marketing Institute, 2003). However, Japanese
sports’ programs need qualified sports leaders and financial investments to support the
development high quality athletes.
On the other hand, the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports Science and
Technology (MECSST) promotes lifetime activities. It states that sports are important to
Japanese culture as it not only make us strong and healthy, but also provides feelings
achievement, satisfaction and culture unity. It also helps us relieve daily stress.
Enjoyment of sports can be an important factor in psychological health and total well-being.
Lifetime sports produce a life worth living and are vital to society. Lifetime sports/activities
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are available to enjoy anywhere anytime according to one’s age and physical strength
(MECSST, 2002). In addition, individuals are needed to teach lifetime activity skills and
sports skills. They should demonstrate an understanding of secure safe places to play
sports, modification of injury risk for children, and immediate care after injury. The JASA
(2002) has developed a program to certify sports leaders under the MECSST. There are
nine different certifications for sports leaders. These include: 1) Sports Instructor (level C,
B, A); 2) Coach (level C, B, A); 3) Teacher of Industrial Setting (level C, B, A); 4) Sports
Doctor; 5)Athletic Trainer; 6) Fitness Trainer; 7) Sports Programmer; 8) Sports Instructor
for Juveniles; and 9) Examiner for Fitness Testing.
The athletic trainer listed above is different from the certified athletic trainer (ATC),
and is known as a massage therapist in Japan. The first record of a sports massage
therapist was in the 1920’s. At the Tokyo Olympic Games in 1964, there were about 100
trainers (mostly massage therapists). In 1970’s, U.S. baseball and football teams came to
Japan with their ATCs who taught various athletic taping methods. Afterwards, a supply
company provided supplies as well as courses in proper taping procedures. The first
Japanese ATC, Shikakura, also taught those in courses. These factors brought the
influence of American athletic training to the Japanese sports environment. In 1980, the
first sports orthopedic center opened, and now this specialty has spread all over Japan.
The first step of athletic training certification and education was initiated in 1994 by the
JASA. The Japanese athletic training field has continued to change as it incorporates
athletic trainers from the U.S. with traditional Japanese trainers (Kiyoie, 1998).
Yamamoto (2003) states people historically considered athletic trainers’ roles as
rehabilitation after athletic injury or to massage the athletes for relaxation. However, he
also notes that the role now includes teaching prevention of injury and conditioning of the
athletes including flexibility and strength training. However, it is more important to find
11
out the mechanism of injury to prevent further injury or others being injured.
In summary, the Japanese sports environment has changed. Still the level of
performance of the athletes in Japan appears to be declining, possible due to the lack of
qualified sports leaders. The JASA has set up some sports leader’s certifications.
Athletic trainer is one of the sports leader’s certifications having started in 1994. At the
same time, athletic training education programs have been developing. This study will
provide a better understanding of current trends in athletic training education and
certification. This will clarify various historical and complicated certifications for athletic
trainers as well as unclear education patterns for athletic training. Yamamoto (1994) states
it is not too much to say that the education of student athletic trainers is needed to provided
persons to manage athlete’s health issues.
JASA
Japan Amateur Sports Association (JASA) is an organization of the amateur sports
to encourage individuals to play sports and to promote correct and safe participation. The
JASA is associated with Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports Science and Technology
(MECSST) and it governs all amateur sports from youth to adult. As it has been more
popular to watch and play sports, the JASA has gone on encourage of sports leader,
promotion of lifetime sports, interchange of international sports, and research of sports
medicine and science (JASA, 2002).
As one of the encouragements for sports leader, the JASA set up athletic trainer
education and certification in 1994 based on being authorized by the MECSST. In the
first year, 271 athletic trainers, who were contracted with the Japanese Olympic Committee
(JOC), professional baseball or soccer teams, or industrial and commercial teams, were
recommended to take three-day seminars and certification examinations. Each applicant
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could receive the certification, which was similar to the NATA in 1970 (Tsuruike, 2002).
In 1995, the JASA started providing courses and the certification examinations for an
athletic trainer. There are two different ways to acquire the certification: 1) Take seminars
and the examinations, 2) Enter an accredited program and take the examinations. Both
ways require a recommendation from the JASA approval sports organization. However,
only 75 applicants have been able to attend seminars since 1999 even though they have a
recommendation, because the JASA would like to maintain a high quality for the JASA
athletic trainer. In addition, there is no exemption for ATCs from the JASA athletic trainer
certification even though they have studied athletic training in English. They still have to
attend the seminars (Becker-Doyle, 1996). It is a competitive and complicated
certification. It shows only 198 people obtained the JASA athletic trainer certification for
the six year period of 1994-1999. There was a dramatic increase to 469 JASA athletic
trainers as of October 2001 (JASA, 2002). Totals in 2002 are 550 JASA athletic trainers
with 278 having attended special courses, 221 attended JASA provided seminars, and 51
graduates of accredited programs. As the educator of JASA athletic trainer, the concept of
an “athletic trainer master” has been approved in 2000. There is only one accredited
program which is at the graduate level for the athletic trainer master certification. There
are 14 athletic trainer masters as of 2001 (Yamamoto, 2002).
It is said that to study at an accredited program of athletic training and take
examinations are more difficult to get the certification than to take the seminars because of
applicants’ lack of knowledge and experience. According to the Recruit (2002) there are
622 universities including 81 sports related universities. There are 585 community
colleges including 31 sports related schools. In addition, there are 3565 vocational
schools including 554 sports related schools. The JASA has established accredited
programs at nine universities, one community college, one graduate school and 19
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vocational schools. Three more universities have prepared to be accredited programs
(JASA, 2002). Each school has its own unique characteristics regarding professors’
backgrounds, core courses, and practical settings.
There are more colleges, which provide only general courses for JASA athletic
trainer certification, but not include of core courses. These schools are generally admitted
for some other sports leader certification’s courses by JASA. Therefore, they cover some
general courses for JASA athletic trainer certification. These schools are sports related
schools, such as physical education, sports science, or lifetime sports departments.
However, students, who want to get JASA athletic trainer certification, have to take core
courses at the seminar individually after taken general courses. Although not many
students will be JASA athletic trainer from these colleges, they are good places to educate
future educators at sports field and expand athletic training.
The JASA decides students at accredited schools can take courses for the JASA
athletic trainer, which is for 228 hours of general courses and 136 hours of core courses.
These courses are for the following intentions about athletes’ health and safety: health care,
prevention, first aid, athletic rehabilitation, training and conditioning. The general courses
include sports sociology, sports psychology, training science, sports medicine, sports
nutrition, sports coaching, sports management of local community and research classes.
On the other hand, core courses include training science, sports medicine, sports nutrition,
CPR, and athletic rehabilitation classes, and taping and conditioning labs. In addition to
take these courses, students are required to take three more courses to take the certification
examination, which are role of athletic trainer, doping control, and safety (JASA, 2002).
From accredited program’s applicants, they have to pass the written examination before
taking the oral examination because they do not have enough medical terminology to
response the oral examinations. According to Tsuruike (2002), it is less than 10% of
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candidates including retakes from accredited programs who pass the certification
examination. However, 40% of candidates including retakes who complete the seminars
pass the certification examination.
Furthermore, one of the problems at the accredited program of the sports related
university is practical experience of athletic training. Although most schools have enough
courses of general sports medicine, exercise physiology, biomechanics, sports nutrition,
sports psychology, and training programs, there are not enough practical experiences with
supervisors because the JASA does not require practical experience as a requirement course
at the accredited athletic training program. Fujii (2002) says that students need to learn
knowledge and skill, and they have to have precise practical experience as well.
Yamamoto (2002) also notes JASA athletic trainer system’s task is to complete practical
experience for student athletic trainers at accredited college programs.
There are good facilities and administrations for talented athletes and powerful
teams at sports related universities, which are the great places to gain experience as a
student athletic trainer. It would be ideal to have educators or supervisors, who have
already gained experiences as athletic trainer. Currently, there are seven full-time ATCs
and five part-time ATCs at colleges setting (JATO, 2002). However, there are not enough
supervisors to educate students. In addition, there have been traditional student trainers,
who belong to a team as a member of the team, so it is difficult to change all the teams’
management for the practical experience of student athletic trainers.
According to Yamamoto (1998), Japanese student athletic trainers’ activity is
different from American because it is not required for school programs, and it says just a
volunteer activity. In addition, not every student will be able to be an athletic trainer even
they go to the accredited program school because of lack of employment as athletic trainers.
Incidentally, Yamamoto is the professor at one of the accredited program’s universities,
15
International Budo University (IBU), which started the first sports trainer (athletic trainer)
department in 2001 (IBU, 2002). Students were interested in athletic training education,
but there were unclear education systems and did not have opportunity to gain experiences.
This is one of the decent departments for athletic training both academicals and practical
settings, and students will be able to be an eligible for the JASA athletic trainer certification.
While this practical setting is not admitted as classes, students have higher motivation to
learn at practical setting with supervisors. There is the group called “trainers’ team” to
occur athletic training for the college or high school athletes as student athletic trainers.
They provide a seminar for student athletic trainers from each sports team to educate about
the basic athletic training skill and medical protocol annually, and approve as a student
athletic trainer. They also have national student meeting annually to share their idea and
develop athletic training with all over college student athletic trainers and their professors
(Yamamoto, 2003). These accredited program colleges have been progressing and
improving with corresponding to students and sports medicine field people.
On the contrary, most of the vocational schools are for two years, students have to
learn large information for short time and get practical experiences equally. The schools
need to find the places for the students because there are no school’s athletic teams for
vocational schools like colleges have. It is also said unless students have a chance to go to
the teams as an experience, it is just experience and they never have responsibility of team’s
managements during a short period of time. In addition, successful of the certification
examination’s rate from the vocational schools are worse than the accredited program
universities because it is thought there is limited curriculums for the short time. One of
the vocational schools’ teachers, Yamagishi (2001) explains that the certification
examination of the JASA athletic trainer is not easy to obtain, but it is an official approval
to be as an athletic trainer, so students have to study with concentration to success for it,
16
even if they do not enough experiences of athletic training.
On the other hand, access to seminars is limited. If applicants do not have any
experience as an athletic trainer, they are unable to attend because they would be unable to
have to have the required recommendation from a national, professional, commercial, or
industrial team. In addition, there is a restricted quota of 75 per year. It is interesting to
note that those with more experiences have a higher passing rate on the certification
examination than the accredited programs graduates (Kiyoie, 1998).
The certification examination includes eight general courses, eight core courses,
and four core oral practical examinations over a three day testing period. The written
examination requires two days. The oral practical examination takes place on day three,
which includes taping, stretching, and athletic rehabilitation. Kiyoie (1998) states that
applicants fail the oral section more frequently than the written section. Applicants must
pass all the sections within four year time period for accredited program’s graduates, or
within five years for others (Tsuruike, 2002).
The JASA athletic trainer is not an allied health care profession, but the JASA
athletic trainer certification provides for a common scale or standard of the athletic trainer
when compared to the other different professions that are called “trainer”. One of the
supporters of the JASA athletic training education, Kono (1998), states if athletes have an
injury, they do not know who to ask or where they should go concerning their injury
because there is not a specific athletic training profession. He also explains Japanese
athletic trainers have not composed a single profession because of the unclear definition of
athletic training. Recently however, athletic trainers will be able to become a professional
based on their work and skills as provided by the JASA athletic trainer program. This will
provide the general public much needed information about the athletic trainer as one of the
sports leader. Since there are still traditional associations with different certifications, it is
17
difficult to combine all associations. The overall goal is that the JASA athletic trainer
certification becomes more professionally valuable in the Japanese sports medicine field.
NATA
As the golden standard for athletic trainers, The National Athletic Trainers’
Association (NATA) was started in1950. The first athletic trainers were basically rub-down
technicians during the early nineteenth century. The athletic trainer is often
misunderstood being mistaken for a coach or teacher. Through the support of many
persons and much effort the athletic trainer has developed into a specialist who plays a vital
role in the health care, prevention and management of athletic injuries. Since 1950, the
NATA has continued to develop professional standards for the athletic trainer. An athletic
trainer education program was first proposed in 1959, but curriculum developments were
not accomplished until 1969. In 1969, the NATA began to identify the desired educational
components of professional preparation programs for athletic trainers at the college health
and physical education departments (Kauth, 1984). Today, the NATA is known for its
qualified allied health care providers. The NATA news (1997) explained quality of
athletic training is improving at a phenomenal rate every year. As various publishers
provide quality books and journals, people are better able to understand athletic training.
The mission statement of the NATA is “To enhance the quality of health care for the
physically active through education and research in prevention, evaluation, management,
and rehabilitation of injuries.” (Arnheim & Prentice, 2000)
According to the NATA survey (2003), the membership total is 28,166 including
22,389 ATCs plus a number of associate and student members. It has seen a ten-fold
increase during the previous thirty years. The membership of the NATA shows male and
female ratio as 54% male and 46% female. The employment settings of ATCs are various
18
including university and college (18%), clinic (18%), high school (18%), high school/clinic
(14%), college student (10%), professional sports (3%) (NATA, 2003). The indication is
that the athletic trainer is a respected profession due to the increasing membership and an
increase in the nontraditional employment settings for the ATC.
Athletic training education includes six domains and twelve competencies by the
National Athletic Trainers’ Association Board of Certification (NATABOC) and the NATA
Education Council. Six performance domains were established in 1999 for entry-level
athletic training education programs by the NATABOC: (1) prevention of athletic training,
(2) recognition, evaluation, and assessment of injuries, (3) immediate care of injuries (4)
treatment, rehabilitation, and reconditioning of athletic injuries, (5) health care
administration, (6) professional development and responsibility. Twelve competencies
were created in1998 for accredited educational programs by the NATA Education Council:
(1) acute care of injury and illness (2) assessment and evaluation (3) general medical
conditions and disabilities (4) health care administration (5) nutritional aspects of injury
and illnesses (6) pathology of illness and injuries (7) pharmacological aspects of injury and
illnesses (8) professional development and responsibility (9) psychosocial intervention and
referral (10) risk management and injury prevention (11) therapeutic exercise (12)
therapeutic modalities.
In 1994, the Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs
(CAAHEP) approved the NATA as an allied health education program by the U.S.
Department of Education. The athletic training programs included entry-level accredited
undergraduate and graduate programs as well as internship programs at the undergraduate
level. Now, all programs must be approved by CAAHEP. This change is a positive step in
the advancement of the athletic training profession (Arnheim & Prentice, 2000). Peer &
Rakich (2000) states under CAAHEP, athletic training education programs have aligned
19
themselves with practices commonly used in medical education. The functioning and
success of athletic training education programs creates high quality athletic trainers to care
for the physically active. According to the NATA education council (2003), there are four
different athletic training education programs: 184 CAAHEP accredited undergraduate
programs, 3 CAAHEP accredited graduate programs, 14 NATA accredited master’s degree
programs, and176 candidacy undergraduate or graduate programs. The NATA accredited
master’s degree programs are approved by the Advanced Graduate Education Committee of
the Education Council.
The NATABOC was established in 1970 to certify athletic trainers and identify for
the public, quality healthcare professionals through a system of certification, adjudication,
standards of practice, and continuing competency programs. There are two means
including CAAHEP accredited programs and internship programs to be eligible to take the
certification examination. Both sets of applicants are required to be current in First Aid
and Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation. They also must provide an official transcript from a
college or university of their degree. CAAHEP accredited programs require thirteen core
curriculum subjects; human anatomy, human physiology, psychology, kinesiology/
biomechanics, exercise physiology, prevention of athletic injuries/ illness, evaluation of
athletic injuries/ illness, first aid and emergency care, therapeutic modalities, therapeutic
exercise, personal communication health, nutrition, and administration of athletic training.
In addition, students must complete at least 800 clinical hours under the direct supervision
of an ATC.
On the other hand, internship programs are required to complete eight core courses;
health (e.g., nutrition, drug/ substance abuse, health education), human anatomy,
kinesiology/ biomechanics, human physiology, physiology of exercise, basic athletic
training, and advanced athletic training (therapeutic modalities or rehabilitation). They
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also need 1500 clinical hours under the direct supervision of an ATC. After 2004,
students must complete a CAAHEP accredited program as the NATABOC will no longer
admit applicants from internship programs.
When applicants complete all requirements, they are eligible to sit for the
certification examination. The certification examination consists of three sections
including oral-practical, written, and written simulation. The exam takes one day and
consists of the oral-practical and written are four hours and the written simulation is for two
and half hours. The written section consists of 150 multiple choice questions covering the
six major domains explained previously. The oral-practical requires each candidate to
demonstrate a series of specific skills. The written simulation is designed to test
decision-making skills and consists of eight scenarios. Each section of the examination
has its own passing score. All applicants have to meet or exceed the passing point in each
of the three sections. If an applicant does not pass any section(s), he or she must retake
that section(s) (Grace, 1995).
Erickson & Martin (2000) state that candidates who passed all three sections of the
examination on their first time was 27% in 1996, 32% in 1997, and 31% in 1998. This
indicates the level of difficulty of the NATABOC examination. Candidates for the
NATABOC examination have to pass three different types of testing situations unlike other
allied health professions who have only a single type of examination. Gazzillo, Manning,
Middlemas & Young (2001) studied differences between curriculum and internship
candidates’ score, grade point average, and number of clinical hours. The means of
examination scores points out that curriculum candidates scored significantly higher than
internship candidates on the written and practical sections of examination. The written
simulation section of the examination for this study did not show significant differences.
They found students with higher grade point average were more likely to pass the
21
NATABOC examination. They also noted no relationship between the number of clinical
hours and success in the NATABOC examination even though internship candidates have
more clinical hours than curriculum candidates. Comfort, Gieck, Perrin & Turocy (2000)
explain that total clinical hours are not predictive of the NATABOC examination outcomes.
Students should receive a more structured clinical experience, such as knowledge, skills,
and abilities, as opposed to just total hours. These studies support the decision to
discontinue the internship route to certification.
However, Erickson & Martin (2000) state that athletic training educators believe
higher grade points do not make students more likely to pass the certificate examination.
Students need to have the skills of analyzing situation that is not just from the textbooks.
Furthermore, higher quality of clinical experience makes students develop more
responsibility and precision. Knight (1990) says, “While the book does not teach students
how to perform skills, it is a compatible supplemental text for any undergraduate athletic
training program.” Denegar (1997) suggests student should obtain experience in athletic
training not only for athletes but also for all populations even though primary providers of
athletic training services are in colleges and universities. The growth of athletic training is
including hospitals, clinics, industry, and even government, as well as in competitive sports
at all levels (Max, 2000). It is necessary to include current trends of demand and gain
more experience before going into the work force.
The NATA has more than fifty years’ history and evolution in the United States.
Athletic training education has changed and developed thorough 50 years regarding the
preparation of this sports health care professional. Various leaders’ efforts for each decade
have allowed athletic training to develop into a highly respected health care discipline
(Behnke & Delforge, 1999). Athletic training education programs have undergone
enormous transition lately due to change from NATA to CAAHEP accreditation.
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JATO
Japanese ATCs established Japanese Athletic Trainer Organization (JATO) as a
non-profit organization based on cooperating with NATA in 1996. The Purpose of the
JATO is the following: 1) to educate the community about the value of NATA standards and
to promote athletic training profession in Japan 2) to provide continuous education
opportunities for the members 3) to provide opportunities to exchange opinions among the
membership about the current sports medicine environment 4) to communicate with other
athletic training related organizations and professionals to promote higher standards of care
for athletes. The NATA certification is required to become a regular member, while any
associate member of the NATA can become an associate member of the JATO
(Backer-Doyle, 1996).
The first Japanese ATC, Shikakura, obtained certification in 1977. There were
about 35 ATCs in 1996, and it is estimated over 100 ATCs and more than 100 students are
currently studying in the U.S. Shikakura, J. (personal communication, Feb. 14, 2003),
who is the president of the JATO, explains that not every ATC is a member of the JATO, but
82 ATCs are members of the JATO in 2003. According to the JATO’s database, eight
ATCs reside in the U.S. to work for a college or clinic and 74 ATCs are in Japan in various
professions. The specific professional setting of ATCs is following; professional baseball
4 , professional soccer 5, basketball 3 (men’s 2, women’s 1), football 7 (Some team has 2
ATCs), ice hockey 1, ski 1, softball 2 (industrial and commercial team), women’s volleyball
5 (National team 1, Industrial and commercial team 4), rugby: 7 (industrial and commercial
team 5, college team 2( Some have 2 ATCs); College: 6 (Teacher 3, Full time trainer 3),
high school 2, vocational school 4, National Athletic Meet staff 1, clinic 7, company 4
(Athletic trainers’ supplies imported or selling company), students 7, others 8. It seems
there are various settings to work as an athletic trainer in Japan. However, the most
23
obvious differences between American and Japanese are the income levels and the types of
facilities available for the athletic trainer. Some ATCs have to teach at one or more
schools and work for one or more sports teams because of small income. The majorities
of sports teams desire the services of an athletic trainer, but are unable to hire one due to the
lack of funds.
Although there are strong education systems and precious certification of athletic
training in the U.S., ATC is not reliable certification to obtain a profession in Japan.
Japanese ATCs are admitted from employees about their knowledge and skill, but they
cannot perform any medical treatment such as an electrical stimulation machine and
ultrasound because it is illegal to perform treatment with the modalities without a medical
certification in Japan. The reason why some ATCs go to school to acquire some medical
certifications after going back Japan, which are acupuncturist, physical therapist, Judo
therapist, or massage therapist. However, they do not have to gain medical certification
because they can leave the medical treatment to the other medical professionals, and ATCs
should take responsibility of general health care, prevention of injury, emergency care,
athletic rehabilitation, or reconditioning. Numakura (1998) suggests that athletic trainer
takes responsibility as an athletic coordinator of environmental maintenance and medical
establishment with athletes, coaches, and other medical staff. It is also important to
educate athletes regarding appropriate injury care.
Some of the JATO’s members hold both ATC and the JASA athletic trainers
certification. Some ATCs teach at the JASA accredited vocational school or college as
half time or full time teachers. Two ATCs are lecturers of the JASA athletic training
seminars. The JATO supports the systems of the JASA athletic training program to
educate athletes, especially younger age and coaches about athletic training and promote
athletic training in Japan. As the number of Japanese ATCs’ increase, the JATO should
24
develop to better organize athletic trainers and approach public about athletic training as an
important profession.
Other Athletic Trainers’ Associations in Japan
In addition to the JASA athletic trainers and ATCs, there are other people who
have organized additional athletic trainers’ associations in Japan. They include the Japan
Trainer Association (JTA), Japan Professional Baseball Athletic Trainers Society (JPBATS),
Japan Baseball Athletic Trainers Society (JBATS), Japan Athletic Trainers Association for
Certification (JATAC), and Japan Athletic Trainers’ Association (JATA). In addition, there
are local systems of acupuncturists and other sports medicine associations for some major
sports.
In Japanese sports society, it is said there have been tight relationship between
baseball and trainers. Majority of Japanese trainers are massage therapists originally from
baseball. There are various trainers’ associations at the baseball environments. The
initial baseball trainers are from Komori sports massage clinic. The professional baseball
teams started to employ trainers from Komori in 1950. Afterward, it is called Japan
Trainer Association (JTA) and changed to be one of the main associations at baseball
society. The members of the JTA are employees at the Komori sports massage clinic,
which are about 100 people.
Before World War Ⅱ, trainers learned taping from ATCs at international exchange
baseball games. They used tape for initial treatments to prevent swelling from a contusion
because they did not have ice machine or refrigerator at the stadiums on that occasion. As
a traditional treatment, they did not use ice after practices or games. They have changed
to use ice lately, but they still apply massage skill to cool the body. Komori sports
massage clinic shows traditional treatments as a trainer in Japan. They provide the best
25
treatment to the athletes by mixed with Japanese and American ways.
Traditional trainer association for baseball has more than a sixty year history.
Japan Professional Baseball Athletic Trainers Society (JPBATS) was established for
professional baseball athletic trainers in 1940’s. The American equivalent is the
Professional Baseball Athletic Trainers Society (PBATS) established in 1995. The
JPBATS has tried to send trainers to the National Baseball League teams’ summer camps in
the U.S. or have seminars presented by invited American ATCs to Japan. There are 78
JPBATS members from twelve different professional baseball teams. Each team has five
to ten trainers because they also massage which requires more people (JPBATS, 2002).
Becker-Doyle (1996) states there were only one or two ATCs with professional baseball
teams in 1996. She also states that traditional trainers, such as massage therapist or
acupuncturist, feel threatened by the ATC’s expertise and worry about keeping their jobs.
Although it is difficult to have both ATCs and traditional trainers due to each different
historical background, it has changed to have more ATCs lately. It was estimated 60% of
the JPBATS member have passed for the JASA athletic trainer as of 1996. The JPBATS
strongly suggests the certification because it makes them better qualified and more
professional (JPBATS, 2002).
In 1993, one of the Komori’s employees, Kawashima, created the Japan Baseball
Athletic Trainers Society (JBATS) from the Major Trainers Company. This company
sends trainers to some teams and provides seminars to develop baseball athletic trainers’
society. The seminar is called the baseball trainer seminar, which occurs annually to
invited ATCs of Major League Baseball teams or a representative of the NATA. Eve
Becker-Doyle executive director of the NATA was one of the invited people. She went to
Japan in 1996 to present information about the education and preparation of the certified
athletic trainer in the U.S. However, Becker-Doyle (1996) reports the JBATS has
26
attempted to restrict access to the PBATS through the JBATS alone without the PBATS’s
wish. Although president of the JBATS, Kawashima, desires organizing every field of
baseball because baseball is the most popular sport and has a longer history in Japanese
sports environment, there are complicated and controversial issues due to many kinds of
organization at the same field.
In 1995, Judo therapist organization started Japan Athletic Trainers Association for
Certification (JATAC) as a non profit organization for Judo therapists to achieve the
following purpose; 1) to develop knowledge and skill of sports sciences, 2) to contribute
promotion and maintain of national health, 3) to support national physical activity. When
applicants complete the seminar of sports science, they are admitted as a member of the
JATAC. The members were 541 in 1998 (Kiyoie, 1998). Now, it has been changed, and
there are more options for the members. They may attend graduate school in physical
education at a university or college or community college or they may attend vocational
school with a sports related major to maintain the JASA sports leadership certifications. It
is said as Judo therapists treat acute injury, such as sprain, strain, dislocation, and fracture,
and they would have closely relationship with sports injury. However, the Judo therapists
are one of the local medical experts, but they are not sports experts. Therefore, they set up
the system to provide athletic trainers to every generational nation who enjoys sports
(JATAC, 2003).
The Global sports medicine institute established the Japan Athletic Trainers’
Association (JATA) from Miyake Sports Massage Company and it is now called the Global
Athletic Trainer System (GATS). This system is only for employees of Global Sports.
However, the Global Sports Medicine Institute produces various sites for the athletes and
team to provide treatment, conditioning, and massage. There are some facilities to supply
these programs for athletes and general public. It shows there is not much income from
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athletes, so they treat the general public.
On the contrary, one of the major certifications in a sports setting as a trainer is the
acupuncturist. The sports acupuncturist system was established in 1991 to educate and
then approve individuals as a sports acupuncturist. It started in the Nagano prefecture for
Nagano Olympic, and additional prefectures started systems during the 1990’s. These
systems educate and train acupuncturists. The purposes of these systems are for athletes
and general people to maintain general health, prevent both acute and chronic injury, and
help to improve athletic performance. Moreover, it states therapists are required to
communicate with physicians and coaches with sports science knowledge and skill.
Although these systems are local systems, they have tried to organize as a national system
lately.
On the other hand, some major sports have athletic trainers’ associations; for
example track and field, basketball, soccer, and swimming. In addition, there are athletic
trainers’ associations at some local prefectures to improve and expand sports medicine,
primarily having started at the larger sports events.
The Japanese Association of Athletic Federations (JAAF) is the organization for
track and field, and has a longer history than any other sports organizations. It has been
approved by the MECSST, and had trainers’ association for over twenty years. The JAAF
established athletic trainer branch for the athletes to provide medical support systems with
physicians, progress awareness, knowledge and skill of athletic trainers, and establish
athletic trainers’ standing. Since 1991, the JAAF has occurred trainers’ seminar to spread
athletic trainers’ activity, standardize knowledge and skill of athletic trainers, educate and
increase numbers of athletic trainers. When applicants complete the seminar for three
days, they acquire a level C trainer. Depending on their practical experiences, the level C
trainers can become a level B trainer, which is for national or local meets. After more
28
than one-year experience and depending on their experiences they raise Level A trainer,
which is for international meets or camps. In 1998, there were 24 level A trainers, 69 level
B trainers, and 111 level C trainers. In 1990, the trainers’ association started three stations
for the athletes at the national meets and the athletic competitions, such as medical, trainers’
and first aids’ stations. When the athletes are injured at the meet, athletes go to the
medical station first, and trainers’ station afterwards. It is an easier way to report their
injuries. Therefore, people who need to work at the track and field event as an athletic
trainer, they have to have at least a level C trainer license even they hold the JASA athletic
trainer or ATC (JAAF, 2003).
The Japanese Basketball Federation (JBF) started medical science committee in
1987, and branched out a trainers’ association in 1991. They have seminars to approve as
a member of the JBF trainers’ association for the four following purposes: 1) to prevent
both acute and chronic injuries of basketball, 2) to manage athletes’ health care, 3) to
organize athletic trainers for basketball, 4) to contribute basketball diffusion and
development with medical support. People, who work as a trainer at the JBF approval
teams, can take the seminar and obtain the JBF official member of trainer. They provided
seminars or meetings constantly until 1994, but they terminated the seminars due to the
JASA athletic trainers’ certification program. Now, trainers are required to register for the
JBF, therefore the JBF can grasp situation of trainers at the basketball teams. They plan
on creating a supported system for all-star teams, and organize and develop the basketball
medical system.
The Japanese Football (soccer) Association (JFA) began using the term “masseur”
instead of “trainer” in 1990 under the sports medical committee. At first, the JFA began a
masseur section and has now changed to the J-league athletic therapist society. J-league is
the Japanese professional soccer league, which has 16 teams in division I and 12 teams in
29
division II starting in 1991. The purpose of this society is to expand the knowledge of
sports medicine and soccer, prevent athletic injury, maintain athletes’ general health, and
promote the exchange of trainers’ idea and information. While this is only for the J-league
trainers, the JFA hopes it will become available for all soccer athletes. It is thought the
World Cup 2002 is an excellent opportunity to initiate the trainers’ system. In fact, there
was a small but inconsistent volunteer medical staff (JABBA, 2003).
The Japan Swimming Federation (JASF) established a trainer’s association for
swimming to promote information and better skill, and improve the quality of trainers in
1991. That was started from physician’s meeting, and have trainers who are physical
therapists and/or massage therapists because they are required at have at least one medical
certification. It is separated into two committees (medical and scientific) to better
promote the development of the Japanese swimming society. There were 41 members of
the JASF trainers’ association in 2000. In addition, it explains trainers for swimming
needs massage skills because of sports specific movement. At Nagano Olympic, there
were two physical therapists, two Judo therapists, 10-12 acupuncturists and massage
therapists, among others (JASF, 2003).
On the other hand, some prefectures create trainers’ associations to improve
athletic trainers’ knowledge and skill, educate athletes and recreational sports people about
reconditioning, and create a safer sports environment. The opportunity of starting these
associations include the place where national meetings, national tournaments, Asian
Championship occur. They provide athletic trainers from these associations at the
competitions. The association has seminars or meetings on a regular basis to improve the
quality of athletic trainers, promote cooperation with other trainers, and to further develop
sports society locally (Kiyoie, 1998).
Different certifications have various characteristic. There are some associations
30
to organize education and certification, and some of them set up specific institutes. Each
sport has different mechanisms of injury and specific characteristic of injury. In the
1990’s, they started organizing trainers’ systems for each sport to share ideas and improve
their skills. Some associations are terminated due to the JASA athletic trainer certified
system, but some of them are still function. Moreover, there are some local associations
of athletic trainers. They have different ideas for each certification and sport, and it is
difficult to organize nationally. However, it would be possible to make the JASA athletic
trainers systems as the top organization of athletic trainers, and branch out each
certification, sport or prefecture trainer’s associations.
Athletic trainer in other countries
In addition to the NATA, there are different certifications and associations in other
countries. This study explains about Canada, England, Australia, and South Africa.
Furthermore, there is the world association called World Federation of Athletic Training
and Therapy (WFATT).
In Canada is the Canadian Athletic Therapists Association (CATA) which oversees
education and certification. The CATA makes people special professionals as an athletic
therapist certification. There are six accredited schools prepare persons to be eligible for
the CATA board of certification. The certified athletic therapist (CAT) manages
assessment, prevention, immediate care, and reconditioning of musculoskeletal injuries.
The athletic therapist is one of the health care delivery professionals to keep athletes
healthy. For the certification examination 1200 hours internship of practical experience
under the supervision of CAT is required. Candidates need 70 percent of the written
examination to pass. The final step is a practical examination covering emergency care,
supportive taping/ bracing, modalities, injury assessment and rehabilitation. Once people
31
are certified as an athletic therapist, they obtain a job as the athletic therapist at various
settings. (CATA, 2003).
In England, there is a new certification, Certified Sports Trainer, for
physiotherapist and sports rehabilitator. The Association of Chartered Physiotherapists in
Sports Medicine (ACPSM) established in 1972 for physiotherapists to specialize in the field
of sports injuries. The member of ACPSM is over 1,000 at present. It requires a
three-year undergraduate program to be a physiotherapist. Sport physiotherapist is a
specialist of sports injury as a physiotherapist. However, there is no specific license to be
sports physiotherapist. Once they have qualified physiotherapists then can attend
post-graduate courses to specialize in sports injury. They gain much of their experience
working at sports club level, and obtain a considerable number of years experience in sports
field (ACPSM, 2003). On the other hand, British Association of Sports Rehabilitators and
Trainers (BASRaT) established to represent the professionals working in the field of sports
and exercise injury prevention, treatment and rehabilitation, to ensure the highest,
quality-assured standard of healthcare for the physically active in the United Kingdom.
The member of the BASRaT is required to attend the accredited undergraduate schools.
They learn five following domains at the accredited school to be the Graduate Sports
Rehabilitator (GSR): 1) prevention, 2) recognition, evaluation and assessment, 3)
immediate care, 4) treatment, rehabilitation and reconditioning, 5) professional
responsibility and development. Once GSR and physiotherapist complete the internship
and more specific education, they are eligible to take the certification examination of Sports
Trainer, and obtain the Certified Sports Trainer (BASRaT, 2003). However, Booth (2002)
states physiotherapists provide a valuable injury management service to a vast number of
athletes. He also suggests they should be chartered to work at any level of sport. They
still have different ways to work in sports, such as Certified Sports Trainer or
32
physiotherapists.
In Australia, there are sports trainer and sports physiotherapist. Sports Medicine
Australia (SMA) produces Sports Trainer to apply his/ her knowledge and skills to help
make sport and recreation safer. There are level 1 and level 2 sports trainer depending on
knowledge and skill, and seeking positions. The responsibilities of sports trainer are to
prevent injury, to provide immediate assessment and management of sporting injuries,
manage teams, educate athletes, and communicate with coaches (SMA, 2003). The
Australia Physiotherapists Association (APA) is the solo voice of physiotherapists which
included about 1,000 members. In addition to the APA National Special Group called
Sports Physiotherapy Australia (SPA) has been established to provide better opportunity to
further their knowledge in sports physiotherapy via sports coverage opportunities.
Members are supported throughout their career pathway with the Level 1, 2, 3 Sports
Physiotherapy courses. They also have the opportunity to become APA Sports
Physiotherapists after postgraduate study (APA, 2003). Both Sports Trainer and Sports
Physiotherapist are branched out from the SMA, and they have been expanding.
In South Africa, there is the Biokinetics Association for biokineticists. Biokineticist is a
specialized exercise therapist that functions in professional alliance to health and medicine,
and is recognized by and registered with the Health Professions Council of South Africa. A
Biokineticist imroves a person’s physical status and quality of life through individualized
assessment and exercise prescription in the dual context of clinical pathology (acute and
chronic) and performance enhancement. Education of Biokinetics training is four years of
academic education and two years of professional exposure. The Biokinetics programs are
as approved by the Health Professions Council of South Africa (Biokinetics Association of
South Africa, 2003). It associates with South Africa Sports Medicine Association, and
probably similar to athletic training in this country.
33
World Federation of Athletic Training and Therapy (WFATT) is a coalition of
national organizations of health care professionals in the fields of sport, exercise,
injury/illness prevention and treatment to promote quality health care worldwide for active
populations. The WFATT states the goals are to create global exchanging about health
care, to provide research efforts and improve quality of health care, to develop health care
profession, to promote international and domestic relationship with sport and health care.
The member of WFATT approved by the president of WFATT after attending at lease one
World Congress or business meeting (WFATT, 2003).
There are some similar certifications and associations over the world, and occurs
world conference or meeting together. However, some people come to learn athletic
training in the U.S. There were about 420 Asian and Pacific, and 420 Hispanic ATCs in
2000. In addition, there were about 670 Asian and Pacific ATCs, and 450 Hispanic ATCs
in 2001. Although they are only two to three per cent of all ATCs, it is an excellent
method of promoting an international association of athletic training with sharing different
information and experience from various situations and backgrounds (NATA, 2003).
Current trends from tours
As part of this research visits were made to see various athletic training rooms to
better identify current trends in Japan. These tours occurred in July 2002 and included
three different training rooms. The Tokai University, Osaka University of Health and
Sports Sciences, and one of the J-league team, Nagoya Grampus Eight were visited.
Pictures of these facilities may be located in appendix C.
Tokai University has been improving the JASA athletic training education
programs. One of the ATCs, Aso, is now a full time staff person having started as a part
34
time employee in 2001. He started an athletic training internship at Tokai University in
1995, and has tried to provide the practical setting for students. There is one main training
room, which has KinCom and some modality machines. Since there are physicians on
campus, there are some modality machines in the training room. There is one more
training room only for the football team. He made a taping table for the football training
room since they do not have much of a budget to buy taping tables. In addition, athletes
have to buy their own tape. Teams typically purchase a large order of tape, and then
supply them to athletes at a reduced rate. This university has 31,481 students and 13
major including 68 departments, which is one of the largest universities in Japan. They
have a reasonable size and quality of sports facilities including the athletic training room
and weight room (Tokai University, 2003).
Osaka University of Health and Sports Sciences is an accredited JASA athletic
training program. There is one ATC, Tsuruike, since 1997 as a full time staff. He
completed construction of the training room for classes and practical setting in 2001.
There are two whirlpools, two ice machines, taping tables, and exercise machine for
rehabilitation. He also started the clinical classes for junior and senior students and
students are required to complete160 practical hours as a class. This University is one of
the more developed universities with the decent size athletic training room and developed
curriculum for a Japanese University (Tsuruike, 2002).
Nagoya Grampus Eight is one of the professional soccer teams. There are four
full time people as medical staff, including an ATC, acupuncturist, physical therapist and
Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialist. There are some modalities in the athletic
training room.
Three tours to see the athletic training rooms was an excellent opportunity to
identify current trends. This included two private schools, which have larger budgets than
35
public schools. Only one public school has an accredited JASA athletic training program.
Although only one tour was with a professional soccer team, Japanese professional baseball
teams may have different characteristic in athletic training rooms because baseball has
more traditional trainer groups or systems.
Summary
There are various kinds of athletic trainers’ definition in Japan because of the
traditional routes of trainers. In addition, there are many different organizations due to a
large variety of professional groups. Therefore, the Japan Amateur Sports Association set
up athletic trainer certification in 1994 to try to take charge of these responsibilities. It is
high evaluated to organize with common knowledge and standard skill of athletic training
as the first step from complication. Although it might be confused, it does not guarantee
profession or life as athletic trainer (Kiyoie, 1998). One of the ATC, who also has the
JASA athletic trainer certification, explains that it does not have to be only way of athletic
trainer. Every athletic trainer should have several special skills to help athlete’s physical
activity (Fujii, 2002). Various certificated people work together for the sports team as
ideal because people would be able to learn each other. This idea is difficult to understand
for traditional athletic trainer, and there are too many definitions of athletic trainer.
However, several certifications should organize and work together instead of an individual
certified community.
As a trend in athletic training in Japan, persons require not only athletic training
certifications but also additional special skills because of the employment situation.
Watanabe (2001) clarify that athletic trainer might need to take care of conditioning,
nutrition, psychological support, team’s management, or even interpretation. Sometime,
ATCs prefer to hire because they can have a good communication with foreigner coaches
36
who speak English. On the other hand, Wada (2001) states an athletic trainer is not the
medical profession, so they need to clarify the responsibility of that team, have flexibility of
ideas, and leave the medical issues to medical certified people. On the point concerning
the lack of athletic trainers, there are many young athletes who have fatal injury and others
have carrier ending injuries. They also sustain additional injury because they return to
sports activity before complete healing from injury (Kozeki, 2002). It also has been
suggested that several wrong first aid for concussion at high school soccer game because
there are not appropriate medical staffing at high school settings (Oshima, 2002).
It is just starting to organize and establish athletic training as a group.
Connecting to different certifications as one certification or group is complicated and it has
been controversial issues. Therefore, it should make clear the education and current trends
of athletic training as a research. In addition, it may contribute the development of athletic
training in Japan.
37
Chapter Ⅲ
Methods
This is a descriptive research design using data collected from educators from
Japan in the field of athletic training. This chapter explains the survey methods including
the subjects, questionnaire and procedures used for data analysis.
Subjects
The subjects for this study were professors in Japan who taught athletic training or
related subjects such as sports medicine and athletic rehabilitation, or were athletic training
curriculum directors. The subjects were divided two different groups, either accredited or
non-accredited programs recognized by the Japan Amateur Sports Association (JASA)
athletic trainer certification. The accredited programs included 9 colleges, 1 graduate
college (the same institution as one of the colleges), 1 community college, and 19 two or
three-year vocational schools. Non-accredited programs were selected from the JASA
accredited sports leaders’ programs, which were 38 colleges. Non-accredited programs
have sports related majors, such as sports science, health science, or lifetime sports, and
they also study subjects including sports medicine, rehabilitation, first aid, exercise science,
and massage therapy. In addition, some schools offered general courses required for
JASA athletic trainer certification.
The subjects were sent the questionnaire by an electronic mail. The e-mail
addresses were collected by searching each college’s homepage or by requesting the e-mail
address from the academic affairs office. There were limitations to collecting personal
e-mail address due to privacy issues. E-mail addresses were collected from 10 accredited
college programs (one from a graduate college which was same institution as one college,
38
so it was not sent), 7 vocational schools, and 26 non-accredited colleges. Nine academic
affairs offices from non-accredited program colleges and 9 vocational schools were sent a
cover letter and questionnaire to forward to the subjects. However, there were no
responses from these e-mails. Therefore, the total number of subjects was 43, which
included 10 accredited program colleges, 7 accredited vocational schools, and 26
non-accredited program colleges.
Questionnaire
The questionnaire for this study is included as Appendix B in English and Japanese.
The questionnaire was filled out by professors of athletic training or related subjects, or by
program coordinators at accredited and non-accredited schools. Questionnaires were sent
by electronic mail with a cover letter. The cover letter for the questionnaire is included in
Appendix B in English and Japanese. The cover letter explained the purpose and goals of
the study to help the subjects provide meaningful answers. The letter also stated the
benefits of the questionnaire and how subjects were selected. The letter stated that their
responses would be used for research purposes only. In addition, there were a contact
name, phone number, and e-mail address for any questions or concerns about the study.
Finally, the letter expressed appreciation to the subjects for their help. All information
was written in English, and then translated in Japanese.
The questionnaire was made up short simple questions to keep the questionnaire
from being to time-consuming for the subjects. The questionnaire was written in English
and edited by the Athletic Training Program Director and translated in Japanese and edited
by the former professor in Japan, and finally it was sent to subjects. It was approved by
the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of Marshall University. The questionnaire was
divided into four parts; program, school education, clinical setting and students. The first
39
section asked about the current trends and the need for athletic training programs. The
second section specified the education curriculum. Third section questioned the subjects
about current clinical settings and needs. Finally it asked about students’ motivation and
their future careers.
Two weeks after sending all questionnaires, follow-up letters with the questionnaire
attached was sent to increase the response rate. The follow-up letter reviewed the former
e-mail and restated purpose of the study to clarify the questionnaire. The questionnaire
was confusing to subjects from non-accredited programs because some questions were
perceived as applying only to accredited programs. Additional information was added to
the follow-up letter to correct this problem. In addition, the letter noted appreciation for
their cooperation during a busy time, the beginning a new semester in Japanese schools.
When the responses were returned, an appreciative response was immediately sent back to
the professors.
Analysis
The data were collected to recognize the current athletic training education and
certification in Japan. Frequency data for each question was calculated using Excel
(Microsoft Office 2000) and a figure or table was created for visual understanding. The
data were reported to demonstrate differences between accredited program and
non-accredited program colleges. The data were used to explain the current trends of
athletic training education in Japanese colleges.
40
Chapter Ⅳ
Results
The purpose of this study was to clarify current trends of Japanese athletic training
education programs and certification. The questionnaire was sent by e-mail to professors
of athletic training or related subjects, or department directors at JASA accredited program
colleges and vocational schools, and non-accredited program colleges. This chapter will
present the results using descriptive statistics.
Respondents
Subjects for this study were athletic trainers in Japan; 9 from accredited college
programs, 7 from vocational schools, and 26 from non-accredited colleges for a total of 43
subjects (n=43).
There was an overall 61% response rate from accredited and non-accredited
program schools. There were 26 questionnaires returned; 8 (80%) from college accredited
programs, 5 (71%) from vocational accredited programs, and 13 (50%) from non-accredited
programs. The response rate was over fifty percent, so it did provide valuable information
to help explain the current trends of Japanese athletic training education and routes to
certification. Table 1 shows the number of subjects asked to participate in the study, the
number of respondents, and the response rate. Fifty percent of the respondents were from
accredited schools including colleges and vocational schools, and 50% were from
non-accredited colleges (Figure 1).
In addition, some questions were not clear to the subjects for the several reasons.
1) Accredited program schools have core courses for JASA athletic trainer certification, but
some non-accredited program schools still have general courses for JASA athletic trainer
41
certification. Subjects were not sure they could answer as an accredited program for these
general courses. 2) Accredited programs indicate that students can take general and core
courses at that school, but they do not have to have a major for athletic training. Their
major could be physical education, health science, or lifetime sports. Therefore, subjects
were not sure what they should call this program, and how they should answer those
questions. This caused some misunderstandings and incorrect responses for some
questions. Some professors were concerned about the questions, which could be due to
the subjects’ personal opinions and not the position of the school.
Program
Figures 1-9 and Table 1 represents the current program status of athletic training in
Japanese schools. The athletic training programs surveyed were 50% from accredited
programs (8 colleges and 5 vocational schools) and 50% from non-accredited programs (13
colleges). The accredited programs had from 7 to 80 students per year. On the other
hand, non-accredited programs had from 69 to 366 students for the department, which was
not a specific program of study. Only 17% of non-accredited programs planned on setting
up an athletic training program in the future.
Figure 2 shows professors opinions of higher education in athletic training in Japan.
Fifty-eight percent of the respondents wanted to create higher education opportunities in
athletic training. Figure 3 indicates either a positive or negative opinion of higher
education in athletic training according to the type of program. Eighty-eight percent of the
accredited program colleges’ professors had an interest in higher education programs, and
only 46% of non-accredited program professors had an interest in higher education for
athletic trainers.
Figure 4 indicates the interest of the professors in cooperating with a U.S.
42
university. Overall 88% of the programs were interested in cooperative athletic training
programs with an U.S. university. All accredited program colleges and vocational schools
were interested in a cooperative program. In addition, 77% of non-accredited program
colleges had an interest in cooperating with a U.S. athletic training education program.
Figure 5 represents the number of schools and the percentage of schools interested in a
cooperative athletic training arrangement according to program type.
Overall, 64% of the professors reported athletic training education had been
developing lately in Japan. Figure 6 shows professors’ opinions of whether or not athletic
training education was developing. Additionally, 88% of accredited college programs’
professors stated Japanese athletic training education had been expanding and developing.
However, 58% of non-accredited program professors had a negative opinion regarding the
progression of athletic training education recently in Japan. Figure 7 indicates the number
and percentage of respondents according to program type relative to the development of
athletic training education.
Figure 8 indicates 67% of both accredited and non-accredited schools’ professors
thought athletic training education was beneficial for the Japanese job market.
Seventy-one percent of accredited program’s professors and 67% of non-accredited
program’s professors stated a positive opinion of Japanese athletic training education in
terms of the job market. Figure 9 shows the number and percentage of responses in each
program category as they relate to the benefits of Japanese athletic training education to the
job market.
Education
Figures 10-13 and Tables 2 and 3 indicate current education program status of
athletic training in Japan. The number of core courses ranged from 4 to 28 with an overall
43
mean of 16 (84%). For both accredited and non-accredited schools, the most common
core courses were exercise physiology and kinesiology/ biomechanics. In addition, about
80% of the schools offered psychology, nutrition, human anatomy, human physiology, and
first aid. Other courses listed included conditioning, conditioning lab, taping lab, and
sports and massage. Figure 10 shows the core courses reported according to the type of
program.
Overall, there was a range of 2 to 23 full time staff (mean=9) and from 0 to 17 part
time staff (mean=6) at each institution. There were from 3 to 23 full time staff
(mean=9.7), and from 0 to 6 part time staff (mean=2.7) for accredited program colleges.
For vocational schools, there were from 2 to 5 full time staff (mean=3), and from 0 to 17
part time staff (mean=7.4). Non-accredited program colleges had from 2 to 18 full time
staff (mean=11), and from 0 to14 part time staff (mean=7). Table 2 shows the mean
number of professor’s in each type of program. Overall, male full time staff was 95%, but
female full time staff was only 5%. In addition, male part time staff was 82%, and female
part time staff was 18%. For college programs, 92% of the full time staff was male and
8% of the full time staff was female. Eighty-three percent of the part time staff was male
and 17% of the part time staff was female. Table 3 shows the number of professors in
each program type relative to full time, part time, and gender.
Both full time and part time staffs’ backgrounds were varied. Eighty-one percent
schools had a medical doctor (M.D.), 65% schools had a licensed physical education
teacher, 50% schools had JASA athletic trainer, and only 23% schools had an ATC.
Sixty-three percent of the accredited program colleges had a JASA athletic trainer, and 25%
of colleges had an ATC. On the other hand, 23% of non-accredited program colleges had
JASA athletic trainer, and only 8% had an ATC. Figure 11 shows the number of
professors with various certifications relative to program type.
44
Staffs at the various schools teach from 1 to 9 classes (mean=3.9) per week at
accredited and non-accredited schools. At colleges, the staff teaches more than three
classes, at vocational schools, including of part time staff, professors teach at most three
classes. Teachers at accredited program colleges have to teach from 2 to 11 classes
(mean=5.4) and at non-accredited program colleges were from 5 to 9 classes, (mean=5.8),
but at vocational schools were only from 1 to 3 (mean=2.3).
Figure 12 shows professors opinions of increasing the number of athletic training
courses. Fifty-five percent of all respondents were interested in adding more athletic
training courses such as advanced athletic training, orthopedic assessment, clinical lab,
internship and sports management. One professor wanted courses to prepare the student
to be an ATC. The non-accredited program schools wanted to have more athletic training
related classes. Non-accredited program colleges wanted more athletic training courses
than accredited program colleges. Figure 13 shows the number and percentage of
professors’ responding to the question of increasing the number of athletic training courses
according to program type.
Practical Setting
Figures 14- 24 relate to questions about the practical setting for athletic training
education. Figure 14 indicates the number of subjects overall who responded that the
practical setting was a part of their program. Fifty-six percent of all respondents stated
that practical settings existed for student athletic trainers. Seventy-five percent of
accredited program colleges noted providing some practical settings; however, only 25% of
non-accredited program colleges provided practical settings. On the other hand, 100% of
vocational schools had practical settings. Figure 15 indicates the number and percentage
of respondents who provide practical experiences to student athletic trainers at accredited
45
and non-accredited schools.
Types of practical settings varied for each school. College settings were most
likely to provide student athletic trainers’ with practical experiences. The second setting
for student athletic trainer to gain practical experience was a clinic. Accredited college
programs provided more experiences in the college setting than others. Vocational schools
had more high school, clinic, and industrial and commercial settings than others. Figure
16 shows the number of clinical settings at both accredited and non-accredited schools.
Figure 17 indicates the percentage of practical experiences considered as
coursework. Fifty-seven percent of schools accept practical experiences for coursework.
Fifty percent of accredited college programs counted practical experiences, but only 33% of
non-accredited college programs permitted practical experiences to count as coursework.
Eighty percent of accredited vocational schools permitted clinical experiences to be counted
as coursework. On the other hand, all professors who stated their students did not have a
practical setting experience thought the students needed these experiences as a student
athletic trainer. Figure 18 shows the number and percentage of practical experiences
considered for credit at both accredited and non-accredited schools.
Figures 19 and 20 indicate the presence and number of supervisors at clinical sites.
At the clinical site, 53% of the schools had supervisors to educate students including of
59% of subjects’ professors. The mean number of supervisors per site was 1.9. Figures
21 and 22 indicate if the respondent actually supervised students. Fifty-seven percent of
accredited program colleges have supervisors, however only 17% of non-accredited
program colleges did not have supervisors. Thirty-eight percent of colleges have a
supervisor, and all vocational schools had supervisors at the clinical site. Seventy-one
percent of the accredited program college professors stated they supervised students, and
40% of non-accredited program college professors supervised students. All professors
46
who noted there were no supervisors on clinical site supported the need for supervisors.
In addition, 64% of the schools had facilities for athletic training practical
experience. Seventy-five percent of accredited program colleges had a facility, while only
42% of non-accredited program colleges did. All vocational schools noted they had some
facilities. Figures 23 and 24 indicate the existence and number of athletic training
facilities at an institution.
Students
Figures 25-39 relate to current trends in athletic training students from the
professors’ viewpoint. Overall, professors evaluated their students’ motivation for
learning as follows: 37% good, 27% excellent, 27% fair, and 9% poor. Accredited
program colleges had 50% excellent and good student motivation. Non-accredited
program colleges had only 9% excellent and 27% good student motivation. Although
18% of the non-accredited programs had poor students, there were no responses
categorizing student motivation as “very poor”. Figures 25 and 26 describe the student’s
motivation in athletic training.
Professors also stated if their students’ volunteer for additional experiences in the
field of athletic training. Eighty-one percent of the professors noted their students’ extra
work, and all professors at the accredited program colleges and vocational school observed
student volunteer hours. On the other hand, only 60% of non-accredited program colleges
had students who volunteered. Forty percent of the students in non-accredited program
colleges did not perform volunteer activity as a student athletic trainer. Figures 27 and
28 indicate the percentage of hours the students volunteered.
Professors reported that 95% of their students’ were interested in pursuing
certification as an JASA athletic trainer, ATC, physical therapist, acupuncturist, Judo
47
therapist massage therapist. Overall, 25% of students would attempt to become certified
as a JASA athletic trainer, 19% as a physical therapist, 8% as a Judo therapist and massage
therapist, and only 2% NATA ATC. At the accredited program colleges, 32% were trying
to become certified as a JASA athletic trainer, 19% as a physical therapist, and 5% as a
JASA fitness instructor. At the non-accredited program colleges, 19% were trying for
certification in physical therapy, 25% as a JASA fitness instructor, and only 13% as a JASA
athletic trainer. Professors noted that only 5% of accredited program college students
desiring certification as an ATC, and there was no interest in the ATC certification at
non-accredited program schools. In addition, professors stated that some students would
get Master’s degree or Doctoral degree after graduation. Figures 29, 30, 31 and 32
indicate student certification interests from professors’ views.
Relative to employment opportunities, 61% of professors thought students would
not gain employment as an athletic trainer after graduation. Only 39% of professors felt
students would have that opportunity. For accredited program colleges, 63% of the
professors stated students would be able to get a job in the field, although only 10% of
non-accredited program colleges’ professors felt students would gain employment in their
field. Figures 33 and 34 indicate the professors’ opinions relative to the opportunity of
employment as an athletic trainer.
Overall, 74% of professors thought the demand for athletic trainers was increasing.
88% of accredited program colleges’ professors believed the demand for athletic trainers
was increasing, and 60% of non accredited program colleges’ professor believed the
demand for athletic trainers was increasing. Figures 35 and 36 indicate the professors’
views on the demand for athletic trainers in the current Japanese job market.
In the last section of the questionnaire, there was a space for the professors to
comment. Many professors emphasized that they had noticed an increased demand for
48
athletic training, but due to economic depression, companies were not hiring athletic
trainers. They stated they hoped the student would be able to gain an opportunity practice
as an athletic trainer. Lastly, they felt the JASA athletic trainer system needed to gain
popularity as the primary certification for athletic trainers in Japan.
49
Chapter Ⅴ
Discussion and Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to clarify current trends of Japanese athletic training
education programs using a questionnaire. This chapter will discuss the results of the
questionnaires relative to current trends. In order to better explain questionnaire results
the responses were categorized as program, education, practical setting, and students.
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to describe current trends of athletic training in
Japan. It was difficult to gather information about trends in athletic training in Japan due
to difficulty obtaining e-mail addresses and the lack of published literature on this topic.
In order to gather information, school web sites provided e-mail addresses of some of the
sports medicine professors. Some schools did not show individual e-mail addresses, in
which academic affairs provided contact with appropriate professors. However, not many
replied to my inquiry, therefore there were only 43 subjects compared to 67 estimated
subjects. In addition, there was low response (61%) rate because it was one of the busiest
seasons of the year and difficult to make contact with subjects due to Japanese traditions.
Through correspondence with the respondents, some of them were confused with
certain questions on the questionnaire. The questions were those that asked for various
explanations of their athletic training program. Even though accredited program schools
did not having an athletic training program, students were able to take general and core
courses for the JASA athletic trainer certification at accredited program schools, and
general courses at some of the non-accredited program schools. As a result, some
questions were not accurate, and were individual opinions by one professor from each
50
school. However, there is no literature on Japanese athletic training in English research.
This study provides an overview of the current status of Japanese athletic training in the
English language.
Program
According to the results, athletic training programs are currently being developed.
The number of JASA athletic training programs has been increasing and gaining
popularity in physical education or related colleges. This merging of departments is due
to the similarity between physical education and athletic training in course content and
curriculums. The NATA news (1997) states that most athletic training programs are
housed in physical education departments in the U.S. First, physical educators are
becoming less financially and politically viable because of the cutbacks of the 1970’s.
Secondly, the contents of modern athletic training programs in physical education
curriculums are similar, and athletic training used to be a modified physical education
curriculum. Now, athletic training course work is many times separated from traditional
physical education departments and has been changed to an allied health profession.
In Japan, there are 81 universities, 31 community colleges, and 554 vocational
schools that are physical education or sports related. There are 11 JASA accredited
programs (9 of which are universities), 1 graduate school, and 1 community college, and 38
JASA sports instructor’s accredited programs, which include some general courses for the
JASA athletic trainer. In addition, there are 19 accredited vocational schools. Students at
these schools are able to take general and/ or core courses as physical education students.
Yamamoto (1994) states there are two reasons that accredited programs should develop
from physical education or sports related departments; 1) significance of practical
experience as a student athletic trainer in sports settings 2) similarity to the athletic training
51
education curriculum governed by CAAHEP in the U.S. Although some accredited
colleges and most accredited vocational schools have started programs like the accredited
programs in the U.S. the rest of the schools still consider athletic training a part of their
physical education or sports related programs. This means the program is not an
independent major as with U.S. accredited athletic training programs. Students who want
JASA athletic training certification take athletic training courses, but there are generally no
specific programs students can enter. For this reason respondents may not have stated
accurate numbers of students in their program. Some subjects responded with the number
of physical education students while others responded with the number of athletic training
students.
One graduate college has started a JASA athletic training masters degree program
and provides the JASA with athletic training educators. This school is one of the
traditional physical education colleges and expanded to include various kinds of sports
related fields. Unfortunately, no respondents returned questionnaires from this school.
However students from this school are well known and play active roles in athletic training
in Japan. Most professors at accredited programs stated they needed a graduate program
for higher education, and stated it would produce athletic training educators.
Sixty-four percent of subjects thought athletic training was continually developing.
Not many subjects from non-accredited programs noted positive responses with regard to
the development of athletic training. Only 17% of non-accredited programs wanted to
start an athletic training curriculum. One professor stated he wanted to start a program,
but that was only his opinion, not his school’s viewpoint. One of the problems was due to
student population decreases; college student populations have been getting smaller due to
fact that the population of children has already peaked, and now the population is
decreasing or staying the same. Therefore, schools do not want to begin a new curriculum
52
for a smaller number of applicants. However, the JASA started an accredited athletic
training program at some schools to prepare students for the JASA certification
examination. JASA’s decision is a big step for Japanese athletic training education.
Sixty-seven percent of subjects stated athletic training was beneficial for the
Japanese job market. Although the answers did not show students would be able to find a
job as an athletic trainer, athletic training education was believed to be beneficial for one’s
personal and mental preparation for future jobs. In addition, future health care services
are likely to be provided by multi-skilled individuals, which include athletic training,
education, and health care. NATA News (1997) reported “The athletic trainer is already a
multi-skilled professional.” This statement promotes positive responses from
non-accredited program respondents with regard to athletic training and promotes interest
in athletic training education.
Cooperation with U.S. universities has been popular in the field of athletic training
and many other college curriculums. Some schools offer exchange or internship programs
in the U.S. during Japanese school vacation. Japanese students have associated athletic
training with the U.S. and want to experience athletic training practices facilities in
different setting in the U.S. Although more athletic training books have been translated
into Japanese lately, many read English books with difficulty even though English is a
second language required in junior high school and now required in elementary school.
Since English is considered to be an essential language, most schools want to have some
type of cooperation with U.S. universities. For this reasons 88% of schools in this study
wanted athletic training program cooperation with U.S. universities.
Becker-Doyle (1996) states that Japanese universities are very interested in
developing a system in Japan to educate and certify qualified athletic trainers. Japanese
Universities want to produce the same quality of certified athletic trainers as the U.S. She
53
notes the NATABOC may allow foreign students to sit for the certification examination.
In fact, courses can be transferred that were taken in foreign countries, and practical
experience gained in a foreign country under ATCs can be counted toward eligibility for the
NATABOC examination. She also explains the development of athletic training programs
in Japan, which has been yet to be accomplished. There are faculty exchanges between
some US and Japanese universities. Japanese students are allowed site visits at US
universities for practical observations, but there is no practical experience involved.
Therefore, it is interesting to know what the subjects think about cooperation with U.S.
universities.
Education
Responses to the questionnaire showed that Japanese athletic training education is
quite similar to CAAHEP accredited programs. Definition of core courses was different
between each school, which made it difficult to distinguish courses by course name only.
Therefore core course accuracy is difficult to comment on.
Core and general courses for JASA athletic training did not include therapeutic
modalities or administration of athletic training. In Japan, people cannot use modalities
without a medical certification. Not many schools have modalities in their training rooms,
so athletes must go to a clinic to have treatments such as ultrasound, electronic stimulation,
and/ or massage. JATO (1996) states 42.9% of athletes go a Judo therapist’s clinic, 26.2%
go to acupuncturists, and 23.1% go to sports doctors. This is a common situation when
athletes get injured at college or the high school level because of the absence of athletic
trainers or lack of treatment facilities.
Instead of modality courses, massage lab courses were reported by a high
percentage of respondents. This originates from traditional Japanese therapeutic methods,
54
and athletic trainers are still misunderstood as massage trainers or therapists. Japanese
athletes need cool down or practice prevention exercises on their own, known in Japan as
self-administration (without being asked by somebody to do massage or treatment).
Educating the athletes is one of the athletic trainer’s responsibilities. Instead of
administration of athletic training, sports management of local community, role of athletic
trainer, doping control, and safety were reported as core courses work for the JASA athletic
training curriculum. These courses do not include of management and planning of
budgeting supplies and record keeping like courses on the administration of athletic training
in the U.S. However, curriculum courses have to match each country’s demands
individually, therefore Japanese curriculums do not have the same core courses as American
curriculums. It is believed the Japanese ATCs have better record keeping skills than
traditional trainers because they are trained to prepare for lawsuits, which are more
common in the U.S., and not as common in Japan.
The respondents were asked the number of professors by status and gender. In
the U.S. 50% of ATC’s are female however this researcher was unable to find a number of
female educators. The data in this study indicated that only 5% of athletic training
educators were female. There was considerable news in Japan and the U.S. regarding the
first female NFL athletic trainer, who happened to be a Japanese ATC. This is significant
since there are no currently female athletic trainers at professional baseball venues in Japan.
In addition, only 8% of female full-time professors were at sports related colleges. The
reported percentage of female professors is due to the fact that two women’s colleges
responded, and generally there are more female professors at this type of college than other
colleges. Japanese sports and other societies have changed without distinction to gender
of professions, but it is well publicized by the media if a female gains a premier profession.
It is still uncommon for females to become gainfully employed in this profession, and when
55
one does become employed at a high level, it is considered news worthy.
Most professor certifications/degrees were Medial Doctors from sports related
colleges. An interesting finding was that JASA athletic trainers ranked third among
professor certifications. This showed the educator was competent in the field of athletic
training and would be able to teach it to their students. The professors teach various
courses including one called “seminar”, which differs depending on each professor’s area
of expertise. Students would draw from a professor’s expertise and present a thesis based
on their experience in their senior year. One respondent stated that his students presented
a thesis about their activities of student athletic trainer every year. This is the one way to
learn more about athletic training in small groups with an educator.
Fifty-seven percent of subjects responded that they wanted more athletic training
courses even though they did not have accredited programs in athletic training. These
courses may help in the prevention and care of sports injuries or offer first aid when
students act as educators in various sport settings, even though they are not certified athletic
trainers.
Clinical setting
Only 56% of subjects answered “yes” regarding the existence of a practical
experience setting, and only 57% of the respondents would count that experience for class.
The JASA athletic training education system is highly regarded by the Japanese public due
to the level of knowledge and skills of the JASA credentialed athletic training. This
credentialing has decreased the amount of public confusion by distinguishing deferent
between traditional trainers and athletic trainer. However, there is not a requirement to
gain practical experience with supervisors for the JASA athletic training program.
Yamamoto (2003) also notes that students are able to obtain more than just athletic training
56
certifications from these experiences. Physical and mental maturity is gained from the
experiences including character development. In addition, he explains there are a few
opportunities to be an athletic trainer, but students could learn more than athletic training as
student trainers, which allow them to use their athletic training and people skills. Tsuruike
(2002) also explains that practical training forces students to learn communication skills
between coaches, physicians, and athletes. In addition, the practical setting offers a place
to learn administration and management of athletic training. This creates unique athletic
training education and athletic trainers.
Even though every professor reported that students should gain experience as
student athletic trainers, there were no required hours for JASA student athletic trainers.
Schools did not have to design a class that offered practical experiences, therefore this
system of education either never developed or is developing slowly. Practical experience
is an important component in the development of the student athletic trainer, and therefore
it should be part of the educational curriculum requirements.
Even though formal practical experience is not required, most students have
opportunities to gain experience with a college team as a volunteer. Students who are
interested in athletic training start volunteering as a student athletic trainer with a college
and do so for four years, similar to an athletes’ experience. Clinical settings at sports
related colleges are suitable for sports injury prevention and treatment experience, since
sports activity is an essential component of the sports related college curriculum.
Only 38% of colleges had supervisors for the practical setting. Students learn
from the professor in class and gain their experience on their own. Every respondent
knew students need a supervisor to learn from and work with, however there is not enough
staff for students to gain practical experience at college settings. One hundred percent of
vocational schools had supervisors in the practical setting because they found a way for the
57
students to count practical experience as one of the core classes. However, the practical
experience is different from school to school, so it is hard to learn administration and
management because the student is only at each setting a short time.
Fifty-nine percent of professors were supervising students and teaching as an
academic professor. Their responses were confusing since their supervision might mean
something different than the ATC’s supervision. They responded that there were no
supervisors at the practical setting but stated they were doing supervision. One ATC stated
that a limitation of student supervision by a Japanese supervisor is that a typical Japanese
program will have between 80 and 100 students, which make it difficult for one person to
supervise every student (Kiyoie, 1998). Anderson, Larson & Luebe (1997) also explains
quality and skills of student athletic trainers has changed with the quality of supervision.
For quality student education, each supervisor’s situation has to be considered individually.
Japanese athletic training rooms are different from U.S. facilities. There are not
many schools with taping tables, treatment tables, modalities, or a room for supplies. There
were only two schools that had athletic training rooms in 1994, but since have developed
and expanded, sixty-four percent of this study’s respondents answered that they had a
facility for an athletic training clinical experience. However there seemed to be some
confusion in terminology. Some referred to practical lab settings and others referred to
operational facilities (e.g. athletic training room). It is believed that there are still a few
schools that offer practical experience in an athletic training room.
Students
Students at sports related schools are very motivated to study. Sixty-four percent
of respondents stated their students were excellent or good with regard to motivation.
Yamamoto (2003) states more high school students or their parents are asking where they
58
can study athletic training, or how they can become an athletic trainer. Although there is
only one “sports trainer department” in all of the Japanese universities, and less than 10
universities have a JASA accredited program, students at these schools are highly
motivated in order to gain an opportunity to be an athletic trainer in Japan.
Eighty-two percent of respondents noted their students gained experience as a
volunteer on their own. They voluntarily obtain practical experience in athletic training
since they are not required to gain experience. They are also willing to gain more
experience if they courses were offered for practical experience. This showed students
had a high learning motivation for athletic training. In addition, students know if they do
not gain any experience as athletic trainer, they cannot gain athletic training experience
from academic courses.
Ninety-five percent of the respondents stated that their students tried to get
certifications after graduation. With the current business depression in Japan, students try
to get as many certifications as possible to show their skills to a company. Since most
respondents were JASA accredited programs, 25% of respondents were interested in JASA
athletic trainer certification. Respondents stated that 19 % of students wished to pursue a
career in physical therapy. The pursuit of a physical therapist certification has grown in
popularity because it is not only for the athletes, but also for all of the population. It is
estimated that 22% of the Japanese population will be older than 65 in 2010. This is a
driving force in the increase of the popularity of physical therapists.
Seventy-four percent of respondents answered that the demand for athletic trainers
has been increasing even though only 39% of them thought their students would have an
employment opportunity. The lack of recognition for athletic training by the Japanese
sports administration and the Japanese society in general makes it difficulties to enter
athletic training as a profession in Japan. Although the ideal job position for athletic
59
training is similar to the U.S., it is still difficult to obtain, and one often needs a team
connection to get a job. It is a frustrating problem for educators because there are many
students who want to study athletic training and be athletic trainer. But there are not many
opportunities as an athletic trainer in the Japanese sports administration and Japanese
society in general. .
There are some opportunities for an athletic trainer to practice in other professions.
One can teach for a junior high school, high school, or university, and practice athletic
training. In addition, one can be a school nurse, since the school nurse or physical
education teacher initiates evaluation and first aid for most of the athlete’s injuries at
schools. This is the realistic way to practice due to budget of the Japanese sports
administration and other societies. NATA News (1997) states that the high school
environment has been a key employment setting for athletic trainers for many years. High
school athletic training has been expanding in the U.S., but Japanese high school athletic
training is not as promising. There is no way to have full time athletic trainers at the high
school level due to budget of the Japanese sports administration and other societies.
Summary
The purpose of this study was to explain current trends of Japanese athletic
training education and certification. The literature was searched to explain history and
detail of athletic training in Japan. A questionnaire was given to sports medicine
professors at JASA athletic trainer’s accredited programs or sports leader’s accredited
programs to establish the current situation of education and demand for the future.
It is unclear how athletic training is defined in Japan because each person called
“trainer” has different routes of education and certifications. Each person background has
been credentialed by different organizations (such as JASA athletic trainer, JATO for
60
Japanese ATC, and acupuncturists, massage therapists, and Judo therapists have other
organization). Therefore, Japan Amateur Sports Association established a certification in
1994 in an effort to establish a norm. Although JASA athletic training programs have
developed a standard knowledge and skills, athletic trainers have to do their best to gain a
job because there are few opportunities to be a professional athletic trainer in the Japanese
sports administration and other societies. However, the JASA athletic trainer certification
has gained acceptance by providing organization and standardization of the process of
becoming an athletic trainer.
Sixty-one percent of respondents defined the current educational system in their
opinion for their students. At the JASA athletic trainers’ program school, students can
take required courses for certification examination eligibility. Half of the respondents had
the JASA accredited program at their college or vocational school. They believed athletic
training education has progressed in its development and is beneficial for the Japanese job
market. They were willing to set up graduate level athletic training education programs
and have cooperated programs with U.S. universities. There were similar curriculums
between the CAAHEP program requirements of Japanese sports related university
requirements. Some respondents wanted more athletic training courses at their schools.
A majority of teachers were male and were medical doctors, JASA athletic trainers, or
physical education teachers. Some students had an opportunity to gain practical experience
as a class with college sports teams, clinics, or high school sports teams. While there were
no requirements of practical experience for the JASA athletic training students, respondents
supported the student need for supervised experience. Although there were some facilities
to teach practical experiences, there was not enough staff to teach and supervise athletic
training practical experience as the same time. Currently, Japanese students have a high
motivation to gain both academic and practical experiences. This is evidence since there
61
were not requirements to gain practical experience, but a majority of students tried to get
practical experiences on their own. A majority of the Japanese students tended to be
interested in certifications, such as JASA athletic trainer and physical therapist. Subjects
believed the demand for athletic trainers has increased, even though there are not many
opportunities to obtain athletic training professions.
The results of this study showed Japanese athletic training education and
certification is popular and increasing in demand. However, lack of the recognition of
athletic training and not considering athletic training as a medical profession is still an issue.
Japanese athletic trainers are required to be more than just an athletic trainer, they must also
possess additional skills because of the employment situation. Since there are self-styled
athletic trainers from different types of certifications, the JASA athletic training
certification has created a certification to standardize athletic training. The JASA athletic
training certification also had negative opinions because it may decrease the opportunity to
be employed as an athletic trainer. In order to offer a better understanding of Japanese
athletic training, this study has described current trends of Japanese athletic training
education and practice. Hopefully, this study will contribute the development of Japanese
athletic training and also to the Japanese sports society.
62
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65
Appendix A
Tables & Figures
66
Table 1
Numbers of subjects, respondents, and the response rate of the survey.
Subjects Respondents Frequency
Accredited program University 10 7 80%
Non-accredited program Univ. 7 5 71%
Accredited program Vocational 26 13 50%
Total 43 26 61%
Figure 1.
Respondents to the survey according to type of program.
50%
31%
19%
Accredited Univ. Accredited Voc. Non Accredited Univ.
67
Figure 2.
Professors opinions of the need for higher education in athletic training in Japan
58%42%
Yes No
Figure 3.
Opinion of respondents regarding the need for higher education opportunities in
Japan according to type of program
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Yes
No
Accredited Voc. Accredited Univ. Non Accredited Univ.
Non Accredited Univ. 6 7
Accredited Univ. 7 1
Accredited Voc. 2 3
Yes No
68
Figure 4.
Programs interested in a cooperative education program with a university in the U.S.
12%
88%
Yes No
Figure 5.
Schools interested in a cooperative arrangement with a university in the U.S.
according to program type.
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Yes
No
Accredited Voc. Accredited Univ. Non Accredited Univ.
Non Accredited Univ. 10 3
Accredited Univ. 8 0
Accredited Voc. 5 0
Yes No
69
Figure 6.
Professors’ opinions as to whether or not athletic training is developing as a profession
in Japan.
64%
36%
Yes No
Figure 7.
The number and percentage of subjects who felt athletic training education was or
was not developing in Japan relative to the type of program.
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Yes
No
Accredited Voc. Accredited Univ. Non Accredited Univ.
Non Accredited Univ. 5 7
Accredited Univ. 7 1
Accredited Voc. 4 1
Yes No
70
Figure 8.
Percentage of respondents who felt athletic training education was beneficial to the
Japanese job market.
33%
67%
Yes No
Figure 9.
Percentage of respondents who felt athletic training education was beneficial to the
Japanese job market by program type.
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Yes
No
Accredited Voc. Accredited Univ. Non Accredited Univ.
Non Accredited Univ. 8 4
Accredited Univ. 5 2
Accredited Voc. 3 2
Yes No
71
Figure 10.
The core courses offered at respondents schools according to program type.
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Hum an anatom y
Hum an physiology
Psychology
Exercise physiology
Kinesiology/Biom echanics
Introduction to AT
Evaluation of athletic injuries
Evaluation of athletic illness
First aid and em ergency care
Personal/ com m unity health
Therapeutic m odalities
Therapeutic exercise
Nutrition
Adm ini. of AT program s
Accredited Voc. Accredited Univ. Non Accredited Univ.
Non Accredited Univ. 8 9 11 11 11 2 3 6 8 7 0 6 9 0
Accredited Univ. 5 4 5 7 7 4 4 3 6 3 1 4 6 3
Accredited Voc. 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 1 2 4 4 3
Hum an
anato
Hum an
physi
Psychology
Exercisephysi
Kinesiology/Bio
Introductionto AT
Evaluationof
Evaluationof
Firstaidand
Personal/com m
Therapeuticm odal
Therapeuticexerci
Nutrition
Adm ini. ofAT
Others; Conditioning 9, Taping lab 8, Conditioning lab 7, Sports massage 6 etc.
72
Table 2.
The numbers of professors teaching athletic training in the three types of athletic
training programs.
Full time Part time
Accredited program University 9.7 2.7
Non-accredited program Univ. 11.1 7.0
Accredited program Vocational 3.0 7.4
College total 10.6 5.8 Total 9.0 6.0
73
Table 3.
Percentages of male and female full time and part time staff according to program
type.
Full time M F Part time M F
Accredited program University 91 9 94 6
Non-accredited program Univ. 93 7 79 21
Accredited program Vocational 100 0 81 19
College Total 92 8 87 13 Total 95 5 85 15
74
Figure 11.
Number of professors with various certifications from each program type.
0 7 14 21
M .D .
Acupuncturist
PT
Judo therapist
M assage therapist
JASA-AT
ATC
C SC S
PE Teacher
Accredited Voc. Accredited Univ. Non Accredited Univ.
Non Accredited Univ. 10 1 3 1 0 3 1 0 10
Accredited Univ. 6 2 2 2 1 5 2 3 5
Accredited Voc. 5 3 3 1 3 5 3 2 2
M .D .Acupuncturist
PTJudo
therapist
M assagetherapis
t
JASA-AT
ATC C SC SPE
Teacher
75
Figure 12.
Opinions of professors relating to adding more athletic training classes to the
curriculum.
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Yes
No
Accredited Voc. Accredited Univ. Non Accredited Univ.
Non Accredited Univ. 1 5
Accredited Univ. 4 3
Accredited Voc. 4 0
Yes No
Figure 13.
The number and percentage of professors’ responding yes or no to increasing the
number of athletic training courses according to program type.
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Yes
No
Accredited Voc. Accredited Univ. Non Accredited Univ.
Non Accredited Univ. 6 4
Accredited Univ. 4 3
Accredited Voc. 2 2
Yes No
76
Figure 14.
Overall programs providing clinical settings for student athletic trainers.
56%
44%
Yes No
Figure 15.
The number and percentage of respondents providing clinical experiences for student
athletic trainers at accredited and non-accredited schools.
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Yes
No
Accredited Voc. Accredited Univ. Non Accredited Univ.
Non Accredited Univ. 3 9
Accredited Univ. 6 2
Accredited Voc. 5 0
Yes No
77
Figure 16.
The number of clinical settings at both accredited and non-accredited schools.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Professional
Industrial andC om m ercial
C ollege sports
High school
C linic
Little league
Accredited Voc. Accredited Univ. Non Accredited Univ.
Non Accredited Univ. 1 2 2 1 2 0
Accredited Univ. 0 1 6 2 3 0
Accredited Voc. 3 4 3 5 4 2
Professional
Industrialand
C om m ercia
C ollegesports
Highschool
C linicLittleleague
78
Figure 17.
The percentage respondents that give credit for clinical experiences as coursework.
57%
43%
Yes No
Figure 18
The percentage respondents that give credit for clinical experiences as coursework
according to program type.
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Yes
No
Accredited Voc. Accredited Univ. Non Accredited Univ.
Non Accredited Univ. 1 2
Accredited Univ. 3 3
Accredited Voc. 4 1
Yes No
79
Figure 19.
The presence of supervisors at a clinical site.
53%47%
Yes No
Figure 20.
The number of supervisors at a clinical site by program type.
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Yes
No
Accredited Voc. Accredited Univ. Non Accredited Univ.
Non Accredited Univ. 1 5
Accredited Univ. 4 3
Accredited Voc. 4 0
Yes No
80
Figure 21.
The status of the respondent to the questionnaire as to whether or not they personally
supervise students.
41%
59%
Yes No
Figure 22.
The status of the respondent to the questionnaire as to whether or not they personally
supervise students relative to program type.
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Yes
No
Accredited Voc. Accredited Univ. Non Accredited Univ.
Non Accredited Univ. 4 6
Accredited Univ. 5 2
Accredited Voc. 4 1
Yes No
81
Figure 23.
The existence of athletic training facilities.
36%
64%
Yes No
Figure 24.
The number of athletic training facilities relative to program type.
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Yes
No
Accredited Voc. Accredited Univ. Non Accredited Univ.
Non Accredited Univ. 5 7
Accredited Univ. 6 2
Accredited Voc. 5 0
Yes No
82
Figure 25.
Student motivation to succeed in athletic training as perceived by the professor.
0%
27%
37%
27%
9%
Excellent G ood Fair Poor Very Poor
Figure 26.
Student motivation to succeed in athletic training as perceived by the professor and
related to program type.
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Excellent
G ood
Fair
Poor
Very Poor
Accredited Voc. Accredited Univ. Non Accredited Univ.
Non Accredited Univ. 1 3 5 2 0
Accredited Univ. 4 4 0 0 0
Accredited Voc. 1 1 1 0 0
Excellent G ood Fair Poor Very Poor
83
Figure 27.
Students who volunteer for additional experience in athletic training.
81%
19%
Yes No
Figure 28.
Students who volunteer for additional experience in athletic training relative to
program type.
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Yes
No
Accredited Voc. Accredited Univ. Non Accredited Univ.
Non Accredited Univ. 6 4
Accredited Univ. 8 0
Accredited Voc. 3 0
Yes No
84
Figure 29.
Overall percentage of students interested in certification.
5%
95%
Yes No
Figure 30.
Percentage of students interested in certification by program type
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Yes
No
Accredited Voc. Accredited Univ. Non Accredited Univ.
Non Accredited Univ. 9 1
Accredited Univ. 8 0
Accredited Voc. 4 0
Yes No
85
Figure 31.
Certifications students are preparing for overall.
2%
7%
29%25%
19%7%
11%
JASA-AT ATC Acupucturist
Judo therapist M assage therapist PT
O thers
Figure 32.
Certifications students are preparing for by program type.
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
JASA-AT
ATC
Acupucturist
Judo therapist
M assage therapist
PT
Accredited Voc. Accredited Univ. Non Accredited Univ.
Non Accredited Univ. 2 0 0 0 1 3
Accredited Univ. 6 1 3 1 2 4
Accredited Voc. 5 0 3 3 1 3
JASA-AT ATCAcupucturi
stJudo
therapistM assagetherapist
PT
86
Figure 33.
Professors’ opinions as to the possibility of students finding a job in the area of athletic
training.
39%
61%
Yes N o
Figure 34.
Professors’ opinions as to the possibility of students finding a job in the area of athletic
training by program type.
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Yes
No
Accredited Voc. Accredited Univ. Non Accredited Univ.
Non Accredited Univ. 1 9
Accredited Univ. 5 3
Accredited Voc. 3 2
Yes No
87
Figure 35.
Professors’ opinions on the demand for athletic trainers in Japan
74%
26%
Yes No
Figure 36.
Professors’ opinions on the demand for athletic trainers in Japan by program type.
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Yes
No
Accredited Voc. Accredited Univ. Non Accredited Univ.
Non Accredited Univ. 6 4
Accredited Univ. 7 1
Accredited Voc. 4 1
Yes No
88
Appendix B
Cover Letter and Questionnaires
89
March 2003 Dear Professor, I am a graduate student at Marshall University to study athletic training and I am working on the thesis, which is “Current Trend in Athletic Training Education and Certification in Japan.” The purpose of this study is to define current athletic training and future demand of athletic training education and certification. For my thesis, I would like to ask you to answer the survey to help me to collect the information of the current athletic training program. This research will be able to clarify the demand and process of athletic training education with collecting the information. All information will be strictly confidential and destroyed when this study is complete. Please direct questions or concerns regarding this project toward my advisor: Dr. Daniel Martin, Associate Professor/ Program Director, Division of Exercise Science, Sport, and Recreation, Marshall University (304) 696-2412 or [email protected] You may also email me with questions or concerns. Please take your time to answer these questions and send me back with attached questionnaire by e-mail. Thank you very much. Sincerely yours, Yuriko Ohashi [email protected] [email protected]
90
2003 年 3 月
先生 御机下
拝啓
春暖の候、ますます御健勝にてご活躍のこととお慶び申し上げます。さて、突然のお便りを差し上
げる失礼をお許しください。私は、大阪体育大学を卒業後、現在アメリカのマーシャル大学（アメ
リカ）の大学院にて勉強をしている者ですが、ここアメリカと日本における「アスレティックトレ
ーニングの教育と資格の異同について」に関心があり、まず「日本におけるアスレティックトレー
ニングの教育と資格に関する現状」というテーマについて検討しその現状を把握したく考えており
ます。ご多忙中、誠に失礼かつご無理なお願いにて心苦しいのですが、添付のアンケートにお答え
頂ければ大変幸喜に存じます。今後日本でこの方面・分野での研究に少しでも役立てばと考えご無
理をお願いしている次第です。よろしくご協力の程お願い申し上げます。なお、ご回答いただきま
したすべての情報は秘密裏に管理され、本研究が終了した時点で破棄いたします。また、結果につ
いてお知りになりたい場合は後日報告させていただきます。もし、ご質問などございましたら下記
の私宛にご連絡いただきましたら幸喜です。宜しくお願い申し上げます。
敬具
P.S. 1)大橋 由理子
マーシャル大学・運動生理学・スポーツレクリエーション科・大学院生
[email protected] 又は [email protected]
2)C/O 指導教官
プログラムディレクター：Daniel Martin 教授 1-304-696-2412 又は [email protected]
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Survey about athletic training education and certification Yuriko Ohashi (master’s candidate at Marshall University, Huntington, WV, USA)
*Please mark the appropriate response or fill in the blank.
Program
1. Does your institution have an athletic training (AT) program approved by the Japan
Amateur Sports Association (JASA)? ( )Yes ( )No
If “Yes” how many students did you admit to the AT program this year?
If “No” are you planning to begin a program? ( )Yes ( )No
2. Would you like to have a graduate AT program? ( )Yes ( )No
3. Do you think your AT education program has progressed? ( )Yes ( )No
4. Do you think AT education is beneficial in Japan’s job market? ( )Yes ( )No
5. Are you interested in a cooperative AT program with a U.S. University? ( )Yes ( )No
School education
6. How many core courses does your program require?
7. What is (are) the name(s) of the core course(s) in your program?
( ) Human anatomy ( ) Human physiology ( ) Psychology ( ) Exercise physiology
( ) Kinesiology/Biomechanics ( ) Introduction to Athletic Training
( ) Evaluation of athletic injuries ( ) Evaluation of athletic illness
( ) First aid and emergency care ( ) Personal/ community health
( ) Therapeutic modalities ( ) Therapeutic exercise
( ) Administration of athletic training programs ( ) Nutrition
Other
8. How many professors teach in your program? Full-time-male female-
Part-time-male female-
9. What kinds of certifications do the professors have?
( )M.D. ( )Acupuncturist ( )PT ( )Judo therapist ( )Massage therapist ( )JASA-AT
( )ATC ( )CSCS ( )PE Teacher’s certification Other
10. How many courses does each professor teach each term?
11. Do you want to increase the number of AT courses in your programs? ( )Yes ( )No
12. If “Yes” what courses do you want to add?
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Clinical setting
13. Does each student gain experience in a clinical setting as a student athletic trainer?
( )Yes ( )No
If “Yes,” answer the following:
*What type(s) of clinical setting?
( )Professional ( )Industrial and Commercial team ( )College sports ( )High school
( )Clinic ( )Little league Others
*Does this count as credit hours as for any other class? ( )Yes ( )No
If 13 is “No,” do you feel the students need this experience? ( )Yes ( )No
14. Does each student have a supervisor to work with? ( )Yes ( )No
If “Yes,” how many supervisors do you have at your school?
If “No,” do you feel the students need a supervisor? ( )Yes ( )No
15. Do you teach as well as supervise students? ( )Yes ( )No
16. Do you have a training room or related facility to teach clinical skills? ( )Yes ( )No Student 17. How would you rate your students learning motivation?
( )Excellent ( )Good ( )Fair ( )Poor ( )Very poor
18. Do they volunteer for additional experience as a student athletic trainer in other settings
such as teams or clinics? ( )Yes( )No
19. Do they try to gain certification after they graduate from school? ( )Yes ( )No
If “Yes,” what kind of certification is most common for Japanese AT students?
( )JASA Athletic trainer ( )NATA Athletic trainer ( )Acupuncturist ( )Judo therapist
( )PT ( )Massage therapist Others
20. Do the students gain employment as athletic trainers after graduation? ( )Yes ( )No
21. Do you think the demand of athletic trainers is increasing in Japan? ( )Yes ( )No Thank you for your cooperation.
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アスレティックトレーニング教育と資格に関する調査 大橋 由理子（Marshall University, Huntington, WV, USA）
＊ 質問に回答していただくか、最も当てはまるものに印をつけてください。
プログラム
1. 日本体育協会公認のアスレティックトレーニング(AT)のプログラムがありますか？
（ ）はい（ ）いいえ
「はい」と答えた方、今年度、何人の学生を AT プログラムの学生として認めましたか？
人
「いいえ」と答えた方、プログラムを立ち上げる予定ですか？ （ ）はい（ ）いいえ
2. 高等教育として、大学院の AT プログラムを作りたいと思いますか？ （ ）はい（ ）いいえ
3. AT 教育は、発展してきていると思いますか？ （ ）はい（ ）いいえ
4. AT 教育は、将来、日本での仕事に有利だと思いますか？ （ ）はい（ ）いいえ
5. アメリカの大学との提携 AT プログラムなどに興味がありますか？ （ ）はい（ ）いいえ
教育
6. AT プログラムの、必修専門科目はいくつですか？
7. AT プログラムの専門科目は何ですか？すべて選んでください。
（ ）人体解剖学 （ ）人体生理学 （ ）心理学 （ ）運動生理学 （ ）バイオメカニクス
（ ）アスレティックトレーニング入門 （ ）ズポーツ外傷・障害の評価（ ）スポーツ病症の評価
（ ）応急処置 （ ）公衆衛生 （ ）物理療法 （ ）運動療法 （ ）栄養学
（ ）アスレティックトレーニング管理
（ ）その他
8. AT プログラムには担当教官が何名ですか？ 常勤 男性 人 女性 人
非常勤 男性 人 女性 人
9. 担当教官は、どんな資格をお持ちですか？
（ ）医学博士（ ）鍼灸士（ ）理学療法士（ ）柔道整復士（ ）マッサージ士
（ ）日体協トレーナー（ ）ATC（NATA）（ ）CSCS（NSCA）（ ）保健体育教員免許
その他
10. 担当教官は、それぞれ何個の授業を教えていますか？ 個
11. AT の授業をもっと多くしたいですか？ （ ）はい（ ）いいえ
11. 「はい」と答えた方、どんな授業を立ち上げたいですか？
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実習
13. 学生は、学生トレーナーとして経験を積むための現場実習機関がありますか？
（ ）はい（ ）いいえ
「はい」と答えた方、次の質問に答えてください。
＊どんな実習機関ですか？
（ ）プロ（ ）企業チーム（ ）大学チーム（ ）高校（ ）病院・医療関係（ ）少年リーグ
その他
＊実習は単位として数えられますか？ （ ）はい（ ）いいえ
「いいえ」と答えた方、この経験が必要と思いますか？ （ ）はい（ ）いいえ
14. 学生の実習先には指導教官がいますか？ （ ）はい（ ）いいえ
「はい」と答えた方、あなたの学校には実習指導教官が何人いますか？ 人
｢いいえ｣と答えた方、実習指導教官が必要だと思いますか？ （ ）はい（ ）いいえ
15. あなたは、授業と、実習指導と両方を行っていますか？ （ ）はい（ ）いいえ
16. あなたの学校には、実習のための部屋や施設がありますか？ （ ）はい（ ）いいえ
学生
17. 学生の勉学に対するやる気はどうですか？
（ ）大変良い（ ）良い（ ）普通（ ）良くない（ ）大変良くない
18. 学生はトレーナーとしての活動に意欲的で、ボランティアとしてチームやクリニックで働こうとし
て
いますか？ （ ）はい（ ）いいえ
19. 学生は、卒業後に何か資格をとろうとしますか？ （ ）はい（ ）いいえ
「はい」と答えた方、一般的な資格は何ですか？
（ ）日体協トレーナー（ ）ATC (NATA)（ ）鍼灸士（ ）柔道整復士（ ）マッサージ士
（ ）理学療法士 その他
20. 学生は卒業後トレーナーとしての仕事に就けると思いますか？ （ ）はい（ ）いいえ
21. 日本でのトレーナーの需要は今後、増えると思いますか？ （ ）はい（ ）いいえ
何かコメントがありましたら、お願いします。
ご協力ありがとうございました。
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Appendix C
Pictures
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Tokai University
Main training room
Football training room
Handmade taping table
KinCom Modalities and treatment beds
Individual tapes
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Osaka University of Health and Sports
Taping table
Sciences
*This room connects to a weight room
Ice machine Whirlpool
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Nagoya Grampus Eight
Modality
Weight check
Thermotherapy
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Appendix D
Curriculum Vitae
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Yuriko Ohashi, ATC 大橋 由理子
332 12th Street #303 Huntington, WV 25701 (304) 697-2729 (Home) (304) 696-2329 (Work)
OBJECTIVE: To attain an athletic training internship position to expand my knowledge and experience
EDUCATION:
2001-Present Marshall University Huntington, WV Master of Science in Health and Physical Education
Emphasis in Athletic Training Anticipated graduation May 2003
2000-2001 University of Tennessee at Martin Martin, TN Post Bachelor of Arts in Health and Human Performance Emphasis in Athletic Training GPA 3.66/4.0
1995-1999 Osaka University of Health and Sport Sciences Osaka, Japan Bachelor of Arts Majoring in Sports Science Emphasis in Sports Medicine GPA 3.64/4.0 Graduated March 1999
EXPERIENCES:
2001-Present Graduate Assistant Athletic Trainer Marshall University
*Work in conjunction with head athletic trainer in prevention, evaluation, rehabilitation, education, and organization
*Primary Sport Responsibility: Men’s Soccer, Men’s & Women’s Track & Field, Women’s Volleyball, and Softball
*Additional Coverage: Football, Men’s & Women’s Basketball, Women’s Tennis *Assist in the education of student athletic trainers *Communicate with general and orthopedic physicians on a regular basis *Responsible for general record keeping
2000-2001 Student Athletic Trainer UT Martin
*Primary Sport Responsibility: Football *Additional Coverage: Women’s Basketball
1999-2000 Associate Athletic Trainer Tokyo Japan Onward Oaks Industrial & Commercial Football Team *Assisted head athletic trainer in prevention, rehabilitation, and organization *Conducted educational sessions for student athletic trainers
1999-2000 Physician Assistant Tatsumi Clinic, Japan
*Assisted Acupuncturist, Massage Therapist and Judo Therapist *Performed documentation for health insurance
1995-1999 Student Athletic Trainer Osaka, Japan Osaka University of Health and Sports Sciences Football Team
*Primary SAT 1996-1999 *Responsibility for team management, including travel, budget, and equipment maintenance *Member of college football association, student organization, and blue line
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OTHER EXPERIENCES:
Jan. 2003 Intern: HIT (High Intensity Training) Center Huntington, WV
Nov. 2002 GSAT: Mid American Conference Volleyball Tournament Ypsilanti, MI
June 2002 CPR /First Aid Provider: Summer Camp Huntington, WV
May. 2002 GSAT: Mid American Conference Outdoor Track and Field Championship Ypsilanti, MI
Feb. 2002 GSAT: Mid American Conference Indoor Track and Field Championship Bowling Green, OH
Dec. 1998 SAT: All-Star Game Football Osaka Japan
May 1997 SAT: Friendly Football Game with Canada Western Ontario University Osaka Japan RESEARCH:
Spring 2003 Thesis: “Current Trend in Athletic Training Education and Certification in Japan”
Research: “Acupuncture in Fracture Healing”
Spring 1999 Thesis: “The Study of Acute and Chronic Injuries of College Football Players” AFFILIATION/ CERTIFICATIONS:
2003-Present NATABOC Certified Athletic Trainer #040302053
2000-Present CPR/ First Aid Certification
2000-Present National Athletic Trainers’ Association Membership #986302
1999-Present Health and Physical Education Teaching Certification, Japan
1999-Present Sports Instructor of the Physically Handicapped Certification, Japan