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Proceedings of the Seminar on

CYBER SECURITY AND RADIATIONS EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH

Held on September 12 , 2018

in Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad

Organised by :

PAKISTAN NUCLEAR SOCIETY P.o. Box 1367,Islamabad ,Pakistan

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Contents

S.No. Description Authour/s pages ____________________________________________________________ 1. Foreword M. Ashraf Chaudry

2. Cyber Security Awareness Muhammad Tauheed

3. Effects of Ionizing Radiation on Asad Ejaz Goraya and

Human Health and Means of protection Syed Mishkat Ali

4. Seaborg Islands of Stability and M. Ashraf Chaudry

Discovery of New Elements

5. Seminar Summary M. Ashraf Chaudry

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Foreword

Pakistan Nuclear Society is a society of a spectrum of professionals from different scientific, engineering and technical backgrounds having been and are associated with nuclear field. The objectives of the society are to encourage education in nuclear science, engineering and allied disciplines, help enhance public safety related to nuclear activities and to establish contacts and collaboration with similar bodies, educational institutions and to create awareness about nuclear field benefits and risks. One day seminar on “Cyber Security and Radiation Effects on Human Health ” was arranged in Allama Iqbal Open University. Cyber security is becoming more and more difficult. Protecting the internet and online computerised systems from cyber attacks is a challenged task. The concerned authorities and the technical experts and officials looking after the day today dealing in banks ,water, power, communication, transportation sectors and those responsible in technical, defence and industrial organisations are quite worried about this. Cyberattack in Ukraine in 2015 on power plants to shut down in electricity supply is one example. Researchers have pointed out a number of vulnerabilities in automobiles, aeroplanes and medical devices and these may result into deadly consequences. A single vulnerability may affect millions of users in populated areas with routine water, gas and power supplies. With growing volumes and sophistication of cyberattacks, the threat is increasing. The work on prevention of such attacks to save computers databases, programs and networks from unauthorised access, attacks and related destructions is a matter of concern to address this critical issue in the governments and by the policy makers around the globe to keep E-governments, capital markets, corporates and other business concerns and above all the defence organisations going on safe and protected from the attacks of the hackers. In Pakistan under the present day critical security situation there is a great need to address cyber security problems and provide necessary protection measures. There is a need to train the people and the responsible ones in the field of cyber security and inform them about the vulnerabilities to basic concepts about such security and manage for a proper capacity building in this field including young ones, elders and parents as well. Radiations of different types are encountered in the nuclear industry, hospitals and at other places in emergencies. These radiations do have effects on human health. It is an essential act to apprise the all concerned about the benefits and dangers or hazards and how to escape from these. The radiations are there since the creation of universe, synthesis of basic particles, and then atoms of different elements and molecules and propagation life on this planet. These radiations have an effect on human life. New elements have influenced the human life by the way of creating new materials and producing energy to improve the quality of life on Earth. Those having and bestowed with such knowledge have ruled the world and are still ruling. Such a knowledge provides better standards of life, clue to the overall life of universe including stellar entities other than the Earth and possibilities of sustenance of life on these. Elements encompass the overall chemistry of all the processes taking place and their discovery leads to better sensing , monitoring, and control. The radiations emitted by different isotopes, which act as neutron source has provided characteristic secondary radiations when fall on soil on planets like that of Mar to provide electronic signals to Earth based laboratories through electromagnetic waves to provide analysis of the material there, which is a great achievement of human being.

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Radiations can have effect on human health as the nuclear radiations after absorbance may break or change the metabolic matter in living cells., may affect genetic structure., stop cell mitosis and may also impair repairing capacity of the living cells. The damage is proportional to the intensity of radiation and so the information about the type of radiations and the susceptible expected damage is essential to be imparted to those working and nonworking persons in our beloved country consisting of men and women. This is why PNS arranged this seminar in AIOU to transfer knowledge and information to the people of Pakistan. This publication is expected to serve a dual role or purpose of reference for those who managed to attend this seminar and benefit from the speakers lecture information and for those who could not do that due to their other engagements. The society wishes to express its deep appreciation to the learned speakers for their effort of delivering their lectures on PNS forum, The Society also acknowledges the participants and the interest taken by them in this activity. The Society also conveys its thanks and avail the opportunity to appreciate the role played by PNS and Physics Department of AIOU managing committee members for their efforte to make this event a success. Dr. Muhammad Ashraf Chaudry President Pakistan Nuclear Society

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By The Name Of Allah Subhana hu wa Taala, The Most Kind and the Most Merciful

Summary of the Seminar on Cyber Security and Radiations

Effects on Human Health

This seminar was held in the Faculty of Science auditorium of Allama Iqbal Open university, under the auspices of Pakistan Nuclear Society in collaboration with PAEC and PNRA on Wednesday the 12th September 2018. The main objective of this seminar was to create awareness about the peaceful uses of atomic energy and safety and security of general public. The key persons behind this activity were Dr. M. Ashraf Chaudry, The President Pakistan Nuclear Society and Professor Syed Zafar Ilyas. Chairman PAEC, Mr. Muhammad Naeem and Chairman, PNRA Dr. Zaheer Baig supported this activity to create awareness amongst students and teachers and in the civil society. A great number of scholars, scientists, engineers, professors and student and PNS members participated in this seminar. Professor Dr. Shahid Siddiqui, the Vice Chancellor of AIOU was invited as Chief Guest. Mr Parvez Butt, the former Chairman PAEC was there as guest of honour. The Vice Chancellor Mr. Shahid Siddiqui stressed the need for such seminars and workshops for creating awareness among masses and expressed his full support for such activities, specially related to economic development to cope with the related problems, the country is facing now. Dr Zafar Ilyas, The Dean of Sciences supported the objectives of PNS and described the services of Physics Department 0f AIOU to impart education to the students. Dr. M. Ashraf Chaudry and Md Farhat Waqar the Secretary General, PNS told about the objectives of PNS and appreciated the efforts of the PNS and Physics Department teams, who worked hard to hold this seminar successfully. Among the participants were, Mr. Shahid, M.D., PAEC Foundation, Dr Naseeb Choudhry, Mr Waqar Butt, Mr Zeeshan, Dr, Abid Aleem and Fawad Mohyuddin, Dr Shahid Amin, Zahid Rasheed and Dr. Shair from AIOU. Mr. Asad Ijaz, a professional physicist from PNRA delivered an impressive lecture on Radiation Effects on Human Health. He talked about the sources of radiations, the types of radiations, their toxic effects on human health and the measures to be taken to protect the workers and the public at large. Mr. Muhammad Tauheed talked about the cyber problems , the effects on school children plus the elders and dangers to their safety and security. He also expressed the need to protect the data and stop its pilferage through illegal leaks and protection measures to be adopted. He proposed to select and pick up young intelligent students and personals from educational institutions and train them in the field of cyber security. Dr M. Ashraf Chaudry informed about Dr Glenn T. Seaborg, the former US atomic energy Chairman (1961-68), the Nobel Laureate and described his contributions to nuclear science and technology and discovery of new elements and their benefits in the service of mankind. He told that by this time the total number of elements existing on earth is 118. Out of these 92 elements are naturally existing on the Earth. The rest of these elements are manmade. He talked about artificial radioactivity and its effects on society and the synthetic routes to make new elements. It is expected per prediction of Seaborg Islands of stability in the Periodic Table of Elements that more than 170 elements may be synthesised with the passage of time. Most of them will be very short lived and difficult to detect and identify. He described the benefits of these elements for the benefit of mankind. Mr. Parvez Butt at the end appreciated this activity in AIOU and expressed his ideas about the seminar. According to him bilingual and multilingual persons are more intelligent. He appreciated the participants and the speakers to make this seminar a useful activity for general public awareness.

CYBER SECURITY AWARENESS

The growth of computers, information systems, internet and mobile networks have

brought the biggest social and technological change in our lifetime. Our increasing

dependence on cyberspace has brought new risks that the key data and systems on

which we now rely can be compromised or damaged, in a way that are hard to detect

or defend against.

Cyber Security comprises technologies, processes and controls that are designed to

protect systems, networks and data from cyber-attacks.

On global scale cyber security breaches are occurring on continuous basis. These

breaches are affecting each and every working sector like state offices, banks,

hospitals, education centers, industry, defense etc. According to report by Center for

Strategic and International Studies, the global economic impact of cybercrime is

approximately $600 billion.

Region (World Bank)

Region GDP (USD, trillions)

Cybercrime Cost (USD, billions)

Cybercrime Loss (%GDP)

North America 20.2 140 to 175 0.69 to 0.87%

Europe and Central Asia

20.3 160 to 180 0.79 to 0.89%

East Asia & the Pacific

22.5 120 to 200 0.53 to 0.89%

South Asia 2.9 7 to 15 0.24 to 0.52%

Latin America and the Caribbean

5.3 15 to 30 0.28 to 0.57%

Sub-Saharan Africa

1.5 1 to 3 0.07 to 0.20%

Middle East and North Africa

3.1 2 to 5 0.06 to 0.16%

World $75.8 trillions $445 to $608 billions 0.59 to 0.80%

It’s estimated that cybercrime will cost approximately $6 trillion per year on average

through 2021. That’s a massive figure, one that is almost impossible for most people

to imagine.

It is an estimate that by the end of year 2019, there will be global shortage of 2 million

manpower in the field of cyber security.

Muhammad Tauheed

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To fight the cybercrime and to make their institutes and organizations more resilient to

cyber-attacks, different countries have invested a huge amount in this field. The table

below shows a brief picture of publicly available budgets.

Sr. # Country Budget Reference

1 USA $28 Billion (2018)

http://www.fifthdomain.com/civilian/2017/09/01/how-much-does-federal-government-spend-on-cybersecurity/

2 South Korea

$8.77 Billion (2016-17)

http://www.securityweek.com/south-korea-beefs-cyber-security

3 UK $2.8 Billion (2016-20)

http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/osborne-seek-1-9bn-cybersecurity-budget-face-isis-threats-1529060

4 France $1.25 Billion (2016-19)

http://www.reuters.com/article/france-cyberdefence/france-to-invest-1-billion-euros-to-update-cyber-defences-idUSL5N0LC20140207

5 Russia $500 Million (2016)

http://www.scmagazineuk.com/500-million-for-new-russian-cyber-army/article.381720

6 Canada $178.4 Million (2015)

http://www.welivesecurity.com/2015/04/22/Canada-commits-36-4-million-cybersecurity-measures-2015-budget http://www.ctvnews.ca/politics.government-announces-142m-to-beef-up-canadian-cybersecurity-1.2481816

7 Japan $141.9 Million (2014)

http://archive.defensenews.com/article/20130709/DEFREG03/307090007/Experts-Japan-s-New-Cyber-Unit-Understaffed-Lacks-Skills

8 India $234.9 Million (2018-19)

http://www.india.com/news/india/budget-2018-19-government-may-allocate-funds-for-cyber-security-2833070/

9 Iran $19.8 Million (2015)

http://thehill.com/policy/cybersecurity/236627-Iranian-leader-has-boosted-cyber-spending-12-fold

At an event hosted by Retired American Warriors in October 2016, Donald Trump

(then presidential candidate) said “Attacks like these are happening on a regular basis

both in the United States and around the world. I will make certain that our military is

the best in the world — in cyber offense and defense — and in every other way, by

the way, every other way.”

Cyber breaches are sponsored by terrorists, criminals, some want-to-be hacker and

sometimes by the states themselves. Among these breaches the following names

have changed the way the world in looking at cyber security. These breaches have

costed the loss of billions of dollars and in case of Stuxnet it was national strategic

loss.

PRISM program (2007 – present)

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PRISM is a program of US National Security Agency (NSA) to collect private electronic

data belonging to users of major internet services like Gmail, Facebook, Outlook, and

others. It was launched in 2007. The program objective is to collect internet

communications from at least nine major US internet companies. Edward Snowden, a

29-year-old intelligence contractor formerly employed by the NSA and CIA, confessed

responsibility for leaking the PRISM documents.

(Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PRISM_(surveillance_program) )

Stuxnet (2010)

Stuxnet is a PC worm, first discovered in 2010. It is believed to have been in

development since at least 2005, Stuxnet targets SCADA systems and is believed to

be responsible for causing considerable destruction to Iran's atomic program.

Stuxnet does little or no harm to computers not involved in uranium enrichment. When

it infects a computer, it checks to see if that computer is connected to specific models

of programmable logic controllers (PLCs) manufactured by Siemens. PLCs are how

computers interact with and control industrial machinery like uranium centrifuges. The

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worm then alters the PLCs' programming, resulting in the centrifuges being spun too

quickly and for too long, damaging or destroying the delicate equipment in the process.

While this is happening, the PLCs tell the controller computer that everything is

working fine, making it difficult to detect or diagnose what's going wrong until it's too

late.

(Source: http://www.symantec.com/connect/blogs/exploring-stuxnet-s-plc-infection-process)

Yahoo Data Breach (2013)

An epic and historic data breach at Yahoo in August 2013 affected every single

customer account that existed at the time (3 Billion Accounts) by breaching names,

email addresses and passwords, but not financial information. Yahoo disovered this

in 2017.

(Source: https://money.cnn.com/2017/10/03/technology/business/yahoo-breach-3-billion-

accounts/index.html)

Global Surveillance Disclosures (2013 – present)

The Pentagon said that Edward Snowden committed the biggest theft of U.S. secrets

in history, downloading about 1.7 million intelligence files, including information that

could put personnel in jeopardy. It is believed that he did this by illegally copying files

in the USB / Memory card.

(Source: https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-01-09/pentagon-finds-snowden-took-1-7-

million-files-rogers-says)

Sony Pictures Hack (2014)

On November 24, 2014, hacker group which identified itself by the name "Guardians

of Peace" (GOP) leaked a release of confidential data from the film studio Sony

Pictures. The data included personal information about Sony Pictures employees and

their families, e-mails between employees, information about executive salaries at the

company, copies of then-unreleased Sony films, and other information.

(Source: https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/18/world/asia/us-links-north-korea-to-sony-

hacking.html?_r=0)

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Ukraine Power Grid (2015)

The December 2015 Ukraine power grid cyberattack took place on 23 December 2015

and is considered to be the first known successful cyberattack on a power grid.

Hackers were able to successfully compromise information systems of three energy

distribution companies in Ukraine and temporarily disrupt electricity supply to the end

consumers. 30 substations were switched off, and about 230 thousand people were

left without electricity for a period from 1 to 6 hours.

(Source: https://www.symantec.com/blogs/threat-intelligence/wannacry-ransomware-attack)

Equifax Data Breach (2017)

Cyber criminals had accessed approximately 145.5 million U.S. Equifax consumers'

personal data, including their full names, Social Security numbers, credit card

information, birth dates, addresses, and, in some cases, driver license numbers.

(Source: https://www.consumer.ftc.gov/blog/2017/09/equifax-data-breach-what-do)

WannaCry (2017)

WannaCry ransomware struck across the globe in May 2017. It searches for and

encrypts 176 different file types and appends .WCRY to the end of the file name. It

asks users to pay a US$300 ransom in bitcoins. One of the largest agencies struck by

the attack was the National Health Service hospitals in England and Scotland.

(~70,000 devices)

(Source: https://www.symantec.com/blogs/threat-intelligence/wannacry-ransomware-attack)

Facebook Hack (2018)

Facebook admitted in 2018 that public data of its 87 million users has been

compromised. It comes after the Observer revealed that Cambridge Analytica, which

worked with Donald Trump’s election team, acquired millions of profiles of US citizens

and used the data to build a software program to predict and influence voters.

Facebook discovered the information had been harvested in late 2015 but failed to

alert users at the time.

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(Source: https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/apr/08/facebook-to-contact-the-87-million-

users-affected-by-data-breach)

US Energy Sector (2018)

Trump administration blamed the Russian government for a campaign of cyber-attacks

stretching back at least two years that targeted the US power grid. Beginning in March

2016, or possibly earlier, Russian government hackers sought to penetrate multiple

US critical infrastructure sectors, including energy, nuclear, commercial facilities,

water, aviation and manufacturing.

(Source: http://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-russia-sanctions-energygrid/in-a-first-u-s-blames-

russia-for-cyber-attacks-on-energy-grid-idUSKCN1GR2G3)

In nuclear power field, the following two incidents have occurred recently.

Korean Nuclear Power Plants (2014)

The hackers gained access by sending phishing emails to the owner-operator’s

employees, some of whom clicked on the links and downloaded the malware. The

hackers obtained the blueprints and manuals of two reactors as well as electricity flow

charts, personal data belonging to some 10,000 of the company’s employees, and

radiation exposure estimates for inhabitants in the surrounding area.

Data were leaked over Twitter from an account purported to belong to the head of an

anti-nuclear group in Hawaii. Hackers also warned Korea Hydro and Nuclear Power

Co. to shut down three reactors or face ‘destruction’. (EMPTY THREAT). Hackers

demanded money in order to not to release more data.

(Source: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/dec/22/south-korea-nuclear-power-cyber-attack-

hack)

Nuclear 17 (2017)

Series of cyber-attacks affected multiple nuclear power plants in USA. Business

networks of these plants were breached by hackers and they got the information which

can be used to launch some large scale attack against these plants. The exact name

of plants and source of cyber-attacks are not disclosed yet.

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(Source: https://www.businessinsider.com/nuclear-power-plant-breached-cyberattack-2017-6)

In Pakistan the cases of cybercrime and cyber harassment are on the rise. The

criminals have hacked websites, social media accounts, banks’ ATM networks,

organizational networks etc. Government of Pakistan has established National

Response Center for Cyber Crime (NR3C) under Federal Investigation Agency (FIA)

to fight the cybercrime. Online complaint can be filled on

http://www.nr3c.gov.pk/creport.php. Following are few famous incidents:

Pakistan’s Fax Machine (2010)

Fax machines installed at Pakistan’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs and embassies around

the world used to send out a copy of every fax to an undisclosed location in 2010. The

fax machines were gifted by a ‘friendly country.’

(Source: http://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/5321-fax-machine-spied-on-pakistans-diplomatic-offices)

Pakistani Routers Hacked (2015)

Edward Snowden revealed on 5th October 2015 that the UK government acquired

vast amounts of communications data from inside Pakistan by secretly hacking into

routers manufactured by the US Company, Cisco. Apparently British government did

it to track down the terrorists. Snowden also revealed that British spies can hack

phones with a simple text message and make audio recordings or take photos without

owner’s knowledge.

(Source: http://tribune.com.pk/story/968194/uk-hacked-routers-to-monitor-pakistan-communications-

data-snowden/)

Facebook Accounts Hack (2015)

200 females were coerced in to paying money in a scandal involving Facebook

account hacking. The hacker black-mailed them to post their private data. Most of

them are said to be lady doctors affiliated with five hospitals of Lahore.

(Source: http://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/7616-200-Punjab-women-bacame-victim-of-facebook-

scandal)

Pakistan Government Website Hacked (2017)

The Pakistani government website was on 03 August 2017 reportedly hacked briefly

by unknown hackers who posted the Indian national anthem and Independence Day

greetings.

“Freedom in the Mind, Faith in the words…Pride in our Souls… Let’s salute those

great men, who made this possible”.

(Source: http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/Pakistan/Pakistan-govt-website-hacked-indian-

national-anthem-posted/articleshow/59901803.cms)

HBL ATMs (2017)

In November, December 2017 hackers got access to HBL ATMs and looted the

customers’ money. FIA cybercrime kicked of the investigations following complaints

about HBL which acknowledged that around 600 customers across the country have

lost close to Rs 10 million in the cyberattacks.

(Source: http://tribune.com.pk/story/1574702/2-beware-hackers-going-atms-Pakistan/)

Due to increase in use of internet and specifically social media, the hackers are now

targeting the social media accounts of the end users. Social media accounts are

valuable to hackers. They can use them to send spam messages, spread malware,

and steal identities in the quest to acquire information for their own benefits.

Although there are some technical ways like firewalls, antivirus, etc. to protect the

computers and mobile phones, but human beings remains the weakest link in the

cyber security vulnerability chain.

The only way to fight the cybercrime is to adopt a principle known as PAUSE, THINK,

and ACT.

PAUSE: Take the time to think about what you are going to do? What is the worst

thing that could happen?

THINK: How you’re going to do it? Is it the secure way?

ACT: Act in the most secure way. Stop if can’t be done securely. Follow good

practices.

These practice include but are not limited to the following:

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Keep strong passwords

Install Antivirus

Keep your system up-to-date

Don’t click on unknown links

Don’t open emails from unknown sources

Check privacy and security settings

Be careful what you post

Don’t post too much personal information online

Everyone is in the cyberspace today. Everyone has cell phone, laptop, email, social

media etc. Therefore, we need to start the cyber security education at primary level.

The cyber security awareness should be given to people in all walks of life.

For further understanding, the following books can be studied.

Inside Cyber Warfare: Mapping the Cyber Underworld (Jeffrey Carr: 2009)

No Place to Hide: Edward Snowden, the NSA, and the U.S. Surveillance State

(Glenn Greenwald: 2014)

Surveillance Valley: The Secret Military History of the Internet (Yasha Levine:

2018)

Further, the following documentaries and talks can also be listened.

Snowden (2016) https://www.imdb.com/title/tt3774114

Zero Days (2016) https://www.imdb.com/title/tt5446858

Ralph Langner: Cracking Stuxnet, a 21st Century Cyber Weapon

(https://www.ted.com/talks/ralph_langner_cracking_stuxnet_a_21st _century_cyberweapon/)

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Effects of Ionizing Radiation on Human Health and Means of Protection Asad Ejaz Goraya, Syed Mishkat Ali Jafri

asad.ejaz@pnra.org, s.mishkat@pnra.org

Pakistan Nuclear Regulatory Authority (PNRA), P. O. Box 1912, Islamabad

Abstract

Ionizing radiation is a type of energy released by atoms in the form of electromagnetic waves or particles. People are exposed to natural sources of ionizing radiation, such as cosmic, radon, etc., as well as man-made sources, such as x-rays and radioactive sources used in medicine, industries, etc. Ionizing radiation has many beneficial applications in medicine, industry, agriculture and research. As the use of ionizing radiation is increasing, so there is a possibility of health hazards if radiation are not properly used or contained. Acute health effects such as skin burns or acute radiation syndrome can occur when doses of radiation exceed certain levels, which are called Deterministic Effects. Low doses of ionizing radiation can increase the risk of longer term effects such as cancer, which are called Stochastic Effects. This risk of radiation can be minimized by following the radiation safety principles and some relevant safety instructions. This paper, describes the sources of ionizing radiation, possible hazards and precautionary measures for protecting radiation workers, public and environment from harmful effects of ionizing radiations.

1. Introduction to Radiation Radiation is a form of energy that propagates in the shape of waves or streams of particles. There are many kinds of radiation all around us, like ordinarily light, sound, heat, ultraviolet, ultrasound, microwaves, electromagnetic waves (radio, TV, mobile, wireless signals etc.), X-rays, Gamma, alpha, beta particles, etc. All these radiation are generally classified as ionizing or non-ionizing. The radiation which has enough energy to knock electrons off atoms that it interacts with, as well as being able to do lower-energy damage such as breaking chemical bonds in molecules are called ionizing radiation e.g. alpha, beta, gamma, X-rays, neutron, etc. Other radiation that have lower energies and have no ionization ability are called non-ionizing radiation e.g. light, sound, heat, ultrasound, electromagnetic waves (radio, TV, mobile, wireless signals, etc.), microwaves, etc. as shown in figure 1[1].

Figure 1: Electromagnetic Spectrum

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There are two sources of ionizing radiation: natural and man-made. Natural sources include” Cosmic radiation, Terrestrial radiation, Radon gas and others (like radiation sources inside human body, drinking water and edible items). The radiation dose received from natural sources is very low. However, its level varies all around the world. The man-made sources include radiation from nuclear installations, medical, industries, agricultural, research activities involving radiation generators/sources. In routine process, the radiation dose to the public from these practices/facilities is below the dose received from natural sources. If any radiological/nuclear accident takes place in these facilities, then there is chance that radiation workers and/or general public may be exposed to high radiation, although the probability of such events is very low [2]. 2. Cell Biology

Ionizing radiation, which is caused by unstable atoms giving off energy to reach a more stable state, is more of a health threat to humans because it involves changing the basic structure of atoms in cells, and more specifically the DNA molecules inside cells. It does, take a very strong dose of radiation to substantially damage a cell’s structure, as there can be trillions of atoms in a single cell. Ionizing radiation may damage the cell by their direct or in-direct action. In direct action, the radiation directly hit the DNA strands, basis (adenine, guanine etc.). and deposit some/all of its energy in it. In the in-direct action, the radiation firstly hit the water molecules present in the cell and generates free radicals in the form of H and OH as shown in figure 2. These radicals then damage/destroy the DNA. During recombination of free radicals, there is also possibility of production of hydrogen per oxide (H2O2) inside the cell which may also damage the DNA if found nearby [3].

Figure 2: Interaction of radiation with the DNA

Ionizing radiation has sufficient energy to affect the atoms in living cells and thereby damage their genetic material (DNA). Fortunately, the cells in our bodies are extremely efficient at repairing this damage. However, if the damage is not repaired correctly, a cell may die or eventually become cancerous. When a cell absorbs radiation, there are four possible effects on the cell, which may result in following situations:

The cell may suffer enough damage to cause loss of proper function, and the cell may die;

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The cell may lose its ability to reproduce itself;

The cell’s genetic code (i.e. the DNA) may be damaged such that future copies of the cell are altered, which may result in cancerous growth;

Mostly, the absorption of radiation by a cell does not cause any adverse effects [4].

3. Cell Sensitivity

All cells of our body are not equally sensitive to radiation, some cells are highly sensitive e.g. bone marrow, small intestines, hair, fetus, reproductive organs cells, etc., whereas, some have medium sensitivity e.g. skin, Inner-layer of intestines, eyes cells, etc. and some cells have low sensitivity e.g. muscle, joints, central nerves, fat, brain cells, etc. As a thumb rule, the rapidly dividing cells are most sensitive and slowly dividing cells are less sensitive to ionizing radiation[3].

4. Deterministic and Stochastic Effects

Extreme doses of radiation to the whole body (around 10 Sv and above), received in a short period, may cause so much damage to internal organs and tissues of the body that vital systems cease to function and may occur death within days or weeks. Very high absorb dose (between 1-10 Gy), received in a short period, kill large numbers of cells, which can impair the function of vital organs and systems. Acute health effects, such as nausea, vomiting, skin and deep tissue burns, and impairment of the body’s ability to fight against infection may result within hours, days or weeks as shown in Table 1. The extent of the damage increases with dose. These effects are called 'deterministic’ effects and will not be observed at doses below certain thresholds as shown in figure 3. By limiting doses to levels below the thresholds, deterministic effects can be prevented entirely [4].

Table 1: Doses and the deterministic effects

Stochastic effects of ionizing radiation are chance events, and probability of the effects increases with dose, but the severity of the effect is independent of the dose received. Existing philosophy is that stochastic effect occurrence follows a linear no-threshold hypothesis as shown in figure 3. Stochastic effects occur due to the ionizing radiation effect of symmetrical translocations taking place during cell division, e.g. Cancer, Hereditary Defects [5].

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Absorbed dose (Gy) Dose equivalent (Sv)

Figure 3: Stochastic and deterministic effects There is evidence that a dose accumulated over a long period carries less risk than the same dose received over a short period. Some people have misconception that cancer only occur due to exposure to ionizing radiation. There are a number of causes of cancer e.g. smoking, alcohol, drugs, polluted air/water, hormones, immunosuppressant, infectious agents, obesity, sunlight, ionizing radiation, etc. [6]. 5. Regulatory Dose Limits

Pakistan Nuclear Regulatory Authority (PNRA) has established annual dose limits for the workers, public and others (shown in Table 2) which are quite lower than the possibility of radiation effects and the same are being ensured during regulatory inspections of facilities and activities [7].

Table 2: Annual dose limits

6. Radiation Protection

Three basic and easy to follow principles of radiation protection are time, distance, and shielding. Radiation workers can greatly reduce their exposure by following these principles. As the length of time a worker is exposed to radiation increases, the dose received increases in direct proportion. It is advised to reduce the working time in radiation area and avoid unnecessary stay. The most effective of the principles is distance. The farther a person is from the source the less intense the radiation source is. When the distance from the source is doubled, the intensity at the new distance is only 1/4th of the original intensity, it means that Radiation follow inverse square law. When the use of the time and distance principles is not possible, shielding should always be used. Wearing protective lead shielding during the work with ionizing radiation, reduces the dose to the workers. Shielding materials for different types of radiation are different as shown in figure 4 [8].

paper Thin board such

as aluminum

Thin board such as lead

water, concrete,

etc.

20

Figure 4: Penetration power of various radiation

References

[1].https://www.mirion.com/introduction-to radiation-safety/what-is-radiation/ [2].https://www.nj.gov/dep/rpp/llrw/download/fact03.pdf [3].Radiation Biology: A Handbook for Teachers and Students, Training Course Series No. 42 [4].https://www.arpansa.gov.au/understanding-radiation/what-is-radiation/ionising-radiation / health-effects [5].https://copublications.greenfacts.org/en/security-scanners/l-3/5-health-effect radiation. htm [6].https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/ causes-prevention/risk [7]."Regulations on Radiation Protection (PAK/904)" [8].http://www.who.int/ionizing_radiation/pub_meet/chapter2.pdf

21

Seaborg Islands of Stability and Discovery of New Elements

Dr. M. Ashraf Chaudry Former Chief Scientist, Pakistan Atomic energy Commission, Islamabad

The elements play an important role in the life of humans, animals and plants. The study of the elements is the basis to understand the chemistry and the related reactions. The discovery of new elements opens clue to universe history of universe , the similarity of constituents on different stars and planets ,the radiations emitted, their effect on life and use in industry and energy sectors. In this article the elements existing on earth, their stability and life and discovery in the light of Seaborg predicted regions of stability have been described. Synthesis techniques of heavy and super heavy elements and their predicted properties are presented. The knowledge of the processes to detect and discover new elements enhances our knowledge for their use and protection from the various radiations and their applications. The periodic table, present and previous, are also presented.

There have been continuous attempts to find new elements. Up to 1986 the heaviest known element was with atomic number 109 Isotopes of the element. In the uppermost elements region half- lives are very short in the range of milliseconds and are produced by bombardments of heavy ions but with very small yields. Theoretical predictions indicated a region of super heavy elements (e.g. of atomic number 108-120)in an island of stability having enough stability and yield to allow their study after their synthesis but it was not known about the possible predictable nuclear reactions to synthesize on Earth(1). Decay of elements by spontaneous fission becomes of more value after element with Z=106. The alpha particle decay facilitates detection by using genetic relationships of the elements with its alpha emitting daughters(4,5). The history of nucleosynthesis started after discovery of nuclear fission by Atto Hahn and Lise Meitner in 1934. In 1938 the discovery of nuclear fission took place by these scientists through the Reaction (1). 235U 92 + 1n → 236U*92 → 90Kr36 + 144Ba56 + 1n + 1n 1

22

the Universe and provide us greater insight into quantum mechanics. Above is the photograph of the

great chemists who have made advances in nuclear chemistry. The present periodic table is provided

below but it is still incomplete and its completion is still far ahead.

The work on SHEs help us to understand the way nuclei are bound and the how they become more stable to resist their breakage or fission . The information obtained from the study for the discovery of heavy elements can lead to be applied to many associated problems in a variety of applications, from nuclear energy to environment protection. An enhanced understanding of the synthesis and fission of the SHEs will enable to improve the safety and reliability of the nation’s security and nuclear reactors.

Some of the elements are already used in applications such as smoke detectors (Americium), neutron radiography. Practical applications may yet be found for elements 113 upward. Work for discovering SHEs help in understanding.

·

23

Seaborg Predicted Island of Stability

Discovery of the first synthetic element in 1940 opened the way of search beyond uranium

in nature. Scientists associated with Manhattan Project were interested in the availability of

Np and Pu in the naturally occurring minerals. It is thought by physicists that after a number

of elements with short half- lives, there will be other elements with longer half lives. These

are generally known as Islands of stability.Professor Seaborg predicted the regions or

islands of stability based on the predictions of the different scientists working to search new

elements(4)

• Seaborg predicted that the islet of Z=106, 107 ,108 and 109 could be

extended and it has been extended by this time. Based on theoretical

predictions (4) a range of super heavy elements (e.g. Z=108-120) Seaborg

predicted as the island of Stability with sufficient stability and yield for their

study if these could have been synthesised.

• Synthesis reactions may have been with the bombardment with relatively

high –Z heavy ions or with prompt neutron capture and predicted a number

of heavy new elements.

Efforts to synthesis new elements have been made in USA, Russia and Germany and by this time Elements up to atomic number 118 have been synthesized and research work for still higher Z is going on.

24

.

Different elements occur in different concentrations in the Earth system. We can

classify elements on the basis of concentration in nature. For uncommon elements

(minor and trace), we usually cite abundance in ppm (parts per million). I part per

million would be the equivalent of 1 milligram per 1 kilogram.

Origin of Matter and Primordial Nucleosynthesis

Universe was created by Allah (SWT). Big Bang theory says that there was a

quantum soup plasma composed of elementary particles and radiations. The

particles were quarks, gluons, electrons, neutrons, photons. Quarks are bits of

matter. Gluons are the same but keep protons and neutrons together. In the first 10

μs, neutrons and Protons are formed. Plasma-like state composed of elementary

particles and radiation (quark-gluon plasma, electrons, neutrinos and photons were

there.

All the particles were in thermal equilibrium. Universe was dominated by

electromagnetic radiation .Distinction between radiation and matter was not possible.

Relation between matter and radiation/energy is

E=mc2

At time,t ≈ 10–5 s , the temperature,T is ≈ 1013 oK ,the formation of the first

nucleons (Baryogenesis) was there. For T < 1 GeV, the created nucleons can no

longer be destroyed by photons.

For ucleosyt ≈ 1 s: Beginning neucleosynthesis. The particles of matter are of energy in the

order of 1MeV

• t ≈ 1 s: T ≈ 1010

K; E ≈ 1 MeV

The expansion rate of the early universe is a very critical parameter for the first

nucleosynthesis processes (primordial nucleosynthesis). When the number of high-

energy photons is small enough, the synthesis of nuclei heavier than A = 2 can proceed in

fusion reactions.The nucleons condensed to matter First elements were formed

millions years ago.The elements formed were radioactive and not stable, changing

from one to other. This process is still on. ½ of them have changed and have taken

4.5x109 years to change the residue on the Earth. Half Life is a characteristic of an

element.

25

One of the unstable element is uranium and it is converted to ultimate stable element lead(Pb) through the following

process disintegration process.

U →Th → Pa → -------------- → Ra(HL=1602y) → Pb(stable) 2

Search of Trans uranium elements in Natural Minerals and Radioactivity

Some materials have such elements which give rise to certain radiations and

disintegrate. This process or phenomenon is called radioactivity

Materials, like granite also have radioactive constituents. Sea water do have U and

Th like elements . The unstable elements give rise to radioactivity. Bricks, concrete

and rocks etc. contain radioactive elements. Radioactivity is from cosmic rays, soil,

sea water, stones and bricks. It is present in sea water.Sea water volume is equal to

nearly1.37x 109 Km3 Radioactivity in sea =500 million-million Curies, Radioactivity

emission gives rise to provide α,β and ϒ (gamma radiations).

Search for trans uranium elements, Np and Pu started 1940. Pu is found in

minerals in the

weight ratio of 10-11 and is equal to weight of Pu / weight of U. Pu 239 has a

HL=24400 years.

HL of U235 is =7.1x109 years. So the search for new elements was to be carried out

of earth and sea materials.

Extra-terrestrial matter is hitting the Earth and so the isotopes found in them should

provide clue to the life of these planet .and it can be calculated from their half-life

(HL) if these were created after solar system or before. It can also be known that the

matter is part of solar or some other trresial system.

U235 and U238 emit alpha radiations by the following nuclear reaction.

92U238 →

90Th238 + 2 He4 3

Similarly Po emits alpha particles

84Po210 → 82Pb206+ 2 He4 4

Artificial radioactivity is a way to synthesize new elements and isotopes. If neutrons,

protons or alpha particles or other ions are bombarded at a very high speed on the

other materials or elements, it gives rise to emission of radiation and other nuclei

are formed, as shown below.

13Al27 +

0n1 → 11Na24+ 2He4 5

11Na24 + β- → 12Mg24+ 1e0 6

26

β- emission ends in an increase of Z and positron emission to decrease in its value

by one number.

Elements on Earth and Atomic Constituents

The Earth and its atmosphere contain elements in elemental as well as molecular

forms and may be in gas, liquid and solid states of matter, which consists of atoms.

Atoms are made of nucleus and outer orbitals with electrons. Neutrons (N) and

protons(Z )are in the nucleus.

Mass of an electron is equal to 9.11x10-31Kg and the mass of a proton is equal to

1.67x10 -27 Kg. Mass of a proton/mass of an electron=1836

Most of the mass is contained in the nucleus. Mass of P and n are nearly the same.

Charge on proton, P or H+ = charge on an electron.

Chemical and Nuclear Reactions

Chemical reactions are due to exchange or sharing the electrons by the same or

different atoms of elements in extra nuclear orbitals. Nuclear reactions are involving

nucleons

Atomic number of an element is represented by Z and the atomic weight by A, while

the neutron number is represented by N. Reactions shown above in Eqs,(2-6) are

nuclear reactions.

Isotopes of Heavy Elements

Isotopes are the atoms of the same element having the same number of protons but

with different number of neutrons. Isotopes of upper most region beyond Z=109

possess half lives in milliseconds range . These are produced by heavy ions

bombardments and their yields are low . e.g. one atom per week for element of

Z=109 isotopes. Fusion of bombardinf projectiles and target nuclei give rise to

compound nucleus,which then may convert to SHEs after emitting alpha particles,

New Elements

The characteristics of new elements are such as that their life ≈ 10-14 seconds the

minimum, should have different Z and of different N. Their identification by

chemical and physical technique is to be possible. Their confirmation by experiment

also be possible. Their values of Z and N be verified and after that the name be

allotted by IPAUC.

Synthesis Methods

The possible synthesis methods are described below.

27

Bombarding a target by n , p or ionic nuclei

Through slow process or s-process

Through rapid process or r- process

Neutrons exposure in stellar processes and in thermonuclear processes.

The conditions of these first three processes are provided below.and have been

acquired from Ref.(4). R-process is supposed to occur in Red Giant phase of steller

evolution,while the r-process may e the characteristic of super nova explosion. In

the latter successive neutrons addition,with some beta decay.

Derived from Ref.(4)

In the Fig,1the nuclear reactions for the production of heavy elements through slow

process is provided. Such reactions are possible in hot tests after fission has taken

place.After addition of some neutrons there is beta decay to produce new element

with the value of one plus atomic number. In the following figure Z has been plotted

against A,the atomic mass and is derived from Ref.(4).

28

Fif.2:Derived from Ref.(4)

In the following Fig.2 the neutrons capture path s for s and r processes are provided.

29

Fig.2:Derived from Ref.(4)

In the Fig.3 the isotopes produed by sequential neutron capture in case of 238

Utargets exposed to underground nuclear processof very high energy (work of

Professor Seaborg)have been shown.It can be seen that elements of Z=

106.104.102,100,98,96,94 i.e.even numbers show more capcity to have more

number of neutrons copared to the odd number Z element and are more stable,

30

Derived from Ref.(4)

Shell Structure and Islands of Stability

The electronic shells structure and nuclear shell structure help to predict the

possibility of SHEs synthesis. It is supposed that like shell structure in the extra

nucleus electronic volume the nucleons i.e. protons and neutrons do have shells and

the shells are supposed to be complete. If the shells are not complete or not closed,

the super heavy elements will possess very low half-lives and may decay by

spontaneous fission and will be difficult to detect.The elements with even value of Z

have 2 or 8 nucleons and are considered more stable due to completion of the outer

shells compared to odd number Z elements and are unstable due to incomplete

shells and may disintegrate and are liable to spontaneous fission.

Based on the theoretical calculations and extrapolating known parameters for

actinides and lanthanides the existence of possible closed shells have been

predicted in the regions of super heavy elements. Predictions by Seaborg and

other scientists presented a range of atomic numbers having more stability with

reasonable half life of the elements, sufficient to be identified and detected, called

the island of

Stability. As such elements with Z=108 to 120 are considered to provide sufficient

stability and yield for study. Magic and doubly magic elements and their isotopes will

31

be more stable. Z= 110-120 is the first island of stability and the elements with

Z=164 and or near 164 fall in another predicted island of stability. In both of these

regions alpha decay and fission fragmentation is there and study of physical and

chemical properties are the main tools to detect and identify supper heavy elements

(SHEs).Fif.4 indicates the regions of stability along with sea of instability.

Derived from Ref.(4)

Magic Numbers and Nucleons Arrangements and the Nucleus stability

The neutrons and protons are separately arranged in shells in in an atomic

nucleus. It is supposed that when shells are complete there is a definite number of

nucleons separately to provide stability to elements nucleus. These numbers are

called magic numbers and these are,

• 2,8,20,28,50,82,126 for protons and correspond to elements,

• He, O, Ca, Ni, Sn, Pb , Bi and Unbihexium

If the value of Z and N are magic number the nucleus is called a double magic

number nucleus and is expected to be quite stable . Their average bonding energies

are high and the nucleus is supposed to be most stable.

Shell correction is to apply when shell approach spherity. Semi empirical math,

model expression of this model can calculate ground state masses and equilibrium

deformations of N and Z, barrier energies and Half Lives for SF. Lanthanides and

32

actinides have ellipsoidal shapes but its neighbours have a spherical shapes.More

details aboutnuclear structure of supereavy elements is provided in in Ref.(19-21)

Charged liquid drop model had been developed to explain neutrons induced nuclear

fission predicting the stability of heavy nuclei toward decay by spontaneous

fission(SF).According to Liquid drop model and its extension, the potential energy of

the nucleus is a function of neutron number atomic number and nuclear shape.

Nuclear shell model of nucleus has been developed just like that of electrons in

extra nuclear space to calculate the potentials of single nucleon in non spherical

(deformed) and spherical nuclear fields, called Nilsson orbitals by Gosta Nilsson, a

Swedish physicist.

Reaction Possibilities Based on Theoretical Considerations

The nuclear reactions of the following sort have been predicted based on theoretical

and different models of nucleons.Details about the nuclear research for SHEs is

providedin Ref.(23-25)

250Md + 40K → 290120 — 7

244Pu + 58Fe → 302120 — 8

248Cm + 54Cr → 302120 — 9

238U+ nat Ni → ?120 — 10

Production of New Elements

There had been a lot of work in the different laboratories sice Seaborg

preseted the cocept of the islands of stability. There was no success

upto year 1986. Later on the use of doubly magic targets allowed synthesis

of new elements by fusion. Following are the few examples of success,

33

i. First Success (Elements 112-116and Elements 118

34

35

36

The use of doubly magic elements will allow production of new super heavy

elements e.g.,

• 83Bi209 + 24Cr54 → 107Bh262 + n 11

• 82Pb208 + 26Fe58 → 108Hs265 + n 12

37

• 83Bi209 + 26Fe58 → 109Mt266 + n 13

Seaborg predicted that the islet of Z=106, 107 ,108 and 109 and it could be

extended and it has been extended by this time.

Neutrons can be added to an atomic nucleus by i) steady state method by

bombarding a target by neutrons in a nuclear reactor with sufficient flux or by

instantaneous method by exposing the target to prompt neutrons when the time of

fast neutron capture is short

The nuclear reaction of addition of neutrons and beta decay are represented

below. The addition of neutrons may be by s-process or r-process followed by decay

process.

92U239 + 0n1 → 92U239 → - β- → 93Pu239 - β- → 93NP239 14

The problem with fusion method to synthesize the new elements is that the targets

above Cf are not available.

— A number of reactions have been studied using projectiles heavier than 48Ca but

none have succeeded. The following reactions have been studied for synthesis of

elements above Z = 118.

• 58Fe+ 244Pu → 298120 + 4n — 15

• 54Cr+ 248Cm→ 298120 + 4n — 16

• 50Ti+ 249Cf → 295120 + 4n — 17

• 50Ti+ 249Bk→ 295119 + 4n 18

• 64Ni+ 238U→ 298120 + 4n — 19

Still it is to be seen and contemplated as to which reaction is most likely to work

upon for the expected discovery of the next new element. The nuclear crossection

for these reaction is to be reasonable and not too small to make such reactions to

take place. Consider the following reactions and their crossection in pb(peco barn).

58Fe+ 244Pu → 298120 + 4n 20

It is reported(5) an upper limit cross section σ of 0.4 pb (0.74 pb at 84%

confidence) and in the following case,

54Cr+ 248Cm→ 298120 + 4n 21

The value of σ is < 0.58 pb (1.92 pb ( 84%). If it is compared with the following

reaction —

48Ca+ 248Cm → 292Lv + 4n 22

38

The value of σ ≈ 3.3 pb — and it has been successful and for the reaction,

50Ti+ 249Cf → 295120 + 4n — 23

Comparing with the reaction

48Ca+ 249Cf → 294Og+ 3n the σ is ≈ 0.5 pb —and with 24

50Ti+ 249Bk→ 295119 + 4n, the σ is < 0.052 pb.— 25

If comparing with

48Ca+ 249Bk → 293Ts + 4n σ ≈ 1.3 pb —and for 26

64Ni+ 238U→ 298120 + 4n σ < 0.09 pb — 27

50Ti + 252Cf → 298120 + 4n has also been proposed but 252Cf is very expensive.

A number of reactions have been studiedto synthesize post Z=118 elements.

50Ti + 249Bk → 295119 + 4n 28

50Ti + 249Cf → 295120 + 4n 29

54Cr + 248Cm → 298120 + 4n 30

58Fe + 244Pu → 298120 + 4n 31

64Ni + 238U → 298120 + 4n 32

Theoretical predictions generally indicate very low production rates for all of these

reactions. None of these experiments have been successful.

Production of Trans actinide Nuclei Using Exotic Beams(33)

Access to longer-lived nuclides of trans actinide elements would allow for more

sophisticated expts.

Wet chemistry, standard reduction potentials, etc. Laser spectroscopy, ionization

potentials, etc.

39

Long lived Neutron Rich Nuclei Produced by Radioactive beam reactions(33) The log lived neutron rich isotopes of some of the new elements are provided in the table given below. ___________________________________________________________________ Elements Heaviest isotope Half Life Predicted new isotopes ___________________________________________________________________

Lr 262 216 min (263,12h),(264,80d),(265,80d)

Rf 263 15min (264,9min),(265,12.4),

Db 263 27s (264,3.6min),(265,3.4min)

Sg 266 21s (266,24h),(265.3.4min)

Bh 267 17s (267,47s),(269,1.4min),(270,26s)

Hs 270 271,0.13s),(272,0.02s),(273,0.03s),276,0,83s) Mt 270 42ms (267,6.4ms),(271,69ms),(274,12ms) (270,54ms),(273,1.2ms),(274,20.9ms __________________________________________________________________

40

The Chemistry and Chemical Detection

The chemical detection is possible with rapid chemical reaction as the life of

produced nuclei may be very short. The chemistry and chemical aspects of SHEs

are provided in References(5-15,22 and 26-32)

Chemical properties of elements with Z,106,107 and 108 may be predicted with the

help of volatility properties of elemental may be similar e.g. hexa fluorides and hexa

carbonates of Sg be quite volatile and and oxychlorides be moderately volatile and

that of Bh have volatile fluorides and oxychlorides just like that of W and Re.

The ions or molecules of different elements may be supported on some solid phase

or in gaseous medium, and separated by elution and separated by applying different

temperatures to gaseous columns.

The properties of their homologues in periodic Table may be similar. e.g.

The elements of Sg 106 Bh 107 Hs 108

(Seaborgium ) (Bohrium) ( Hessium)

may be have similar

properties as that of W74 Re75 Os76

Studies have shown that elements with Z=104 to 112 are formed by filling 6d

orbitals and having similar properties as that of their homologues, Hf72, Ta73, W74,

Re75, Os76, Ir77, Au79and Hg82.

Elements with Z=113 to 118 result from their 7p subshell and are expected to be

similar to the elements with Z= 81 to 86.

• Nh113, Fl 114, Mc115, Lv116, Ts117, Og118

• Tl81, Pb82, Bi83, P084, At85, Ra86

Based on the electronic structure and Periodic table comparison of similar structure

elements the chemical properties of SHEs may be predicted and techniques of their

chemical identification can be developed. The new element synthesis and

separations may be carried out. e.g.

• Mt109 and Ds110 comparison with

• Ir77 and Pt78

41

Indicates that Mt109 and Ds 110 should be noble metals and their hexa and octa

fluorides should be volatile.

Studies have shown that elements with Z=104 to 112 are formed by filling 6d

orbitals and should have similar properties as that of their homologues,

Hf72, Ta73, W74, Re75, Os76, Ir77, Au79, Hg82.

Elements with Z=113 to 118 result from their 7p subshell and are expected to be

similar to the elements with Z= 81 to 86

• Nh113, Fl 114, Mc115, Lv116, Ts117, Og118

• Tl81, Pb82, Bi83, P084, At85, Ra86

Based on the electronic structure and Periodic table comparison of similar structure

elements the chemical properties of SHEs may be predicted and techniques of their

chemical identification can be developed. The new element synthesis and

separations may be carried out. e.g.

• Mt109 and Ds110 comparison with

• Ir77 and Pt78

It indicates that Mt109 and Ds 110 should be noble metals and their hexa and octa

fluorides should be volatile.

42

Derived from Ref.(4)

Present status of Elements

There are 92 naturally occurring elements, heaviest element occurring in nature is

92U239. 43Tc99 does not occur naturally. 61Pm does not occur naturally. 93Np237

and 94Pu239 discovered in natural ores. 93Pu244 has been discovered in in natural

ores ,having HL=80 million years

Artificial elements have been synthesised up to Z=118. Work for further higher Z

elements above 118 is going on.

List of Synthetic elements

These are all man made and tranuranic ,With Z= 95 and more than 95 and are

listed below.

Element Symbol Z Year of discovery

43

Americium Am 95 1944

Curium Cm 96 1944

Berkelium Bk 97 1949

Californium 98 1950

Einsteinium 99 1952

Fermium 100 1952

Mendelevium 101 1955

Nobelium 102 1966

Lawrencium 103 1971

Rutherfordium 104 1966 USSR

Dubnium 105 1968 USSR

Seaborgium

Cf

Es

Fm

Md

No

Lr

Rf

Db

Sg 106 1974

Bohrium Bh 107 1981

Hassium Hs 108 1985

Meitnerium Mt 109 1982

Dramstadium Ds 110 1994

Roentgenium Rg 111 1994

Copernecium Cn 112 1996

Nihonium Nh 113 2004

Flerovium Fl 114 2004

Moscovium Mc 115 2010

Livermorium Lv 116 2004

Tenessine Ts 117 2010

Oganissone Og 118 2006

Ununennium

Unbinilium

44

Extended Periodic Table

There is an Auf bar Model .Period 8 is there in the extended periodic table

Period 8 will be filled with elements of Z=119 to 145. Z= 139-145 are with f orbital

filling.At element 118 the orbitals are,

1s,2s,2p,3s,3p,3d,4s,4p,4d,5s,5p,5d,5f,6s,6p,6d,7s,7p and are assumed to be filled

and remaining orbitals are unfilled.

8th row is filled with 8s,5g,6f,7d,8p but after 120 the periodicity of the shells make it

problematic to place them in the simple Per. Table. The ground state configurations

of elements 121-156 and elements 158-170 are shown in the following Table by J.

B. Mann.(4)

45

Seaborg original concept

According to Seaborg, the elements will fall in the following categories.

• Z=121-138 form the g block super actinides

• 139-150 form f block super actinides

• 153-161 transition metals

• 162-166 post transition metals

• 167 fall in halogen group

• 168 in noble gas

• 171 alkaline earth

• 157-165 ----- transition metals

• 166-170 ------transition metals

• 172 ---noble gas

46

47

48

Conclusions

• Fusion reactions and n or p – capture reactions are there for nucleosynthesis

• In the laboratory SHEs have been mainly made through fusion, fragmentation

and fission

• The new elements with Z > 100 are formed in fusion reactions

• For synthesis and detection of new elements highly senstiive exp. techniques

are required .

• For small amonts producuced very efficient separation techniques are

requied for detection and analsis for identification.

• Indications of studies by different scientists for elements of with 137

and even 170 are there and there is possibility to enhance periodic

table to double the number of elements now existing in the present

Periodic Table.

49

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