Durk Gorter

Jasone Cenoz

Ikerbasque / University of the Basque Country

Minority languages in the linguistic landscape: Basque and Frisian

Barcelona 16 October 2008

DEFINITIONS

• “Landscape” =

• 1) expanse of scenery

• 2) picture representing such a view

Linguistic landscape defined (1)

Hobbema - Avenue at Middelharnis, 1689

LITERAL &REPRESENTATIONAL

Existing literature• Sciriha, L. and Vassallo, M. (2001) Malta : A Linguistic Landscape.• = language situation

• Labov, W., Ash, S. and Boberg, C. (1997) A National Map of The Regional Dialects of American English.

• = spread and boundaries of dialects

• Tafoya, S.M. (2002) The Linguistic Landscape of California Schools.• = non-English speakers in primary schools

• Hicks, D. (2002) Scotland's linguistic landscape: the lack of policy and planning with Scotland's place-names and signage.

• = signage and place-names

“Linguistic landscape” defined (2)

Linguistic landscape defined (3)

‘The language of public road signs, advertising

billboards, street names, place names, commercial shop signs, and public signs on government buildings combines to form the linguistic landscape of a given territory, region, or urban agglomeration’

(Landry and Bourhis 1997: 25)

Linguistic landscape defined (4)

• Written language(s) in public space

• Language visible in a specified area

• Alternative term: “multilingual cityscape”

Motivation

• Study of linguistic diversity

• Reflect different strengths of languages

• Related to identity and language policy

• Additional source of information

PERSPECTIVES

Conceptual approaches

historical

language policy

semiotics sociolinguistics

education economic

SLA

urban geography

LinguisticLandscape

Historical

• LL as old as writing

• Origin of writing

- urbanisation

- public sphere

• ReadershipMene tekel : “writing on the wall”

Historical

Jerusalem street signs

Spolsky 2008

Model of language policySpolsky 2004

Language

Policy

Language

Practices

Language

Beliefs

Language

Management

Language policy

• Rules and regulations

• Status and corpus planning

• Bilingual signage

• Reflection of traditions and ‘uniqueness’

• Contestation of space

Top-down

• Written by authorities (traffic signs, street names, public notices, etc.)

• = ‘top-down’

Bottom up

• Written by citizens (advertisements, shop signs, graffiti, etc.)

• = ‘bottom-up’

Contested spaces

Slovenes, Austria Brussels, Belgium

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Data collection

Technology

Sampling

Some examples:

• Tokyo: 28 stations (Backhaus 2006)

• Bangkok: 15 neighborhoods (Huebner 2006)

• Israel: 8 localities (Ben Rafael et al 2006)

• Basque Country/Friesland: 2 streets (Cenoz & Gorter 2006)

• Netherlands: 11 locations (Edelman 2008)

• Roma: 4 neighborhoods (Gorter 2008)

Wrappers in street

Crawler Crawler

Sandwich board Posters/signs on trucks/buses

Text on t-shirts, bags, etc

Unit of analysis

Coding

Coding scheme:

type of sign

top-down vs. bottom-up signs

number of languages

languages displayed

conspicuity

repetition

etc.

Data analysis

Special software:

Barni & Bagna 2008

STUDIES on BASQUE and FRISIAN

Basque Country & Friesland:two streets

Boulevard, Donostia Nieuwestad, Ljouwert

Cenoz & Gorter 2006

Basque C.

BAC

Friesland

20.664 km2

7.234 km2

3.339 km2

Size

Population

Basque C

BAC

Friesland

3.000.000

2.100.000

643.000

Navarre

Basque Autonomous Community

IparraldeFriesland

Ljouwert

Donostia

Geography

Sociolinguistic context: speaking

56%

44%

Frisian Dutch

Donostia

33%

67%

Basque Spanish

Ljouwert

Language policy

Recent: since 1979

Normalization

1st Education: strong

2nd Media: strong

3rd Government: medium

Old: gradual 19th C.

Formalization

1st Education: weak

2nd Government: medium

3rd Media: weak

Basque Autonomous Community

Fryslân

Examples of monolingual signs

Basque

Frisian

Dutch

Spanish

English English

Examples of bilingual signs

Donostia Ljouwert

Study of Donostia-Ljouwert

- Pictures all texts n = 975

- Coding-scheme: 16 variables

- Code units n=207, Ljouwert 103, Donostia 104

Number of languages found

64%

36%

0% 0%

Ljouwert

Donostia Ljouwert

Which languages on signsDonostia Ljouwert

Dutch53%

Frisian3%

English6%

Other5%

Fri&Du2%

D&E31%

Prominent language bilingual signs

Dutch, 78%

Frisian, 2%

English, 20%

Donostia Ljouwert

Street interviews

1st tourists visiting the city

Donostia N = 314

Ljouwert N = 251

2nd local inhabitants

Donostia N = 56

Ljouwert N = 76

Second study

Cenoz & Gorter 2008; Aiestaran, Cenoz, Gorter & Hanenburg forthcoming

Stated preference: nr of languages - tourists

Donostia Ljouwert

19%

45%

36%

one two more than two

“How many languages should be used in the language signs?”

Allocation scenario:• “In order to assess and rank your priorities, we

kindly ask you if you were given 100 euros, how would you allocate this amount of money among the following activities?”

Willingness to pay

Scenario: average amounts tourists

Donostia Ljouwert

FURTHER STUDIES

Education

Multicompetence

euskara

español english

euskara

español

english

Languages as a resource

- Languages not in compartments

- Allocation is planned: aesthetic value, symbolic force, audience effect

- Use languages in different ways

- Interaction between different languages

- Mixing blurs lines separate languages

CONCLUSIONS &MAIN TRENDS

• Information function:

- communicate official messages

- communicate with visitors or immigrants

• Symbolic function

Functions

Characteristics

• Visible for all citizens

• Combines public and private sectors

• Can be regulated by authorities

• Linked to economic value (e.g. advertising)

• World-wide phenomenon

• “multilingual cityscapes”

Main trends

• The spread of multilingualism

• The spread of English

• Top-down and bottom-up signs

• The effect of globalization

CONTACT?:

Jasone.Cenoz@ehu.es

D.Gorter@ikerbasque.org

Special issue International Journal of Multilingualism: link

http://www.multilingual-matters.net/ijm/003/1/default.htm

New book on linguistic landscape research: link

http://www.routledgelinguistics.com/books/Linguistic-Landscape-isbn9780415988735

SOURCES can be found in :