AP Human Geography Lecture Notes

Latitude and Longitude• Lines on globes and maps provide information that

can help you easily locate places on the earth.• These lines—called latitude and longitude—cross

one another, forming a pattern called a grid system.Latitude• Lines of latitude, or parallels, circle the earth

parallel to the Equator and measure the distance north or south of the Equator in degrees.

• The Equator is at 0° latitude, while the Poles lie at latitudes 90°N (north) and 90°S (south).

• Degrees are the angular measurement north or south of the equator

Longitude• Lines of longitude, or meridians, circle the earth

from Pole to Pole. These lines measure distances east or west of the starting line, which is at 0° longitude and is called the Prime Meridian. The Prime Meridian runs through the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, England.Lines of longitude go 180 degrees east and west of the prime meridianInternational Date Line: An arc that for the most part follows 180° longitude, although it deviates in several places to avoid dividing land areas. When you cross the International Date Line heading east (toward America), the clock moves back 24 hours, or one entire day. When you go west (toward Asia), the calendar moves ahead one day. Absolute LocationThe grid system formed by lines of latitude and longitude makes it possible to find the absolute location of a place. Many places can be found along a line of latitude, but only one place can be found at the point where a certain line of latitude crosses a certain line of longitude. By using degrees and minutes (points between degrees), people can pinpoint the precise spot where one line of latitude crosses one line of longitude—an absolute location.Degrees are divided into minutes• 1 degree equals 60 minutesMinutes are divided into seconds• 1 minute equals 60 seconds(airplanes need to land on the correct runway and bombs need to hit the right building.)Degrees can be turned into decimals to make them easier to work with• 51 minutes = .85 degrees

• 30 minutes = .5 degrees• 20 minutes = .33 degreesSouthern California Vernacular Regions • • • • •

Geography IntroductionThere are two main branches of geography: human geography and physical geography.Human geography: the study of the location of people and human activities across Earth’s surface, and of their relationships to one another. Physical geography studies the natural environment: climates, landforms, and types of vegetation.

San Gabriel Mts, San Bernardino Mts, Santa Monica Mts., Santa Ana Mts, LA River, San Gabriel River, Santa Ana River, Puente Hills, Chino Hills, San Jose Hills, San Fernando Valley, San Gabriel Valley, Inland Empire

Geography looks at the world from a spatial perspective, seeking to understand the changing spatial organization of the earth’s surface. • the science of location• spatial patterns, • inter-relationships (interconnections,

interdependence)• Geography is the study of Earth’s physical and

cultural landscapes,• Geography’s slogan: Where, why, and why care.

Tobler's First law of geography: All things are related, but near things are more related than far things.

One of the most important ideas in geography is Distance decay: the effect of distance on cultural or spatial interactions. The distance decay effect states that the interaction between two locales declines as the distance between them increases.

Related terms include friction of distance: the notion that distance usually requires some amount of effort, money, and/or energy to overcome. Because of this "friction," spatial interactions will tend to take place more often over shorter distances; quantity of interaction will decline with distance.

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• For example land decreases in value as distance from the center increases

Distance decay is graphically represented by a curving line that swoops concavely downward as distance along the x-axis increases. • Geographers try to understand the Human

Environmental Interaction: how places shape culture and how culture shapes places.

• Geography is also considered the study of place and space

Space or location is the wherePlace: meaningful human associations with a location. Human nature has a need to identify with a place and to differentiate ourselves through that place. Place suggests qualities of distinctiveness and identity with a location. sense of place: feelings evoked among people as a result of the experiences and memories that they associate with a placePlaces exert a strong influence on people’s physical wellbeing, and their opportunities.Living in a small town dominated by petrochemical industries, for example, means a higher probability than elsewhere of being exposed to air and water pollution.Small towns have only a limited range of job opportunities, and may have a relatively narrow range of lifestyle options because of a lack of amenities such as theaters, specialized stores and restaurants, and recreational facilities.

Cartography:• The art and science of map making (paper maps,

globes, relief models, computer images or others)• The most accurate way to depict the earth is as a

globe, a spherical scale model of the earth. • A globe gives a true picture of the continents’

relative sizes and the shapes of landmasses and bodies of water.

• Globes are proportionately correct accurately representing distance and direction.

• A map is a flat drawing of all or part of the earth’s surface that can show small areas in great detail.

• Maps have their limitations. As you can imagine, drawing a round object on a flat surface is very difficult.

• Think about the surface of the earth as the peel of an orange. To flatten the peel, you might have to cut it like the globe shown here.

• Cartographers, or mapmakers, use mathematical formulas to transfer information from the three-dimensional globe to a two-dimensional map.

• To create maps, cartographers project the round earth onto a flat surface—making a map projection.

• There are more than a hundred kinds of map projections, each with some advantages and some degrees of accuracy.

Geographic Information Systems• Technology has changed the way maps are made.

Most cartographers use software programs called geographic information systems (GIS).

• A GIS uses data from maps, satellite images, printed text, and statistics.

• Cartographers can program the GIS to produce the maps they need, and it allows them to make changes quickly and easily.

Types of Maps• Maps are prepared for many uses. The information

depicted in the map depends on how the map will be used.

Isoline: a line that connects places of equal data value (air pollution or religion)Isoline maps: show changes in the variable being mapped across a surface by lines that connect points of equal valueTopographic maps are isoline mapsImage map: Satellite images or aerial photosCartogram: space is distorted to emphasize a particular attributeDot maps: use a dot to represent the occurrence of some variable in order to depict variation in density in a given areaCloropleth Map: ranked classes of some variable are depicted with colors for predefined zones (counties, states, countries)

ScaleSpatial scale provides a "shorthand" for discussing relative lengths, areas, distances and sizes.

small scale maps: the place being mapped looks small on the map (i.e. a world map) but has a large denominator (making it a small number)Large scale maps: local area(the place being mapped looks fairly large compared to what is shown on a world map for example a stadium)• Representative Fraction: The relationship between

the size of an object on a map and the size of the actual feature on Earth’s surface. (This maps is 1:55,000,000)

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Just as ½ is larger than 1/10, 1:10,000 is larger than 1:10,000,000

Spatial Distribution Of FeaturesDistribution: The arrangement of something across the earth’s surface

Density and Concentration1. Density: frequency in a space 2. Concentration: the spread of something over spaceClustered: objects in an area are close togetherDispersed: objects are relatively far apartCalifornia is not densely populated its population is clusteredMalls in Southern California are dispersed 3. Pattern: The geometric arrangement of something in a study area (space)

Four ways to identify location: 1. Name (a toponym is a name derived from a place or region)List 5 California cities that are toponyms?• Riverside• • • 2. Mathematical3. Site: the physical attributes of a location (ex. terrain, vegetation). Economically the Land, labor and capital4. Situation (relative location): the location of a place relative to other places and human activities. Economically it’s the transportation costs

California’s Situation• On the Pacific Rim• North of Mexico• Far from U.S. populated East• Cold current flows adjacent to the state

Regions: • mental constructs (not absolute)• that can be of any size• are unique • have boundaries that are broad areas of transition. Terms that express the decreasing influence of a culture with increasing distance from the center of the culture region.• core: the heart and soul of a culture region, its vital

center and focus of circulation. • domain: the area in which the particular culture is

dominant but less intense.

• sphere: the zone of outer influence, where people with the culture traits in question may even be a minority within another culture region.

Why is mapping a culture region difficult and prone to problems in geography?Different people will use different traits in different combinations to define the culture area• Many regions have several characteristics, usually a

combination of physical and human, to describe the regional character.

3 Types of Regions1. Uniform Regions (or formal regions) -Areas with distinctive characteristics and/or similar landscapesThese characteristics may be:• economic• cultural (religion, language, etc)• agricultural (corn belt or wheat belt)• land use• physical• or many othersFormal Region definition #2- all members legally share a characteristic Example: a city, state, or country (every one living in Canada has to follow their laws)2. Functional region: defined by a node of activity and distance decay from center Examples: Newspaper, mall, a university, cell phone coverage3. Vernacular (or perceptual) region: a region perceived to exist by its inhabitants.

Political GeographyPolitical Geography: the spatial study of political processes; from self-determination to voting patternsPolitical geography deals with the phenomena occurring at all scales from the global to the local.

Nation State SectionNation or nationality: a group of people sharing a common cultural identity (religion, language, history, art, and/or political identity) tied to a place through legal status and tradition. The Japanese (not Japan),Nationalism: loyalty and devotion to a particular nation (shared emotions, attitudes, emotions) Nationalism may also be loyalty and devotion to a state that represents a particular group's culture (but the nation doesn’t always have a country) State: An area organized into an independent political unit (country)

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Necessary components to qualify as a full-fledged state:1. has a defined territory2. has an organized economy (regulates foreign/domestic trade)3. provides public services and police power 4. Sovereignty (control over its internal affairs) 5. external recognition6. a permanent residence populationAre Indian Reservations states?Native American tribes have some rights given to them by the United States government. For example they are given a large amount of autonomous rule over their tribal lands. However, the tribal governments do not have independence from the federal government. However, they are exempt from jurisdiction of some state laws and regulations, such as allowing gambling on their reservations. Is Puerto Rico a state? No. It is not a country (State) or a state of the U.S.Puerto Ricans pay no federal income tax and they cannot vote for presidentOn 6 November 2012, a two question referendum took place. The first question asked voters whether they wanted to maintain the current status under the territorial clause of the U.S. Constitution. The second question posed three alternate status options if the first question was approved: statehood, independence or free association. For the first question, 54 percent voted against the current Commonwealth status, and in the second question, of those who responded, 61.1% favored statehood.On April 10, 2013, the White House announced that it will seek $2.5 million to hold another referendum, this next one being the first Puerto Rican status referendum to be financed by the Federal government.Is Taiwan a state? It’s not recognized by the major powersIs Macedonia a state? It’s in the UN but not recognized as an independent state by Greece.Kosovo became a country in 2008. They broke off from Yugoslavia, speak Albanian and follow Islam. Why didn’t they become part of Albania?Why are China and Russia almost always against new countries forming?How many countries are in the world? United Nations There are 196 members of the United Nations. Although this number represents almost all of the countries in the world, there are still two recognized independent

countries, the Vatican City and Kosovo, that are independent and are not members of the U.N. U.S. Department of State The United States' State Department recognizes 198 independent countries around the world. Their list of 196 countries reflects the political agenda of the United States of America and its allies. Missing from the State Department's list is one entity that may or may not be considered a country, depending on who you talk to.

The One Outsider Taiwan meets the requirements of independent country or state status. However, due to political reasons, it fails to be recognized by the international community as independent. Nonetheless, it should be considered as independent. Taiwan was actually a member of the United Nations (and even the Security Council) until 1971, when mainland China replaced Taiwan in the organization. Taiwan continues to press for full recognition by other countries, to become "part of the club" and fully recognized worldwide but China claims that Taiwan is simply a province of China.That makes199 countriesHowever, there are dozens of territories and colonies that are sometimes erroneously called "countries" but don't count at all - they're governed by other countries. Places commonly confused as being countries include Puerto Rico, Bermuda, Greenland, Palestine, Western Sahara, and even the components of the United Kingdom (such as Northern Ireland, Scotland, Wales, and England)Nation-State: A state that has the same boundaries as a nation. (relatively rare, no perfect example but a lot of good ones), most European countries, Nation-states in Europe were formed by drawing boundaries around nations based on language.Denmark is a good example of a nation-state because nearly all Danes speak Danish and live in Denmark. Multinational State: a country that has more than one nation.Example: Canada, China, Rwanda,(and every other country in Africa with the exception of Egypt)The UK is also a multinational state. The English, Scottish, and Welsh are all nations within the state of the United Kingdom. The people living in the United Kingdom are British. Because they are not one people the British are not a nationality.

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The Protestants in Northern Ireland call themselves British and the Catholic call themselves Irish.Protestants in Ireland are highly clustered in the northern part of the island. The goal of the majority of people living in Northern Ireland is to remain part of the United Kingdom

Other countries in Europe that are multi-national states include:

Nation-States in SW Asia include:

Other Nation-States in Asia include:

All other countries in Asia are multinational states. Great examples would be India, Afghanistan, Iraq, and Indonesia.Predominant Ethnic Groups in Afghanistan: Pashtun, Hazara, Tajik, Uzbek and Baluchi.

Ethnicities/nations in the same country come in conflict when they have traditions of self rule. Balkanization: breakdown of a state due to conflict among nationalities Ethnic cleansing: The process when a group forcibly removes another groupNation-building refers to the process of constructing or structuring a national identity using the power of the state. This process aims at the unification of the people within the state so that it remains politically stable and viable in the long run. Nation-building can involve the use of propaganda or major infrastructure development to foster social harmony and economic growth.Irredentism: a movement to reunite a nation’s homeland when part of it is contained within another state.Examples: Somali’s in Ethiopia (Horn of Africa)Kashmir, (a Muslim state in India that would like to be part of Pakistan)Germany (historically)SerbsDutchNon State Nations are stateless nations or people without a countryCentripetal forces: those that strengthen and unify the state. Centripetal force in the United States network television the flag "The Star Spangled Banner"

In the United States nationality is shared by all Americans. The former Soviet Union used language as the primary centripetal device.

centrifugal forces: those that divide or tend to pull the state apart. (multiple: religions, ethnicities, languages, ideologies)The groups often desires land, independence, and/or autonomy.Kurds in Iraq have some Autonomy. Centrifugal forces in Africa: 1. the European colonial boundaries were unnaturally imposed often combining or dividing ethnic groups2. numerous ethnic groups3. language differencesself-determination: The concept that nationalities have the right to govern themselves without the influence of any other country Example: Slovakia broke away from Czechoslovakia but is not homogeneous: about 11 percent of the population is Hungarian. The Hungarian minority facing discriminatory policies involving language and other aspects of its culture, is demanding greater autonomy.Devolution: the process whereby regions within a state demand and gain political strength and growing autonomy at the expense of the central governmentMost of the world’s nearly 200 states have multicultural populations, and conflict among cultural sectors can lead to devolution. They occur on the margins of states. Devolution areas lie on a coast or on a boundary. Distance, remoteness, and peripheral location are

allies of devolution. The areas most likely to be affected are those that

lie far from the national capital, are separated by water, desert, or mountains from the center of power, and adjoin neighbors that may support separatist objectives.

Example: Ethnic groups in China occupy peripheral areas.Many islands are subject to devolutionary processes: Corsica (France), Sardinia (Italy), Taiwan (China), Hawaii In some countries, "ethnic cleansing" results in forced migration channelized migration cultural homogeneityGenocide develops in eight stages:1. Classification2. Symbolization

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3. Dehumanization4. Organization5. Polarization6. Identification7. Extermination8. Denial

Boundary, Frontier, ShapesA frontier, in contrast to a boundary, is an area or zone rather than a line. Example: Antarctica is really a frontier without boundariesBoundaries may be Physical characteristic, Geometric, or Cultural characteristicsPhysical Boundary: Political boundaries that coincide with prominent physical features in the natural landscape, such as rivers or the crest of mountain Mountains examples: India with China and Nepal (the Himalayas), France with Spain (the Pyrenees), Italy with France, Switzerland and Austria (the Alps), Caucasus, Morocco and Algeria (Atlas Mountains), Chile and Argentina (Andes), Rainforest: Brazil and north and west countries Rivers Examples: U.S. and Mexico (Rio Grande), China and North Korea (the Yalu Tumen), Laos and Thailand (the Mekong), Romania and Bulgaria (Danube), France and Germany (Rhine), Zambia and Zimbabwe (the Zambezi) Lakes: France and Switzerland (Lake Geneva), Kenya and Uganda (Lake Victoria) Canada and the U.S. (Great Lakes), Desert: U.S. Mexico, Countries in North Africa, China and Mongolia (Gobi), Pakistan and India (Thar Desert). Geometrical Boundary are regular, often perfectly straight lines drawn without regard for physical or cultural features.Examples: Indonesia/ Papua New Guinea, U.S./ Canada, U.S./Mexico, Syria/Iraq. Aozou Strip: is a good example of a Geometric Boundary The straight boundary between Libya and Chad was drawn by European powers, and the strip is the subject of controversy between the two countries.The Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) is a strip of land running across the Korean Peninsula that serves as a buffer zone between North and South Korea which runs along the 38th parallel north. The DMZ cuts the Korean Peninsula roughly in half, crossing the 38th parallel on an angle, with the west end of the DMZ lying south of the parallel and the east end lying north of it.Cultural boundaries: some culture trait (often language, religion, and ethnicity)

Language: Most European countries, Brazil/South AmericanReligion Examples: Ireland/N. Ireland, Israel/Arab countries, Pakistan/India,U.S./Mexico, Borders with more than one characteristic?U.S/Mex, Spain/France, India/China, India/Pakistan

Superimposed boundary: A political boundary placed by powerful outsiders. Usually ignores preexisting cultural-spatial patterns.Ex. Island of New Guinea, North and South KoreaThe border between Germany and Poland established after World War II was further west than the boundary before World War II. Relict boundary: A political boundary that has ceased to function, but the imprint of which can still be detected. E.W BerlinBoundaries between states cause discontent for some nationalities if: One state with many nationalities/ethnicities One nationality in more than one state A boundary between states is actually a vertical

plane that cuts through the rocks below (called subsoil) and the airspace above

United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS III)1. State boundaries can extend to 14 miles from their shoreline2. The Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). State’s economic rights extend 230 miles

median-line principle: States on opposite coasts divide the waters separating themthe Great Lakes Ex. Caspian, the Caribbean, South China, and Mediterranean Seas,

Territorial Morphology: size, shape, and relative location of a state. Shape can influence the political geography of a state:

Compact State: A state in which the distance from the center to any boundary does not vary significantly (most desirable shape).Good communication can be more easily established to all regions, especially if the capital is in the center.ex. Poland, France, Hungary, Kenya, Uganda

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Fragmented states are discontinuous, separated by water or another state. Transportation and communication are difficult

causing administrative problems Separatist movements away from capital. Inhibits national cohesivenessExamples: U.S., Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Palestine,Azerbaijan has recently faced war because of fragmentationelongated: A state with a long, narrow shape.They often suffer from poor internal communication and have difficulty defending its borders. Examples: Chile, Norway, Vietnam,

Protruded or prorupted state: A type of state territorial shape that exhibits a narrow, elongated land extension leading away from the main body of territory.Often provides the state with access to a resource such as water.Ex. Afghanistan, Thailand, Namibia, Congo, Israel, the Germans established the proruption known as

the Caprivi Strip in present-day Namibia for all of the following: access to resources in central Africa

disruption of British communications access to the Zambezi river exclave: a piece of territory separated from the main body of a country by the territory of another country. exclave problems:Isolated from their fellow countrymen and may develop separatist feelings Transportation and communication are difficult causing administrative problems.ex. Alaska, Kaliningrad, Gibraltar (a British exclave located on the southern end of Spain at the entrance of the Mediterranean. The Rock of Gibraltar is the major landmark of the region. Population: 30,000)Historically: Berlin, East Pakistan (Now Bangladesh)enclave: a piece of land which is totally surrounded by a foreign territoryExamples: Lesotho in South Africa, The Vatican (where the Pope lives, an independent country in the city of Rome. Population of <1000), San Marino (surrounded by Italy), Historically, West Berlin was an enclave of East Germany,An ethnic enclave is a community of an ethnic group inside an area in which another ethnic group predominates. Ghettos, Little Italys, barrios and Chinatowns are examples.

Approximately one-fifth of the world's countries are landlocked and have no access to the oceans. There are 43 landlocked countries that do not have direct access to an ocean or ocean-accessible sea (such as the Mediterranean Sea). They have the disadvantageous situation of needing to rely upon neighboring countries for access to seaports. Landlocked countries are typically poor because it affects the ability of some countries to participate in the global economy. Examples: Bolivia, Nepal, Afghanistan, Zimbabwe, Central Africa Republic, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Chad, Niger, Mali, Ethiopia, Zambia

However, relative location is a factor. For example Switzerland is very rich.

Large size is an asset for a state because it is able to: produce a larger supply of food possess a larger supply of raw materials withstand a limited nuclear war

A microstate or ministate is a sovereign state having a very small population or very small land area, but usually both. Some examples include Andorra, Liechtenstein, Malta, Monaco, and Singapore. The smallest fully sovereign microstate is Vatican City, with 826 citizens as of July 2009 and an area of only 0.44 km².Autonomous cities in unitary statesIn nations without a federal administrative structure, cities may sometimes enjoy a greater degree of autonomy. Hong Kong and MacauBecause of Hong Kong's and Macau's long histories as colonies of the British and Portuguese empires, respectively, and the unique "one-country, two-systems" policy, the two former city-states are given a high degree of autonomy even after their return into the China. While geographically they are cities, having legal systems, police forces, monetary systems, customs policies, and immigration policies that are independent from China, makes their status almost equivalent to independent nations.

Division or unification?Devolution or Suprantionalism?Devolution:• Breakup of a state

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• The granting of powers from the central government of a state to government at a subnational level

• Very different from federalism (provinces within a country can make their own laws)

• Examples Yugoslavia (Balkans), former USSR, Austria Hungary after WWI, India

Supranationalism:• Collection of states working together• political power given to a higher authority above

the state (country) governmentExamples: EU, NAFTA, UN, NATO, WTO

supranational organizations: collections of individual states with a common goal that may be economic and/or political in nature; such organizations diminish, to some extent, individual state sovereignty in favor of the group interests of the membership. The more states participate in such multilateral associations, the less likely they are to act alone in pursuit of a self-interest that might put them at odds with neighbors.

States cooperate with each other for the following reasons: military, political, economicExamples of Military Cooperation:North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)- a cross-Atlantic military alliance/organization An attack against one is an attack against all.The growth of NATO was a major concern to Russia, where this has become a leading political issue. Russia’s sense of encirclement on the Eurasian landmass has always been a factor in Russian nationalism.

The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation or SCO is an intergovernmental mutual-security organisation which was founded in 2001 in Shanghai by the leaders of China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. The Shanghai Cooperation Organization original purposes of the SCO was to serve as a counterbalance to NATO and the United States and in particular to avoid conflicts that would allow the United States to intervene in areas bordering both Russia and China

Peace and Security Council (PSC) of the African Union, formed in 2004. More a version of the United Nations Security Council than a true military alliance. South American Defense Council (SADC) of the Union of South American Nations, developed form 2008. Full extent of provisions yet to be agreed.

South Korea and the United States entered into a military alliance following the Korean War.

Examples of political cooperation:African Union (AU): a cultural alliance to promote shared goals and resolve disputesArab League: a multinational alliance of Muslim states in North Africa and Southwest Asia. The United Nations (UN) is an international organization (supranational) whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and the achieving of world peace established at the end of World War II.Over the past half century, the number of sovereign states in the world has increased by more than a hundredIt now includes 196 member states (not including the Taiwan, Kosovo, or the Vatican) The United Nations is not a world government; member states participate voluntarily. Although member states do not formally yield any sovereignty to the UN they may agree to abide by specific UN decisions.At the very least, the UN provides a place for the nations of the world to have dialogue.In a world where free trade and market-based development continues to grow, the UN has successfully improved: problems of infant mortality, nutrition, education, in many parts of the world. The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the principal organs of the United Nations and is charged with the maintenance of international peace and security. Its powers, outlined in the United Nations Charter, include the establishment of peacekeeping operations, the establishment of international sanctions, and the authorization of military action.

International Economic Sanctions: penalties imposed by one or several states on another state to compel that state to amend its behavior.Economic sanctions include, but are not limited to, tariffs, trade barriers, and import duties. The most famous example of an economic sanction is the fifty-year-old United States embargo against Cuba. Economic sanctions are not always imposed because of economic circumstances. For example, the United States has imposed economic sanctions against Iran for years, on the basis that the Iranian government sponsors groups who work against US interests.

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The United Nations imposed stringent economic sanctions upon Iraq after the first Gulf War, and these were maintained partly as an attempt to make the Iraqi government co-operate with the UN weapons inspectors' monitoring of Iraq's weapons and weapons programs. These sanctions were unusually stringent in that very little in the way of trade goods were allowed into or out of Iraq during the sanction period. There is a United Nations sanctions regime imposed by UN Security Council against all Al-Qaida- and Taliban-associated individuals. The cornerstone of the regime is a consolidated list of persons maintained by the Security Council. All nations are obliged to freeze bank accounts and other financial instruments controlled by, or used for the benefit of, anyone on the list.

There are 15 members of the Security Council, consisting of 5 veto-wielding permanent members (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) and 10 elected non-permanent members with two-year terms.The UN does not have its own army, so the Security Council borrows forces for each mission from the armies of member countries.

Peacekeeping: nonaggressive use of military force to help nations in conflict reach a settlement.• the UN’s peacekeeping forces play a neutral role,

working to calm regional conflicts in several ways. They can:

• go into an area of conflict as observers, making sure agreements reached between opposing sides are being followed.

• provide a buffer between warring parties by physically interposing themselves in the middle.

• negotiate with military officers on both sides, providing a channel of communication.

• monitor cease-fires, supervise elections, and provide humanitarian aid.

Despite problems, the United Nations’ peacekeeping role has continued to grow, and its successes have far outweighed its failures. In places such as East Timor and Kosovo, for example, UN peacekeepers have helped bring stability after upheavals in the late 1990s. More than 115,000 peacekeeping troops from some 117UN member statesWhy do some Americans hate and fear the UN? The UN constrains the United States by creating the

one coalition that can rival U.S. power—that of all other nations.

The United States has a streak of isolationism in its foreign policy that runs counter to the idea of the UN.

Multilateralism: decision making and participation by more than two countries, parties, etc.Unilateralism: one sided decision making and participation. Unilateralism may be preferred in those instances when it's assumed to be the most efficient. Multilateralism may involve multiple nations acting together as in the UN or may involve regional or military alliances, pacts, or groupings such as NATO.Proponents of multilateralism argue that it would provide a country with greater resources, both militarily and economically, and would help in defraying the cost of military action. However, with divided responsibility inevitably comes divided authority, and thus slower military reaction times and the demand that troops follow commanders from other nations. “The Bush Doctrine" came to describe the controversial policy of preventive war, which held that the United States should depose foreign regimes that represented a potential or perceived threat to the security of the United States, even if that threat was not immediate;a policy of spreading democracy around the world, especially in the Middle East, as a strategy for combating terrorism; and a willingness to unilaterally pursue U.S. military interests. Debates about unilateralism recently came to the forefront with the Iraq War. While over 30 countries have supported the U.S. policy, some previous American allies, such as France, Germany and Turkey, are not participating. Many opponents of the war have argued that the United States is "going in alone" in Iraq without the support of multilateral institutions—in this case NATO and the United Nations.Advocates of U.S. unilateralism argue that other countries should not have "veto power" over matters of U.S. national security. Proponents of U.S. unilateralism generally believe that a multilateral institution, such as the United Nations, is morally suspect because, they argue, it treats non-democratic, and even despotic, regimes as being as legitimate as democratic countries.

Economic Cooperation: The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), is a cartel of twelve developing countries made up of Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya,

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Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and VenezuelaIts principal goals are to • eliminate the harmful and unnecessary fluctuations

in the price of oil • securing a steady income to the producing

countries• produce a regular supply of petroleum to

consuming nations, • and produce a profit to those investing in the

petroleum industry.OPEC's influence on the market has been widely criticized, since it became effective in determining production and prices. Arab members of OPEC alarmed the developed world when they used the “oil weapon” during the Yom Kippur War by implementing oil embargoes and initiating the 1973 oil crisis. Escalation in oil prices caused severe economic problems during the 70sOPEC's ability to control the price of oil has diminished somewhat since then, due to the subsequent discovery and development of large oil reserves in Alaska, the North Sea, Canada, the Gulf of Mexico, and the opening up of Russia. OPEC nations still account for two-thirds of the world's oil reserves, and, as of April 2009, 33.3% of the world's oil production, affording them considerable control over the global market. As early as 2003, concerns that OPEC members had little excess pumping capacity sparked speculation that their influence on crude oil prices would begin to slip.

Other Examples of economic cooperation:Often called trading blocs: a type of intergovernmental agreement, often part of a regional intergovernmental organization, where regional barriers to trade (tariffs and non-tariff barriers) are reduced or eliminated among the participating states.NAFTA: The North American Free Trade Agreement (Jan.1994) a free-trade area between the U.S., Canada and Mexico; provides for the tariff-free movement of goods and products, financial services, telecommunications, investment, and patent protection.The largest economic organization is the World Trade Organization (WTO) is an organization that intends to supervise and liberalize international trade. The organization deals with regulation of trade between participating countries; it provides a framework for negotiating and formalizing trade agreements, and a

dispute resolution process aimed at enforcing participants' adherence to WTO agreements. The WTO has 153 members, representing more than 97% of total world trade and 30 observers, most seeking membership World Trade Organization (WTO): sets up the ground rules of international trade (tries to eliminate trade barriers) suprantional in scope

The best example of supranationalism is: the European Union: an economic and political union of 28 member states. Western European countries have increased economic integration by: • lowering and eliminating trade barriers• allowing labor to move freely• coordinating a common foreign policy • creating a common currencyThe population of 500 million inhabitants, generated an estimated 28% share (US$ 16.5 trillion) of the nominal gross world product in 2009. As a trading bloc the EU accounts for 20% of global imports and exports.The euro is the official currency of the eurozone: 17 of the 27 Member States of the European Union (EU). The currency is also used in a further five European countries and is consequently used daily by some 327 million Europeans. Over 175 million people worldwide use currencies which are pegged to the euro, including more than 150 million people in Africa.Euro-zone: The EU counties using the euro U.K., Sweden, and Denmark do not use the euro.They worried that a shared European currency would threaten their national identity and governmental authority. Expansion of EU:• Under the rules of the EU, the richer countries must

subsidize the poorer ones • Economically weak countries will become a burdenEuropean countries have different cultures but similar Ideology:• democracy• rule of law• market economyTurkey and others want in the EU but their poor human rights record (Kurds) or lower economic level keeps them out.An unspoken sense among many that Turkey is not “European” enough to warrant membership.

Changes resulting from supranationalism in Europe FR • political stability

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• less conflict/increase in military power• economically stronger• free trade/lowering and eliminating trade barriers• labor can move freely • euro/Common currency • rich countries subsidize the poor ones• diminishes state sovereignty or loss of local

autonomyChanges resulting from devolution in Europe • new states • political instability• conflict/war• migration (from fighting)• economic instabilitynongovernmental organizations (NGOs) any non-profit, voluntary citizens' group which is organized on a local, national or international level. ex: Doctors without borders, Amnesty International, World Wildlife Fed.

Supernational organizations have become a reality because the state system is an inadequate instrument for dealing with world issues and problems.Interstate cooperation is so widespread around the world that a new era clearly arrived.

Electoral geography: the study of the spatial aspects of voting systems, voting behavior, and voting representation.There are 538 electoral college votes.Congressional representatives in the United States is fixed at 435 (House of Representatives). House + Senate + DC435+100+3Supporters of the electoral college say it: contributes to the cohesiveness of the country by requiring a distribution of popular support to be elected president, enhances the status of minority interests, contributes to the political stability of the nation by encouraging a two-party systemreapportionment: the process of allocating electoral seats to geographical areas redistricting: the defining and redefining of territorial district boundaries gerrymandering: the practice of redistricting for partisan purposes

Unitary and Federal StatesThe governments of States are organized according to one of two approaches:1. unitary states: power is concentrated in the central government, centralized power (ex. France and China)

2. federal states: allocates power to units of local government within the country. The United States is a federation of 50 states.

Different states, with different political cultures, have different laws. Examples The states are themselves subdivided into counties or parishes, of which there are over 3,000. Counties and parishes are further broken down into municipalities, townships, and special districts, which include school districts, water districts, library districts, and others.Federal states allows ethnic regions to make decisions, often larger countries are federationsExamples: Canada, India, Switzerland, “Federation does not create unity out of diversity, rather, it enables the them to coexist”

Why have some wanted to break California into two states? resources are being taken from the north and rural values/lifestyles are being changedIf a new state was formed north of San Francisco, what do statistics show? it would be one of the poorest in the countryHow does California’s size enhance the division between north and south? unique people

An increasing number of states have adopted a federal form of government to satisfy the demands of competing nationalities/ethnicitiesPoland delegated more authority to local governments (under communism they were unitary)

Roots and Meaning of Culture

Environmental Determinism: is the view that the physical environment, rather than social conditions, determines culture.

Possibilism: humans are primary determinant of culture.Possibilism is the theory that the environment sets certain constraints or limitations, but culture is otherwise determined by social conditions. For example: Laws, government, technology, religion, education, etc. Examples include: USA vs. Mexico, Japan vs. China, Great Britain vs. Russia The fundamental argument of the environmental determinists was that aspects of physical geography,

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particularly climate, influenced the psychological mind-set of individuals, which in turn defined the behavior and culture of the society.For example, tropical climates were said to cause laziness, relaxed attitudes and promiscuity, while the frequent variability in the weather of the middle latitudes led to more determined and driven work ethics.Environmental determinism's origins go back to antiquity. Greek geographer Strabo who wrote that climate influences the psychological disposition of different races. Some in ancient China advanced a form of environmental determinism as found in works written in the 2nd century BCE. We find statements like "Now the water of Qi is forceful, swift and twisting. Therefore its people are greedy, and warlike," and "The water of Chu is gentle, yielding, and pure. Therefore its people are lighthearted, and sure of themselves."Later critics charged that environmental determinism served to justify racism and imperialism. The experience of environmental determinism has left a scar on geography, with many geographers reacting negatively to any suggestion of environmental influences on human society.

However, Jared Diamond of UCLA argues that Eurasian civilization is not created out of superior intelligence, but is the result of a chain of developments, each made possible by certain preconditions.

In our earliest societies, humans lived as hunter-gatherers. The first step towards civilization is the move from hunter-gatherer to agriculture, with the domestication and farming of wild crops and animals. Agricultural production leads to food surpluses which supported greater population growth. Such growth led to larger workforces and more inventors, artisans, etc.Although agriculture arose in several parts of the world, Eurasia gained an early advantage due to the greater availability of suitable plant and animal species for domestication.

In particular, Eurasia had barley, wheat, and rice which are high in fiber and nutrients. Grains can also be stored for longer periods of time unlike tropical crops such as bananas.Eurasian animals include: goats, sheep, pigs, chickens and cattle provided food, leather, and clothing. Eurasia as a whole domesticated 13 species of large animals (over 100 lb); South America just one (counting

the llama and alpaca as breeds within the same species); the rest of the world none at all. Sub-Saharan Africans had mostly wild mammals, whereas Eurasians chanced to have the most docile large animals on the planet: horses and camels that are easily tamed for human transport; but their biological relatives zebras are untameable.

Africans, developing alongside large mammals, had available lions, leopards etc. Eurasia's dense populations, high levels of trade, and living in close proximity to livestock resulted in widespread transmission of diseases, including from animals to humans. Natural selection forced Eurasians to develop immunity to a wide range of pathogens. When Europeans made contact with America, European diseases (to which they had no immunity) ravaged the indigenous American population, so that relatively small numbers of Europeans could maintain their dominance.Maybe the environment can determine certain outcomes even if culture makes many things possible.FR Define environmental determinism and Possibilism.What were Jared Diamond’s views on the topics above?

Diffusion Spatial diffusion: the way that things spread through space and over time.

In order of those who adopt an idea first, people can be categorized as innovators, majority adopters, laggards Hearth: The source area from which an idea, crop, artifact, or good is diffused to other areas.Hinterland: the area around a city or town. Also describes the part of a country where only a few people live and where the infrastructure is underdeveloped maybe considered the "backcountry" or "the countryside". Bush of Alaskan and the Outback of Australia.Diffusion seldom occurs in a random way jumping all over the map, rather statistical probability.

Types of Cultural Diffusion:Contagious Diffusion: from a center outward, as the ripples which result from a stone thrown into a still pond; a form of expansion diffusion (snowballing of an idea or innovation) Hierarchical Diffusion: associated with a hierarchy of places, i.e., big places first (e.g., cities) no matter how far apart, then down the hierarchy to smaller places (e.g., towns) and rural areas; a form of expansion diffusion

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Large cities have more interactions with other people and places and the people in larger cities tend to be more diverse, wealthier, and more accustomed to change (willing to adopt new technologies and practices).Relocation Diffusion: often associated with migrants who take their cultural traits with them over long distances (often followed by expansion diffusion)• Spanish and Catholicism to Latin America• Blues to Chicago• Protestantism from Northern Europe to the US and CanadaThe early stages of AIDS diffusion (late 1980s) mostly followed a pattern of hierarchical diffusion book says contagious test is contagious early on it was hierarchicalThe following U.S. cities contained the earliest cases of AIDS: New York, San Francisco, Miami Stimulus Diffusion: underlying principle of a characteristic spreads although some of the characteristics have failed (example: they have hamburgers in India without beef, pop music, Hollywood, religion)Barriers to Diffusion• physical (oceans, lakes, and mountain ranges)• Writing system did not diffuse from Mexico to Peru• Seeds, Writing, and metallurgy didn’t diffuse to Sub

Saharan Africa or Australia cultural (language, religion, development/economic)

Landscape InterpretationCultural Landscape - The visible human imprint on the land.Culture + Time + Natural Landscape = Cultural LandscapeCulture is expressed in the landscapes and landscapes in turn represent cultural identity. (ap syllabus)Carl Sauer (Berkeley) tried to understand different cultures by focusing on their built landscapesSauer argued that landscapes should provide the focus for the scientific study of geography because they reflect the outcome, over time, of the interdependence of physical and human factors in the creation of distinctive places and regions. Sequent occupance - previous residents often leave lasting imprints on the cultural landscape that can be observedVisible evidence can reveal much about a past long forgotten by the present inhabitants, and about the choices made and changes wrought by a people.Three figurative expressions of human worth: 1. height

2. durability3. central location. Culture is evident everywhere throughout the landscape, not only in adaptations to the natural landscape, but also in such things as • monuments• religious icons• commercial signs.• house types• types of architecture

Elite Landscape• symbolize status• reinforce class• maintain differentiations from lower-status

landscapesAlways look for the subtle as well as the overt in cultural landscapes.landscape as text: the idea that landscapes can be read and written by groups and individuals and may have different interpretations.Example: The Islamic City• Principal mosque is centrally located • Privacy of individual residences is paramount (esp.

for women)• Entrances are L-shaped or angled • Doors do not face each other across a minor street• Windows are small and above normal eye level• Cul-de-sacs• Large homes are built around courtyards

Uniform landscapes: standardization of landscape that diminishes cultural variety and the unique sense of placeAlso known as Placelessness: everything looks similar and expressionless.• diminishes the unique sense of place

Convergence hypothesis: cultural differences between places are being reduced by improved transportation and communication systems,Working against the convergence hypothesis are Diverging individualistic regions: popular culture’s flexibility allows personal preferences to diverge rather than converge creating distinct regionsExamples: politics, religious affiliation, alcohol preferences, and spectator sports all exhibit regional differences.Familiarity with popular culture does not create a global culture

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• One can drink coca-cola and eat at McDonald's without becoming American

• American products are changed to fit a countries culture (for example: K-Pop)

Many American things have not traveled well• Baseball and American football • United States uses British Imperial measurements

while the rest of the world uses metrics

Folk and Popular CultureWhat is Culture?• Culture is learned behavior that is passed on by

imitation, instruction, and example.• Culture is almost entirely relative. Proper behavior

shifts from culture to culture.Geographic Importance of CultureGeographers study culture because it leaves dramatic imprints on the earth.

Culture includes: What people care about (nonmaterial culture)Language, religion, ethnicity, ideas, beliefs, and customsExample folklore: the teaching of a folk group, the traditional tales, and superstitions that are transmitted orally Culture also includes what people take care of (art, food, clothing, and shelter)Material Culture: the visible aspect of cultureAll tangible objects made and used by members of a cultural group, such as clothing, buildings, tools and utensils, instruments, furniture, and artwork

Folk MedicinePeople in folk societies commonly treat diseases and disorders with drugs and medicines derived from the root, bark, blossom, or fruit of plants. Food and medicine in folk cultures comes from intimate knowledge of the physical environmentTraditional Chinese Medicine: Science or Wishful thinking?Taboo: A restriction on behavior imposed by social custom Some taboo activities or customs are prohibited under law and transgressions may lead to severe penalties. Other taboos result in embarrassment, shame, and rudeness. Taboos can include dietary restrictions (halal (Islam) and kosher (Judaism) diets, and religious vegetarianism.)

Folk culture: a rural homogenous group retaining the traditional way of life

A large majority of people in folk societies are directly involved with food productionTherefore folk cultures often have unique landscapes and characteristics: fields, terraces, grain storage, beast of burden, dirt roads, lack of technologyFolk Culture: a rural homogenous group retaining the traditional way of life1. Much variation from Place to Place Folk Landscapes are usually of limited size2. Little variation from Time to Time (Temporal Variation)3. Little variation from Person to Person (The “culture” decides.)4. Communal (Individualism is frowned upon)5. Isolated6. Highly Immobile7. Strong Attachment to Places8. Resistant to Change (infrequently and slowly)9. Conservative10. Strong Interpersonal Relationships11. Strong Extended Family Structure12. Strong Religious Institutions (to maintain order)13. Dependent on Local Resources (self-sufficient, subsistence economy prevails)14. Customized Production (handmade goods)15. Generalized Professions (Relatively little division of labor. Rather, each person performs a variety of tasks, although duties may differ between the genders)16. Losing Ground

Popular Culture: a large heterogeneous group open to changePopular Culture diffuses on a global scale and extremely fast because of T.V., satellites, the internet, and the media (modern communication)Advertising may be the most effective device for diffusion in the popular culture1. Little variation from Place to Place (Spatial Variation)2. Much variation from Time to Time (Temporal Variation)3. Much variation from Person to Person (The “individual” decides.)4. Competitive, and superficial5. Interdependent6. Highly Mobile7. Weak Attachment to Places8. Constantly Changing (progress, fads)9. Progressive

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10. Weak Interpersonal Relationships (Relationships are more numerous but less personal, contractual relationships)11. Weak Extended Family Structure12. Strong Secular Institutions (police, army, and courts, take the place of family and church in maintaining order) (science challenges religion for dominance in our daily lives)13. Dependent on Distant Resources14. Mass Production (factories) and materialistic15. Specialized Professions (A distinct division of labor, with a highly specialized professions and jobs)16. Gaining Ground

Popular and folk cultures have different geographic patterns (in ap syllabus)

The US is almost completely dominated by popular culture. How and where is folk culture preserved here? • Indian reservations that speak and teach the native

language and traditions• Museum cities such as Colonial Williamsburg• The Amish – society cuts itself off from modern day

world (Western Pennsylvania and Ohio),

Folk Culture example (case study): The AmishThe various Amish or Amish Mennonite church fellowships are Christian religious denominations that form a very traditional subgrouping of Mennonite churches. The Amish are known for simple living, plain dress, and reluctance to adopt modern convenience.Amish church membership begins with baptism, usually between the ages of 16 and 25. It is a requirement for marriage, and once a person has affiliated with the church, she or he may only marry within the faith. Church districts average between 20 to 40 families and worship services are held every other Sunday in a member's home. The district is led by a bishop and several ministers and deacons.The rules of the church must be observed by every member. These rules cover most aspects of day-to-day living, and include prohibitions or limitations on the use of power-line electricity, telephones and automobiles, as well as regulations on clothing. As Anabaptists, Amish church members practice nonresistance and will not perform any type of military service. Members who do not conform to these expectations and who cannot be convinced to repent are excommunicated (kicked out of the church).

In addition to excommunication, members may be shunned — a practice that limits social contacts to shame the wayward member into returning to the church. Amish church groups seek to maintain a degree of separation from the non-Amish world. There is generally a heavy emphasis on church and family relationships. They typically operate their own one-room schools and discontinue formal education at grade eight. They value rural life, manual labor and humility.

Folk and Popular Culture’s Human Environmental Impact:Folk cultures may be more sensitive than popular cultures to the qualities of the soil, climate, and terrain, it does not follow that they are wholly shaped by their physical surroundings, nor is it necessarily true that folk groups live in close harmony with their environment, for often soil erosion, deforestation, and overkill of wild animals can be attributed to traditional rural folkBecause popular culture is largely the product of industrialization and the rise of technology, it might seem less directly tied to the physical environment than is folk cultureHowever, the environmental can have an impact on popular culture. Affecting things such as: Sports, migration, clothes, healthSome natural hazards are actually intensified by popular culture. Examples• Living on the coast• Living in huge cities on faults• Building homes on cliffs • Improved transportation allows disease to spread

faster and further

Identify and Discuss the positive and negative aspects of globalization.Identify Positive aspects: It has created wealthDiscuss: Trade between countries has increased making products less expensive and often has improved qualityIdentify Overall health has improved in the last 100 yearsDiscuss• Better health care• Less infectious disease• Acquiring food is much easier• Infant mortality has been reduced • Life expectancy has increasedIdentify• standard of living has improved

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DiscussVague explanation: New technologies have been introducedSpecific explanation: Improvements in: • housing has increased in size with better heating

and cooling, • communication through the internet and cell

phone, • travel is easier, cheaper, and faster because of

improved roads and highways and access to public transportation and cars.

Identify• Globalization can enrich ones cultureDiscuss• New ideas have been introduced: women’s rights,

education, entertainment, increases in the variety of food, clothing, music etc.

Negative Aspects of globalization:Identify• The world economy is dominated by rich countries

and corporationsDiscuss• Poor people remain poor• Some people are not able to provide for themselves

when growing cash crops (instead of food)• Transnational corporations (TNCs) push out smaller

businesses• Heightened economic differences among placesIdentify: Globalization has created homogenous, “placeless” landscapesDiscuss: • Commercial structures are often big box stores,

housing is often bland, and cities are crowded with traffic

• Franchises and brands have eliminated much local variation in cuisine and beverages.

• These foods are often inexpensive, high in calorie, and unhealthy.

Identify: Globalization has caused environmental problems and accelerated resource use through accelerated consumptionDiscuss:• Burning of fossil fuels creates air pollution and other

environmental problems• Mining creates huge environmental problems• New larger housing uses more energy and water.• Deforestation• Loss of natural habitat (housing, industry,

development, golf-courses, hotels, etc.)

• Killing of animals for their fur, tusks, horns, and meat on an industrial scale

• Increased consumption of meat• Even leisure activities in MDCs are harsh on the

environment and consume a lot of energy.• Other Examples:Identify• Globalization often destroys the traditional way of

life (folk culture) • Homogenization of cultureDiscuss• Loss of traditional religion (secularization)• Extinction of native languagesExamples: • North America, Europe, and Australia have become

rather similar and are constantly in contact with one another.

• Native Americans speak English follow Christianity• Maori (Whale Rider)• Tibet• Amish• Mayan in Mexico• Aborigines in AustraliaIdentify: Globalization can change traditional roles and values Discuss

• The elderly lose respect for not being beautiful and cool

• Empowerment of women can increase divorce and decrease interaction with children

• Some children could be affected by lack of good role models and turn to violence

• Drugs and alcohol use often increases• Materialism often becomes significant• Globalization of culture often glorifies violence,

and sexuality.

Commodification of culture: the transformation of goods and services (or things that may not normally be regarded as goods or services) into a commodity.

Folk Architecture• The most visible aspect of the folk landscape• Provide the unique character of each district or

province• Change little from one generation to the next• Dwellings range from: massive houses of stone for

permanency, to temporary brush thatch huts• Structures tend to blend nicely with the natural

landscape

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• Folk architecture is traditional and functional using local materials: wood, brick, stone, skins

• Climate and vegetation influence choice of construction materials

Simple explanation of climateLatitude and distance from ocean is very important to climate:Low latitudes are near the equator (0-30 degrees)High latitudes are near the poles (60-90)Middle latitudes are in between and where most people live. (30-60)

There are 5 basic climates Polar: ice with little people so not significant to this classCold mid latitude: Very cold winters but pretty nice the rest of the yearMild mid latitude: Temperatures are mild and it rarely freezesHumid low latitude: it rains a lot and never freezesDry: Also called arid. Very little precipitation but it might have very cold winters. Not all deserts are hot but it rarely rains.

Simple explanation of biomes (large zones of a type of vegetation)Near the equator there is tropical forest Between north pole and the northern forest there is tundra (the soil is frozen most of the year but not always covered in snow) in the colder mid latitudes there is forest (Russia, Canada, U.S. etc)There are deserts with brush (rarely sand dunes, usually bushes with walking distance between them).In between the two extremes of desert and forest, grasslands are found (called savanna in the tropics where there is a dry season)

Folk housing building materials.• Stone Construction• Most live in rocky, deforested lands• Mediterranean farmers • Rural residents of northern India and southwestern

China (Tibet)• Andean highlands

Earthen construction including Sun-dried (adobe) bricks• People in arid areas (deserts)

Sod construction• In pioneer times, the American Great Plains• In prairie (mid latitude grasslands)

• Russian steppes• The first Europeans in Northern Canada• Tundra areas• Canadian Barns were first made of sod

Tent housing• Nomadic herders often live in portable tents made

of skins or wool

Logs and sawn lumber (wood) • Where timber is abundant• Middle and higher latitudes• The United States and Canada, log cabins and later

frame houses• Folk houses of northern Europe • Eastern Australia• Central India

Half-timbering• Wood frame with building material in between:

such as clay or plaster.• Middle and higher latitudes• Often deforested regions where wood is scarce• Central Europe• Central China

Poles, bamboo, leaves and bark• Traditional people living in tropical rain forests

Brush – thatched• People in the tropical grasslands (tropics with a dry

season)• Especially in Africa• Australia• Brazil

Folk housing in North America• Few folk houses are being built today• Popular culture with its mass-produced,

commercially built houses have overwhelmed folk traditions

• Many folk houses survive in refuge regions Important factor in distinguishing different folk housing types in the U.S.: • Choice of building materials• Form in which the structure is arranged• Climate in which the structure is builtToday, house types in the US are distinguished by the following: • They display few regional distinctions• They are usually mass-produced

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• Alternative styles have diffused throughout the country

• No longer three distinct regions

Geography of LanguageThe most common variable by which different cultural groups are identified is language. Languages are of interest to geographers because they:• vary spatially• tend to form homogeneous groupings• facilitate cultural diffusionThe physical geography may: 1. Affect vocabulary• the fact there are more than twenty Spanish words

describing mountains and hills illustrates• the influence of topography in traditional Spanish

culture• the human environmental interaction• the connection between language and vocabulary 2. Protect a language (mountains, desert, rainforest) • When people who speak a given language migrate

to a different location and become isolated from other members of their tribe isolation usually results in the differentiation of one language into two. Examples: Basque is spoken primarily in the Pyrenees Mountains.

• The Icelandic language has changed less than any other Germanic language because of Iceland's relative isolation from other places.

• The Mexican Highlands and the Himalayas are linguistic refuge areas.

• The large number of African languages has resulted fromthousands of years of isolation between tribal groups

Linguistic shatter belts: areas where diverse languages are spoken.• A good example are the Caucasus Mountains • Native Americans in California created one of most

linguistically diverse region in the world• Behind New Guinea and the Caucasus.

Tree model of languagesWhen languages are depicted as leaves on trees, the branches represent language branches, the trunk language families.

Language family: collection of languages related to each other through a common ancestor long before recorded history

Language branch: a collection of languages related through a common ancestor that existed several thousand years ago. Differences are not that extensive or as old as with language families.Language group: collection of languages within a branch that share a common origin in the relatively recent past and display relatively few differences in grammar and vocab (not as important as family and branch)• English and German are part of the Western

Germanic group• Scandinavia is Northern Germanic• East Germanic of the Germanic family is extinct.

American English is a dialect. English is part of the Western Germanic group, the Germanic branch of the Indo-European Family.Indo-European Branches • The four most frequently spoken branches of Indo-

European Family include Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Romance, and Germanic.

• The most widely spoken language in Brazil is Portuguese. The two most important languages in South America are Portuguese and Spanish.

• The most widely spoken Indo-European language is English (book says Spanish)

• Russian is the largest language in the Balto-Slavic branch

• The Indo-Iranian language group constitutes the easternmost extant branch of the Indo-European family of languages. It consists of three language groups: the Indic, Iranian, and Nuristani.

• Today, there are an estimated 150-200 million native speakers of Iranian languages. Persian has about 65 million native speakers, Pashto about 40 million, Kurdish about 40 million, and Baluchi about 7 million.

• Persian (local names: Farsi, Dari, Tajik) is widely spoken in Iran/Persia, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and to some extent in Armenia, Iraq

• Indic has the most speakers of the Indo-European language family.Estimates: Hindustani (Hindi and Urdu, about 640 m), Bengali (about 260 m), Punjabi (about 100 m), Marathi (about 90 m), Gujarati (about 45 m), Oriya (about 30 m), Nepali (about 20 m), and others with a total number of native speakers of more than 900 million.

History of English in England• Celts: BC Indo-European language

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• Romans (Latin): AD 43 – 409• Germanic Speakers: • Angles, Jutes, and Saxons: 410 – 1065• Vikings (Norway): 900-1000• Born out of the dialects of three German tribes

(Angles, Jutes, and Saxons) who settled in Britain in about 450 A.D. This group of dialects forms what linguists refer to as Anglo-Saxon, and at some point this language developed into what we know as Old English. This Germanic base was influenced in varying degrees by Celtic, Latin, and Scandinavian (Old Norse) - the languages spoken by invading armies.

• Normans (From French coast called Normandy): 1066 – 1362

• The Normans are really a Germanic people (Norman means Northmen) who invaded Normandy from Scandinavia in the ninth century. They learned French but (keeping certain Germanic patterns of pronunciation) but when they conquered Britain were not Germanic speaking.

• During the Norman occupation, about 10,000 French words were adopted into English, some three-fourths of which are still in use today.

• Words that are French are easy to spot in English: Endings in – ion, ment

• French became the language of the government and law and culture (art).Latin the language of church, education, and philosophy.

• English was the language of the people and second class.

• English was "demoted" to everyday, unprestigious uses. These two languages existed side by side in England with no noticeable difficulties;

• In fact, since English was essentially ignored by grammarians during this time, it took advantage of its lowly status to become a grammatically simpler language and, after existing side-by-side with French, Old English segued into Middle English. Old English: 500-1100Middle English: 1100-1400 (change brought by French)Modern English since 1400

Dialects: mutual comprehension has not been lost (spoken in a local area)Linguists estimate that there are about 6,000-7,000 different languages spoken in the world today. The imprecision in this estimate is largely due to the fact that some dialects are in the process of diverging and it

is not clear that they have reached the stage of being separate languages. If two people find each other's speech unintelligible, they are usually thought to be speaking different languages rather than dialects. Dialects developed within England primarily because

different Germanic invaders settled in different regions.British and American English differ in pronunciation, spelling, and vocabularyDialects in the United States: 3 distinct regions-

Northern, Midland, and Southern

An isogloss is a boundary between language regions. African American Vernacular English (AAVE)• dialect of American English• most commonly spoken by urban working-class • and largely bi-dialectal middle-class African

Americans• it shares parts of

its grammar and pronunciation with Southern American English

• non-linguists sometimes call it Ebonics

Other language families and alphabetsThe 2nd most widely spoken language family in Europe is Uralic (Finnish, Estonian and Hungarian)Basque is unrelated to any other language in the world.Sino-Tibetan Family (second largest)“Chinese” is in the Sinitic Branch The language spoken by the greatest number of people in the world is Mandarin. Mandarin (common language) is imposed by government (Han) Around 8 different Chinese languages are spoken in China: • Mandarin, • Wu (Shanghainese)• Min (Taiwanese)• Yue (Cantonese)• Kejia (Hakka)• Gan• Xiang

Different tones are used in ChineseIdeograms- symbols are used to represent an idea or concept rather than pronunciationsBased on 420 one -syllable words

Altaic Family also called Turkish languages are found in Central Asia (the stans)Turkmen is closely related to Turkish and Azerbaijani, with which it is for the most part mutually intelligible.

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Western China (the Uyghurs pronounced Wegers)Macro-Altaic would add Korean, Japanese, and the Ryukyuan languages for a total of about 74.

The Afro-Asiatic Family is found in the Middle East, North Africa and the Horn of Africa. Semitic language. The Semitic Branch is found in this family with Arabic being the most widespread Semitic language. Hebrew is another Semitic language which is spoken in Israel.

The most important language family in Sub-Saharan Africa is Niger-Congo.African languages are distinguished by the fact that few are spoken by more than one million people

Alphabets make a culture uniqueA literary tradition is the written form of a language. Development of alphabets/writing allowed certain cultures to become more complex and dominantEnglish is written using the Latin alphabet but the world uses what we call Arabic numbers (0-9). Really from India.The Cyrillic alphabet has been adapted to write over 50 different languages, mainly in Russia, Central Asia and Eastern Europe. Hindi (written in the Devanagari alphabet)and Urdu (Pakistan) are very similar (same group).Urdu speakers use the Arabic alphabetUrdu and Hindi are mutual intelligible however, due to religious nationalism and alphabet native speakers of both Hindi and Urdu increasingly assert them to be completely distinct languages. Language and ReligionThe Arabic alphabet is one of the most important in the world. It is used by the followers of the Islamic faith--over 1 billion people.Old Testament written in HebrewJesus spoke Aramaic (a dying Semitic language)New Testament: GreekHebrew is an example of a revived language with the creation of the state of Israel in 1948. Lingua franca and the global dominance of EnglishLingua Franca: a language mutually understood and commonly used in trade by people who have different native languages.English is the lingua franca in the USA even though about 40% of Californians speak languages other than English at home.An important lingua franca in East Africa is Swahili

Arabic is the lingua franca, within the Muslim world, since it is the language in which the Qur’an is written.Urdu was chosen as a national language of Pakistan to act as a lingua franca although only 8% of people in Pakistan speak Urdu as a first language. However, Urdu is, increasingly, being adopted and spoken as a first language by a new generation of urbanized Pakistanis.

English is often a lingua franca• Of the internet (technology)• Over two-thirds of the world's scientists read in

English. • International conferences and scholarly journals are

often in English • English is also the main language of books,

newspapers, airports and air-traffic control, international business, technology, diplomacy, sport, international competitions, pop music and advertising.

Preserving language diversitySome places resist cultural dominance through:• Cultural nationalism is an effort to protect regional

and national cultures from the homogenizing impacts of globalization, especially from the penetrating influence of U.S. culture.

• The overall trend appears to be toward the loss of indigenous language (and other forms of culture)

• Monoglot: a person able to speak only one language• As the number of monoglots can be used to

measure the strength of the language• Imperial Conquest often causes a decline in

indigenous languages• English and French are spoken in many parts of

Africa because of imperialism and colonialism

Pidgin language is a simplified language that develops as a means of communication between two or more groups that do not have a language in common. It is most commonly employed in situations such as trade. A pidgin is not the native language, but is instead learned as a second language… Pidgins usually have low prestige with respect to other languagesA creole language is a mix of indigenous and colonial languagesA creolized language is a mix of indigenous and colonial languages.

The Economic Development Model of Linguistic Decline

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• Urbanization removes native speakers and contributes to the breakup of the social structure needed to perpetrate an indigenous language.

• The transition from subsistence farming to factory laboring is destructive to minority tongues.

• Industrialization strengthens the dominant language

• Welsh in the United Kingdom is an example of a language declining in context of this model

Factors promoting the revival of minority languages in the face of globalization:Separatists: some newly independent states reestablished the indigenous language as a statement of political and cultural independence.Nationalism: try to maintain their distinctiveness and promote the local language as a way to resist the dominate cultureExamples: Ireland/Gaelic, Israel/Hebrew, Native Americans, minority languages in China, Welsh and Gaelic in the UK, Basque in France/Spain

The central government promotes unity in multicultural states by adopting two or more official languages to reduce the threat of secession Examples: Canada, South Africa, India, NigeriaThe Flemings/Flemish (Dutch speakers) and Walloons (French speakers) live in Belgium.The Flemings and Walloons speak languages belonging to different language branches. And Switzerland where the official languages are French, German, Italian and Romansh. Geography of ReligionSome of these notes have background information on various religions. The exam will be predominately on the geography. In other words study the spatial aspect of the notes.VocabularySecularization: changing society so it is no longer under the control or influence of religionIn some parts of the world, especially in much of Europe, China and Japan, religion has declined.Statistics on atheism are often difficult to represent accurately for a variety of reasons. beliefs. Pilgrimages: a long journey of great moral significance. Sometimes, it is a journey to a shrine of importance to a person’s beliefs and faith.In religion, a relic is a part of the body of a saint or a venerated person, or else another type of ancient religious object, carefully preserved for purposes of

veneration or as a tangible memorial. Relics are an important aspect of some forms of Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Shamanism, and many other religions.A large and fundamental division within a religion is a branch. A religious sect is basically the same as a religious branch: a subdivision of a religious organization. The Roman Catholic Church is the largest sect/branch of Christianity:• Roman Catholic/1,000,000,000, • Protestant/400,000,000• Orthodox/200,000,000 Sectarianism is discrimination or hatred arising from attaching importance to perceived differences between subdivisions within a group, such as between different denominations of a religion or class.Sectarian violence is violence inspired by sectarianism, that is, between different sects of one particular mode of religion within a nation. Religious segregation often plays a role in sectarian violence.

Judaismis the oldest surviving monotheistic religion having influenced Christianity and IslamAccording to Judaism, God revealed his laws and commandments to Moses on Mount Sinai.The Torah is the first of three parts of the Tanakh (i.e. Hebrew Bible) and is divided into five books, whose names are Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy Jews are regarded as an ethnoreligious group, that define them as a nation (people), rather than of a faith. For most of the past 2,000 years, most Jews have been dispersed around the world. This is called a Diaspora: a spatial dispersion of a previously homogeneous group.The concept of a ghetto originally referred to the area of a city where Jews were forced to live. Judaism is numerically small because it does NOT seek new converts. The world Jewish population is estimated at 14 million people, 41% of whom lived in Israel and 40% of whom lived in the United States4 Major Sects or Branches of Judaism: Hasidic, Orthodox, Reform Judaism, and Conservative have small clusters in urban areas.

Christianity

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• Centered on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in the New Testament. The Christian faith is essentially faith in Jesus as the Christ (or Messiah), the Son of God, the Savior, the manifestation of God to humankind, and God himself.

• Adherents of the Christian faith believe that Jesus is the Messiah prophesied in the Hebrew Bible (the part of scripture common to Christianity and Judaism).

• Christian theology holds that Jesus died from crucifixion, and was resurrected from the dead to open heaven to those who believe in him and trust him for the forgiveness of their sins (salvation).

• Christians believe Jesus will return to judge all humans, living and dead, and grant eternal life to his followers. He is considered the model of a virtuous life.

• Christianity first diffused from its hearth through relocation diffusion.

• After its initial spread by relocation and hierarchical diffusion, Christianity spread by contagious diffusion

Christianity is not an important religion in the area it was founded.3 Major Sects or Branches of Christianity• Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodox, ProtestantWestern Christianity was initially identified with Rome and the Latin-speaking areas, while the Eastern Church dominated the Greek speaking world from Constantinople (now Istanbul). The split between the two churches became final in 1054This split created the Eastern Orthodox Branch of Christianity found in today in Eastern EuropePoland = PopeCountries that start with C are Catholic: The Croatians keep Central Europe in Czech so they stay CatholicIn the 16th century the Protestants during the Reformation broke off from Roman Catholic Church under Martin Luther’s protestsWhat is the difference between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism?Patron saints are chosen as special protectors or guardians over areas of life. These areas can include occupations, illnesses, churches, countries, causes -- anything that is important. A patron saint is believed to be a good example of how to live and is often asked for prayers to God.Catholics follow the seven sacraments: Baptism, Confirmation, Eucharist (communion), Penance, Matrimony, Holy Orders, and Anointing the sick

Protestants take communion and perform baptisms: the ritual act, with the use of water, by which a person is admitted to membership of the Church. The New Testament reports that Jesus himself was baptized. Catholic churches tend to be large and elaborate structures because Catholics perceive the church as the house of God (not sacred sites)

Denomination: a division of a branch that unites a number of local congregations in a single legal and administrative body

Evangelical Christians• The need for personal conversion, or being "born

again"• A high regard for biblical authority (against gay

marriage, premarital sex, discuss Revelation the last chapter of the bible)

• Actively expressing and sharing the gospel• Conservative Religious regions in the U.S.:Roman Catholics are clustered in the southwest (migration from Latin America) and Northeast and New England (migration from Italy and Ireland)A rich array of Protestant sects is best illustrated on the religious map of North America• The South is predominately Baptist• The Northern Central states are Lutheran• In between the North and South is very Methodist

Utah is very MormonFactors that influenced the Mormon region:• Mormonism began in the eastern US and migrated

west to avoid persecution• Lack of later in-migration of other religionsFactors that influenced the Lutheran region:• Germans and Scandinavians migrated in large

numbers bringing their religion• Lack of later in-migration of other religionsThe problems with religion maps is they do not show the diversity within regions

IslamLanguage and Religion often coincide ExamplesMost Arabs are MuslimMost of the world’s Muslims are NOT Arabs (only around 20%)Islam is a monotheistic, Abrahamic religion

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• Based on the teachings of the Qur’an, considered by its adherents to be the word of God as it was revealed to Muhammad.

• An adherent of Islam is a Muslim, meaning "one who submits (to God)".

• Muslims regard Islam as the completed monotheistic faith revealed to peoples before, including to Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus.

• Islamic tradition holds that previous revelations were distorted.

• Adherents of Islam have controlled the Holy Land for most of the past 1,500 years.

• Muslims controlled much of present-day Spain until 1492.

• Muslims are clustered in the Middle East.

However, Muslim missionaries followed trade routes and implanted Islam from Morocco to Northwestern China down to Indonesia including Central Asia, South Asia and Somalia. Five Pillars of Islam: 1. Belief: Declaration of Faith: accept & repeat “There is no God but God, & Muhammad is his Prophet.”2. Charity Muslims must give to the poor.3. Fasting Fast during Ramadan believers may not eat or drink between sunrise & sunset.4. Prayer Pray 5 times a dayfacing Mecca (Saudi Arabia).5. Pilgrimage Muslims who are physically & financially able must make a pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj).Mecca (Makkah): Muhammad’s place of birth and location of the Ka’ba.Muslims believe the Ka’ba was built by Abraham and Ishmael. They also believe it to be the first house of worship for God.The Hajj is designed to • develop a sense of spiritual uplifting. • be an opportunity to seek forgiveness of sins

accumulated throughout life. • bring Muslims from all around the world, to come

together in a spirit of universal brotherhood and sisterhood to worship the One God together.

The pattern of pilgrimages to Mecca suggests a fairly strong distance-decay effect, with most traveling relatively short distances from Middle Eastern Arab countries. Medina is the second holiest city for Muslims

Muslims also believe:• Muhammad is the last and greatest of the prophets.

• People should not drink alcohol, eat pork, or charge interest (usury).

• No gambling• Jesus was a prophetJews and Muslims discourage pictures and statues of their leaders (esp. God and Mohammed)The mosque is the most imposing religious structure in the Islamic landscapeA mosque differs from a church, in that it is NOT a sanctified place

Two Major Sects or Branches of Islam1. Shi’a (also known as Shiites) clerics are empowered

to interpret God’s will (esp. Iran, Iraq) around 10% of the Muslim population

Shias regard Ali as the first Imam and consider him and his descendants the rightful successors to Muhammad2. Sunnis: clerics are guides and the individual’s

relationship with God is direct (Majority of Muslims)

Hadith is the collective body of the sayings or customs of Muhammad and his companions

Clash of CulturesReligious Fundamentalism: a literal interpretation and a strict adherence to basic principles of the religion (Evangelicals)The opposite is Secularism: non-religious

Sharia or Islamic law deals with many aspects of day-to-day life, including banking, business, contracts, family, sexuality, hygiene, and social issues.Hadd: the word often used in Islamic literature for the bounds of acceptable behavior and the punishments for serious crimes. Hadd usually refers to the class of punishments that are fixed for certain crimes. They include • Theft• Fornication• Consumption of alcohol• Apostasy (leaving the religion)The Hadd punishments vary according to the offender: Muslims generally receive harsher punishments than non-Muslims.In brief, the punishments include:• Capital punishments - by sword or stoning • Amputation of hands or feet • Flogging with a varying number of strokesVigilante Justice RemainsHonor Killings: murder committed in retaliation for bringing dishonor to the family.

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Other pre-Islamic traditions exist that clash with modern society.• Female Genital Mutilation: clitoris removal called

“circumcision” and compared to male circumcision• Adolescent marriages• Polygamy

Islamism: The idea that Islam is not only a religion but also a political system.The basic intent of Islamism is to create an Islamic StateIslamist emphasizes the enforcement of:• sharia • pan-Islamic political unity• the elimination of non-Muslim, particularly western,

military, economic, political, social, or cultural influences in the Muslim world, which they believe to be incompatible with Islam.

Islamism is an Islamic political movement that resists the forces of globalization (secularization) Not all Muslims are Islamists although Islamism is the most extreme movement within Islam today.

Other terms associated with Islamism are • Militant Islam• Salafism strict and puritanical approaches to Islam• Jihad: Muslims use the word to refer to three types

of struggles: an internal struggle to maintain faith, the struggle to improve the Muslim society, or the struggle in a holy war

• Jihadis espouse violent jihad against civilians as a legitimate expression of Islam

Islamist has come into conflict with conceptions of the secular, democratic state. Among human rights disputed by fundamentalist Muslims are:• Equality issues between men and women (work,

government, divorce etc) • Separation of religion and state• Freedom of speech • Freedom of religion - Under Islamic law if a Muslim

converts then speaks against Islam then that is considered as treason which is punishable by death

What is the Taliban?• Political part that ruled Afghanistan from 1996-2001• Sunni mostly from Pashtun tribes• Strongholds today in the southern region• Followed a strict form of Sharia Law.Banned the following• education, employment and sports for women• movies, TV, videos, non-Islamic music, VCRs,

computers• clapping during sports events

• dancing• kite flying• women wear burqasmen: beards extending longer than a fist under the chin, but head hair short, wear a head coveringno depictions of living things, pictures, dolls, stuffed animals, paintings, drawingstheft punished by cutting off handrape, murder, adultery punished by public executions in Kabul’s soccer stadium

Christianity, Judaism, and Islam have the following in common: • Belief in one God• Abraham and other prophets• Prayer• Began in the Middle East• Jerusalem is a holy cityThe Old City of Jerusalem is home to several sacred sites: the Temple Mount and its Western Wall for Jews, the Church of the Holy Sepulcher for Christians (built where many Christians believe Jesus was crucified)and the Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa Mosque for Muslims (making Jerusalem the third holiest city to Muslims) Universalizing Religions• attempt to appeal to people throughout the world• individual historical founder• message diffused widely• followers widely distributed (exception Buddhism)• holidays based on events in founder’s life• biggest examples Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism

(Buddhism not diffused widely)Ethnic Religions:• meaning to people in a particular place• highly concentrated in place of origin• followers highly clustered (seldom diffuses)• holidays based on local climate and agricultural

calendar• do not convert people• unknown origin Since 1492, religions have become dramatically dislocated from their sites of origin through conversion and emigration.

Judaism considered an Ethnic Religion:• Major holidays are based on events in the

agricultural calendar of the religion’s homeland in present-day Israel

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• 2 holiest days Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur come in the autumn (hope for crops being planted)

• Passover (date it begins every year) derived from farmers making an offering (barley) of the first fruits to God in the spring

• Judaism uses a lunar calendar (29 days a month) which gets out of step with agriculture season so the Jewish calendar solves this by adding an extra month seven out of every 19 yrs.

• Judaism is an exception to ethnic religions in that more Jews practice Judaism outside its place of origin and Judaism is widely distributed.

Animism and folk religionsAnimism: certain inanimate objects possess spirits and souls (ethnic) These spirits live in rocks and rivers, mountain peaks, heavenly bodies, forests and swamps. Sub-Saharan African is the greatest surviving stronghold of animism both in terms of numbers of adherents and in percentage of total population. (esp. Mozambique and Madagascar)Animism and DeathMost animistic belief systems hold that the spirit survives physical death. 1. The spirit is believed to pass to an easier world of abundant game or ever-ripe crops, 2. While in other systems, the spirit remains on earth as a ghost.

From the belief in the survival of the dead arose the practice of offering food, lighting fires, etc., at the grave, at first, maybe, as an act of friendship or of ancestor worship. The simple offering of food or shedding of blood at the grave develops into an elaborate system of sacrifice. But all is not finished with the passage of the soul to the land of the dead. The soul may return to avenge its death by helping to discover the murderer, or to wreak vengeance for itself. There is a widespread belief that those who die a violent death become malignant spirits and endanger the lives of those who come near the haunted spot. In Malay folklore, the woman who dies in childbirth becomes a pontianak, a vampire-like spirit who threatens the life of human beings. People resort to magical or religious means of repelling spiritual dangers from such malignant spirits.It is not surprising to find that many peoples respect and even worship animals often regarding them as

relatives. It is clear that widespread respect was paid to animals as the abode of dead ancestors.

Shintoism is the Japanese animistic religion.. Shinto is a religion in where actions and ritual, rather than words, are of the utmost importance. Shinto is characterized by the worship of nature, ancestors, polytheism, and animism, with a strong focus on ritual purity, involving honoring and celebrating the existence of Kami.Kami are defined in English as "spirit", "essence" or "deities", that are associated with many understood formats; in some cases being human like, some animistic, others associated with more abstract "natural" forces in the world (mountains, rivers, lightning, wind, waves, trees, rocks). It may be best thought of as "sacred" elements and energies. Kami and people are not separate, they exist within the same world and share its interrelated complexity.

Chinese folk religion comprises the religion practiced in much of China for thousands of years, which included ancestor worship and drew heavily upon concepts and beings within Chinese mythology. It is estimated that there are at least 394 million adherents to Chinese folk religion worldwide.Chinese folk religion retains traces of some of its ancestral belief systems, which include the veneration of (and communication with) the sun, moon, earth, the heaven, and various stars, as well as communication with animals.

Chinese Beliefs: Buddhism, Confucianism (ethnic), and Daoism (ethnic) have fused together Religion in China has been characterized by pluralism since the beginning of Chinese history. Temples of many different religions dot China's landscape Hinduism is largest ethnic religion: 80% of the Indians or 900 million people• Polytheistic Hindus Believe: • Reincarnation after death you are reborn as another

person or organism• Karma - cause and effect the things people do in

this life affects their next life• Moksha: the ending of the suffering and cycles of

reincarnation• Cows have good karma• The Himalayas are the sacred snow-clad mountains,

on the summit of which are the heavens.

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• The Ganges is the Holy RiverMany of the sites that are sacred for India's Hindus are located near rivers

• Hindus visit sacred pilgrimage sites for a variety of reasons, including to seek a cure for sickness, wash away sins, or fulfill a promise to a deity.

• Worship in Hinduism is most likely to take place at home

Ghats: steps that lead down to the holy Ganges to facilitate ritual bathingVaranasi is one of the holiest places in HinduismUntil only recently many Hindus considered it a calamity to leave India and live with foreignersA Hindu is born into a caste (Class), determined by a person’s job and remains in it for life Outsiders:Untouchables are below the caste system and do the jobs that no one else will:• Clean the streets, toilets, or handle dead animals or

people• Foreigners Segregation by ancestry and occupation: Hindus only marry & eat with people who belong to their caste.Buddhism

• a universalizing religion • largely based on teachings attributed to

Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha.

• proper personal conduct and meditation are essential to overcome desire, eliminate life's suffering, and escape to a state of peace called Nirvana

• not monotheistic (does not worship more than one god TQ)

Two major branches of Buddhism are recognized: Mahayanist emphasize Buddha’s compassionMahayana is found throughout East Asia.Theravadist emphasize Buddha’s wisdomTheravada has a widespread following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia

While Buddhism remains concentrated within Asia, both branches are now found throughout the world. Various sources put the number of Buddhists in the world at between 230 million and 500 millionThere are eight holy sites associated with important events in Buddha’s life in Northern India and NepalVery few Buddhist in India today and it is not globally distributed

Sikhism: A universalizing religion that arose from an attempt to unify Hinduism and Islam Devout Sikhs have five symbols of their faith. They are known as the five K’s• Kesh (uncut hair) symbolizing obedience to God's

will, (men wear turbans)• Kangha (wooden comb) symbolizing cleanliness, • Kachh (shorts, worn under other clothes)

symbolizing goodness, • Kara (steel bracelet, worn on the right wrist)

symbolizing eternity • Kirpan (sword) symbolizing strength.Some Sikhs want self-determination in the Punjab Amritsar, Punjab is their holiest city

Islam and Hinduism as contrasting traditions• The Hindu emphasis on the plurality of the divine

within the oneness of reality contrasts with the Muslim affirmation of the oneness of God.

• The Hindu use the iconic representations of the divine contrasts with the Muslim prohibition of such representations.

• The Hindu tradition is associated with place and linked to the land of India. It is more a way of life than a creed. Islam, by contrast, is transcultural and based on a creed.

• The Hindu tradition is socially hierarchical (e.g., caste system), while Islam is socially egalitarian.

• The Hindu tradition is vegetarian, while Islam includes the sacrificial slaughter of animals.

Sacred sites: a geographic intersection between the divine and the mortal• sacred site shows the impact of religion on the

cultural landscape through:• the ongoing preservation of space• the visitation of holy sites/pilgrimages by adherents• tension/conflict over use of sacred site

Examples of this tension are Native American site in Hawaii and North America, Jerusalem, • The Partition of India in 1947 resulted in the

creation of the Hindu state of India and the Muslim state of Pakistan (East and West)

• The Babri Mosque (destroyed in 1992 when a political rally developed into a riot involving 150,000 people. More than 2,000 people, mostly Muslims, were killed in ensuing riots in many major Indian cities)

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Religion and the EnvironmentReligious ideas may be responsible for some of the changes people make in the physical environmentOne of the main functions of many religions is the maintenance of a harmonious relationship between a people and their physical environment.

Discuss how Christian, Animistic, and Taoist views on nature are different. Use specific examples with regards to Christianity in your answer.

Religion can influence environmental perception and modification (ap syllabus) Religious Perspectives on NatureJudeo-Christian-perspective: the earth was created especially for humans, who are separate from and superior to the natural world. (teleology) Believing that the Earth was given to humans for their use, early Christian thinkers adopted the view that humans were God’s helpers in finishing the task of creation, human modifications of the environment were God’s workChristians are more likely to consider floods, droughts, and other natural disasters to be preventable and may take steps to overcome the problem by modifying the environment.• cultivating the land• draining wetlands• clearing forests• building cities• dams, etc.Some Christians regard natural disasters as punishment for sins

animistic perspective: humans are extensions of animate and inanimate nature.• animistic principal goal is to mediate between

people and the spirit-infested forces of nature.• Shamans are said to treat ailments/illness by

mending the soul. Alleviating traumas affecting the soul/spirit restores the physical body. The shaman also enters supernatural dimensions to obtain solutions to problems afflicting the community.

• Adherents of ethnic religions do not attempt to transform the environment to the same extent.God/gods can be placated through prayer and sacrifice

• Environmental hazards may be accepted as normal and unavoidable

• Similarly, rivers, mountains, trees, forests, and rocks often achieve the status of sacred space.

Taoist perspective: nature should be valued for its own sake, not for how it might be exploited.Doaist believe humans should try to live in harmony with nature by balancing the opposite forces of nature, called yin and yang

Modern Middle East Study GuideIslam united the Middle East into the Arab Empire.Arab rule and Islam spread from Spain to the Indus valley (Pakistan today). Even after the Arab Empire fell, Islam remained strong.

Palestine is the geographic region in Western Asia between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. The region is also known as the Land of Israel and the Holy Land.What is a Palestinian?Palestinians are Arabs that are from Palestine. A vast majority of them are Muslim but some are Christian.

Zionist are Jews that believe Israel should be made a homeland for JewsAfter WW II Jews started moving to Israel in large numbers from Europeand the Middle East.• In 1947 the United Nations partitioned

Israel/Palestine.• Jews and Palestinians were both given land to

control.• Jerusalem was made an international city• Palestinians rejected the partition Many Arab countries do not recognize Israel as a country and think it is an illegal occupation of land.1948-49 War: Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan attacked Israel.• Israel won and acquired some of the Palestinian

land.• Jordan took the West Bank• Egypt took the Gaza Strip• Palestinians became a people without a countryIn 1948 most of the Muslim Palestinians became refugees in the following areas.Area Raw # 1. 2.3. 4. 5.

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6 Day War (1967) Israel took over the so called Occupied Territories • Golan Heights• West Bank• Gaza Strip• Sinai Peninsula1973 War Or Yom Kippur War • Arab countries lose to IsraelCamp David Accords (1979)• Israel returned the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt in

exchange for peaceThis is what is called The Peace Process: an exchange of peace for land through negotiations instead of war.It now continues with the Palestinians.Intifada: Palestinian uprising against Israeli occupation using rocks and suicide bombings to fight (1980s to 90s)HamasSince June 2007 Hamas has governed the Gaza Strip. Israel, the United States, Canada, the European Union, and Japan classify Hamas as a terrorist organization, while Iran, Russia, Turkey, and Arab nations do not.Based on the principles of Islamic fundamentalism gaining momentum throughout the Arab world in the 1980s, Hamas was founded in 1987 (during the First Intifada) as an offshoot of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood.

4 major issues that stand in the way of peace:1. Jewish settlements in the West Bank 2. Jews living in East Jerusalem3. Palestinian Terrorist that demand land through the use of violence4. Foreign Islamist that want to eliminate Israel (Iran and Hezbollah).

• This is why Israel does not want Iran to get Nuclear weapons.

• The West does not want Iran to get nuclear weapons because it could cause instability in the Middle East. What would stop them from supporting terrorism?

Options for Israel/Palestine today:The two state solution: one for Israelis one for PalestiniansContinued Israeli occupation/control of the West Bank

Why did 9/11 occur?

Geography of Ethnicity

An attempt to understand how ethnicity shapes and is shaped by spaceDoes Race Exist?Some scientist have stated that it is biologically insignificantRace is self-identification with a group sharing a biological ancestor. Self-identification includes: ethnicity, race, religion. Racism is • belief in biological classification of people.• superiority because of racial identity. • inferiority because of racial identity. Blockbusting: when real estate agents convince whites to sell their houses at low prices because blacks are moving in. Then turning around and selling the house at a high price to blacks an make a nice profit. (Neighborhood changes in ethnicity) However, one feature of race does matter to geographers – skin color.Because it is the most fundamental basis by which people in many societies sort out where they reside, attend school, and perform many other activities of daily life.Ethnicity: Identity with a group of people that share physical traits and cultural traditions (religion, language, skin color, and material culture) African American and black are different groups, although the 2000 census combined the two. Most black Americans are descended from African immigrants and therefore also belong to an African-American ethnicity. Some American blacks, however, trace their cultural heritage to regions other than Africa, including Latin America, Asia, or Pacific islands.

non-Latino whites are not ethnic unless they were born abroadKnox is a Scottish last name, are Knox’s: Scottish-American, ethnically Scottish, or an American of Scottish ancestry? (circle correct answer)Ethnic identity for descendants of European immigrants is primarily preserved through religion and food

1 in 3 Californians are Hispanic United States Census Bureau does not consider Hispanic/Latino a race. Can be any race Perhaps the most problematic ethnicity category in the 2000 U.S. census was “Hispanic,” an umbrella term used

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to refer to residents whose cultural heritage derives from a Spanish-speaking country. The largest Hispanic/Latino groups in the United States are from Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Mexico What Hispanics have in common is that they have ancestral ties to Latin America or Spain. Yet this apparent commonality masks a great deal of cultural differentiation, because a self-identified Hispanic can be Mexican American, Puerto Rican, Cuban American, Spaniard, or someone from any of the South or Central American countries. Ethnic group: people of common ancestry and cultural tradition, living as a minority in a larger society The people in the Soviet Union in the satellite states were ethnic until they got independenceAcculturation: the process by which an ethnic group chan ges in order to be able to function economically and socially. Assimilation: the loss of all cultural traditions and a complete blending with the host society intermarriage is perhaps the most effective assimilatory device. Melting Pot- a mixture of people, cultures and races who blended together by abandoning their native languages and customs. Salad Bowl- when people of various cultures/immigrants do not lose the unique aspects of their cultures like in the melting pot model, instead they retain themEthnic groups often occupy clearly defined areas, whether rural or urban.Ethnicity in Rural AreasEthnic Homelands cover large areas with a particular landscape.Ethnic islands: a small ethnic area in the rural countrysideThe largest single group in American ethnic islands is GermanWhile Germans and Scandinavians supplied most of the rural settlers in the U.S.,the cities drew much more heavily on Ireland and eastern and southern Europe. These groups were later joined by Southern blacks, Puerto Ricans, Appalachian whites, Native Americans, Asians, and other groups not of European birth. Ethnicity in Urban Areasethnic neighborhood: a voluntary community where people of like origin reside by choice.

In the process of urbanization and industrialization of Northern America, urban ethnic immigrants tended to cluster together in residential neighborhoods (LA).In the US ethnicities have • Regional concentrations• Concentrations in cities and within cities • Congregation: clustering of specific groups of

peopleAdvantages of Congregation• pride of group (that you mean or represent

something greater than yourself.)• mutual support of businesses • a political power base • familiar landscapes• cultural preservation • It allows religious and cultural practices to be

maintained esp. language • friendships and marriage partners • helps minimize conflict • recreation outlets

Disadvantages• Economic opportunity limited • IsolatedGhetto: areas of residential segregation where an ethnic group lives because it has very little choice in the matterInvasion and succession: a process of neighborhood change whereby one social or ethnic group succeeds another in a residential area. Regardless of the source of urban immigrants, the neighborhoods they create tend to be transitory Urban flight is when middle class people of any ethnicity move out of older neighborhoods to the suburbs“white flight”: the middle class flee the cities with their money. Poorer, disadvantaged, often minority residents were left behindBlack flight is a term applied to the out-migration of African Americans from predominantly black or mixed inner-city areas in the United States to suburbs and outlying edge cities of newer home construction. While more attention has been paid to this since the 1990s, the movement of blacks to the suburbs has been underway for some time, with nine million persons having migrated from 1960-2000. Their goals have been similar to those of the white middle class, whose out-migration was called white flight: newer housing, better schools for their children, and attractive environments. From 1990 to 2000, the percentage of African Americans who lived in the

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suburbs increased to a total of 39 percent, rising 5 percent in that decade. Most who moved to the suburbs after World War II were middle class.The large inner-city area of South Los Angeles offers an example of change caused by ethnic succession, where new immigrants replace former residents who move away or where an older generation is replaced by young people with children. In 1985 African Americans made up 72% of the population of the area. By 2006 the black proportion of the population had decreased to just 24%. The Latino population had risen from 21% in 1985 to 69% in 2006, as one population replaced another. From 2004-2005, Latino demand for housing caused prices to rise more than 40 percent in Watts and South Central Los Angeles.

ethnoburb: when ethnic groups voluntarily relocate from ethnic neighborhoods or ghettos to the suburbsMany younger individuals often do not feel the need for the security and familiarity of ethnic neighborhoods and decide where to live on other factors.

Population GeographyWorld Population: over 7 billionU.S. Population: 320 mCA: almost 40 mLA area: 18mLA county: 10 mCity of LA: 4 mWalnut: 38,0005 major global population clusters: 1.2.3. 4. 5.What types of climates do people typically avoid?cold lands, dry lands, wet lands, high landsTherefore we can say people are unevenly distributed on all scales.Population Geography: the spatial study of demographics Demography or demographics: the study of population characteristics (human statistics) i.e. fertility, gender, health, age, nutrition, and mortalitycrude birthrate (CBR): the number of live births in a single year for every 1000 people in the population.

Why did people traditionally try to have a lot kids? 1. work for them (Farm, make money)2. take care of them when they are old3. high infant mortality

What influences birth rates? 1. economic development 2. availability of birth control3. high infant mortality rate4. government policies (China’s one child policy or policies to encourage having children) 5. religion (Utah, Islamic countries, Philippines)6. social customs (Son mania, age of marriage etc.)7. demographic structure of the population (population pyramid)8. education of women (number 1 reason)

Girl PowerThe developing world holds an overlooked resource: millions of adolescent girls. Often forced to leave school and start families by their mid-teens, many fall prey to violence, disease, and complications of childbirth. Studies shows that keeping these girls in school and delaying marriage benefits both them and their communities by reducing infant mortality, increasing family income, and slowing the spread of HIV. Groups are looking at ways to make girls more valuable to their families as breadwinners than as child brides.IncomeCompletion of secondary school can increase a girl’s average future earnings by as much as 18 percent.Early MarriageIn developing nations (China expected) about one in seven girl marries before age 15. If their daughters do the same, many will be grandmothers before 30. Pregnancy Complications of pregnancy are the leading cause of death for girls ages 15-19 worldwide. Adolescent girls are more likely to die in childbirth.

Fertility rate: the average number of children a woman will have throughout her childbearing years (15 to 49) replacement fertility: When the total fertility rate is 2.1 since some girls die or don’t have kids but a country like the US may need fertility to be lower if immigration is high

Death rate (CDR): the number of deaths in a single year for every 1000 people in the population.

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CDR is influenced by economic development and the demographic structure (% of the population in different age groups)More elderly people or low levels of development usually mean higher death rates.Death comes in different forms geographically. In the developed world, most people die of age-induced degenerative conditions, such as:• Heart disease• Cancer (caused by modern life)• Obesity By contrast, contagious diseases are the leading cause of death in underdeveloped countries.Of the roughly 150,000 people who die each day across the globe, about two thirds—100,000 per day—die of age-related causes. In industrialized nations, the proportion is much higher, reaching 90%In 2000, the United Nations estimated global maternal mortality (death from being pregnant or giving birth) at 529,000, of which less than 1% occurred in the developed world. However, most of these deaths have been medically preventable for decades, as treatments to avoid such deaths have been well-known since the 1950s.

Birth Rate - Death Rate/10 = Natural Increase or Annual Percentage Increase

BR DR =NI World 21 9 = 1.2%MDC 11 10 = .1% LDC 23 8 = 1.5%Africa 38 15 = 2.3% Turn BR-DR into a % for exampleCountry BR DR =NI USA 14 8 = .6%Mexico 25 5 =Taiwan 10 6 =Nigeria 43 19 = The World’s annual natural increase rate is currently 1.2 percent.Doubling Time: The amount of time for a given population to double, based on the annual growth rate. To determine doubling time, divide the growth rate as a percentage into 70. i.e., a growth rate of 3.5 represents a doubling time of 20 years.

Examples: Afghanistan has a current growth rate of 4.8%, representing a doubling time of approximately 14.5 years (70/4.8=14.5). Growth Rate Doubling Time

1% 70yrs2% 35yrs3% 23yrs4% 17yrs

If the birth rate goes down the doubling time ____________ Why did people start having a lot less kids in Western Europe, US, Japan, Taiwan?• Birth control• Few children die• Retirement plans • Women working

Population pyramids (age-sex pyramids) determine the structure of a population• Types of Population Pyramids

Rapid population growth has a wide base

• Slow population growth has fairly even distribution• Negative Population growth has a narrow base

When deaths equal births the population has Zero Population Growth.Three basic age cohorts<1515-64>64dependency ratio: the economic impact of the young and old on the more economically productive members of the populationPopulation pyramids can be used to find the number of economic dependents being supported in a particular population. Economic dependents are defined as those under 15 (children who are in full time education and therefore unable to work) and those over 65 (those who have the option of being retired).

Of course, in some less developed countries children start work well before the age of 15, and in some developed countries it is common to not start work until 30 (like in the North European countries), and people may work beyond the age of 65, or retire early. Therefore, the definition provides an approximation.

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Demographic Transition ModelThe demographic transition is a model of population change when high birth and death rates are replaced by low birth and death rates. Stage 1• Preindustrial• High birth rates• High death rates• The population fluctuates because of famine,

disease, wars, natural disasters • Low population growth• High infant mortality rate• Children economic asset (help farm)• Children help parents in old age• Medical care is often inadequate• Poor sanitationExamples: isolated areas in the worldStage 2• Death rates fall• Birth rates remain high• High population growthCauses: New Technology introduced into society1. Agriculture Revolution (2nd) (fertilizer, mechanized agriculture, herbicides, fungicides, pesticides)2. Industrial Revolution: The developments of modern healthcare, and medicine like antibiotics and vaccination, drastically reduces infant mortality rates and extends average life expectancy. 3. Medical Revolution: When advances in medicine diffused to LDCs• Improved sanitationExamples: Afghanistan, or any Sub-Saharan African countryStage 3• Birth rates fall• Population increase slows• Family planning/birth control• People choose to have fewer children• Urbanization• Decrease in infant mortalityExamples: Chile, or most countries in Asia or Latin AmericaStage 4• Postindustrial/little or no growth• Birth rates low• Death rates low• Often declining population• Education of Women/rights/enter the labor force• Large percentage of old people

Example: Europe, USA, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan

Some countries do not enter stage four. • Culture supporting the idea that large families are

better. • Large amount of immigration• The US is affluent and has a low population density

(a lot of space)There are fluctuations of birth rates in stage four because of:• Economic ups and downs• Government policies• Immigration changes

Critics of demographic transition theory argue that the theory does not work for non-European countriesdemographic trap: some LDCs appear to be stalled in the transitional phase (stage 2/3) of the model, with potentially catastrophic results.

4 Stages of epidemiological transitionEpidemiology is the study of the patterns, causes, and effects of health and disease conditions in defined populations1. The Age of Pestilence and Famine: Where mortality is high and fluctuating, precluding sustained population growth, with low and variable life expectancy, vascillating between 20 and 40 years.2. The Age of Receding Pandemics: Where mortality progressively declines, with the rate of decline accelerating as epidemic peaks decrease in frequency. Average life expectancy increases steadily from about 30 to 50 years. Population growth is sustained and begins to be exponential. 3. The Age of Degenerative and Man-Made Diseases: Mortality continues to decline and eventually approaches stability at a relatively low level. Life expectancy rises and exceeds 50 years.4. Age of delayed degenerative diseases: life expectancy above 70. MDCs

Demographic or Population momentum refers to the tendency for population growth to continue beyond the time that replacement-level fertility has been achieved because of a relatively high concentration of people in the childbearing years. Population momentum occurs towards the end of Stage Three of the Demographic Transition.

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It takes many years for the large population base of today to work itself upward into older age groups where deaths typically occur. But note that this requires 50-60 years to happen -- therefore substantial growth continues even after replacement fertility has been attained. Once momentum has stopped then births (additions at the base of the pyramid) equal deaths (losses primarily at the top of the pyramid) and growth ceases. We are then truly in Stage Four of the Demographic Transition. In China, the total fertility rate is 1.8 (below replacement levels) and yet the population continues to grow.What happens if India were to achieve replacement fertility instantaneously?Even at replacement fertility, the population growth of India would continue until the year 2060, and the population would grow to over 1476 million. Demographers predict that by 2030, India's population will pass China's population and India will be the world's most populous country with about 1.53 billion people

Why does world population continue to grow at a fast rate even though people are having less kids?• People are living longer/decline of death rates • Lower infant mortality• Demographic momentum

Malthus’s theory The debate about population and resources originated in the work of an English named Thomas Robert Malthus (1766—1834), whose theory of population relative to food supply established resources as the critical limiting condition upon population growth.• Population growth grows geometrically while food

production increases arithmetically• Population would therefore grow faster than food

supplycarrying capacity: the maximum number of users that can be sustained by a given set of natural resources.In some places Malthus was right and others he was wrong:

How is Malthus right?• Population continues to rise in certain areas of the

world because• Some people have limited access to contraception• Medical Revolution• Some countries are still in stage 2 of the

demographic transition with a declining death rate

In many places there is not enough food (world hunger, undernourished) • Failure to adopt modern agricultural techniques• Environmental degradation (desertification,

overgrazing, deforestation, soil erosion)

How has Malthus been wrong?Population growth has NOT been rising in many places• Declining birth rate• Expanded use of contraception• Political policies (one child)• Education/empowerment of women• Many countries in 4th, &/or 5th stages DTMThere is enough food• Mechanization, use of chemicals, irrigation,

Expansion of agricultural lands• (new technologies is too vague)• There has also been an increase in trade: ability to

distribute food to areas of need is much greater than during Malthus’ time

• Improvements in transportation (highways, containerization, refrigerated trucks)

• Improvements in food preservations (refrigeration, packing, processed food)

3 Sides to the Population Debate1. Neo-Malthusians (Antinatalist): High fertility rate is one of the biggest problems facing the world todayDeveloping countries have large numbers of children and youth that will swell the childbearing ranks for years to come (Demographic momentum) causing economic, social and environmental problems.Negative economic aspects of rapid population growth:• Poverty (low GDP per capita)• UnemploymentNegative Social aspects of rapid population growth:• Population growth may outstrip a country’s ability

to provide social services to its entire population. • Poor education• Housing shortages (squatter settlements)• Inadequate health care• Crime• War (caused by overuse/lack of resources)• Inadequate amount of fresh water • Inadequate sanitation Negative environmental aspects of rapid population growth • Air pollution• Global warming • Ozone depletion• Acid rain

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• Over fishing• Loss of habitat from Deforestation • Loss of habitat from growth of cities• Erosion (major problem as farmland is overworked)• Desertification: Overused semiarid lands that

deteriorate to a desertlike condition

Government policies to address high fertility rates:• investments in family planning or access to

contraceptives• investments in the education of girls • improve equality/rights of women• investments in reproductive and child health (if

infant mortality decrease so will the natural increase)

2. Cornucopians:Continued progress can be met by advances in technology. Fundamentally they believe that there is enough matter and energy on the Earth to provide for the estimated peak population of about 9.22 billion in 2075. Human creativity and innovation will provide opportunities for people to overcome the limitations of their environment.Ester Boserup argued that population determines agricultural methods. Farmers will adopt new and modern methods to keep up with demand caused by an increasing population A major point of her book is that "necessity is the mother of invention". It was her belief that humanity would always find a way and was quoted saying "The power of ingenuity would always outmatch that of demand.”

Cornucopians are often pronatalist: population decline is the major problem• the world population explosion is a thing of the

past. People should be having more children. • falling fertility rates have caused • aging populations• shrinking workforces• inadequate demand for goods and services• intergenerational conflict • immigration tensions(someone has to work and pay

taxes but they often bring a different culture).• and overall economic decline• examples: Japan and EuropePaying for retirement is easy when the population is growing and people don’t live long. When it isn’t, there are three unwanted choices

1. Raise taxes of workers (middle cohort)2. Decrease benefits3. Raise retirement ageWhat government can do to raise fertility rates:• money for having children or tax breaks• longer maternity leaves • subsidized (government pays) day care • day care at places of work• shorter work days for women or part time• telecommuting

3. Marxist: Population is a political issue group: governments lack the will to redistribute wealth or the resources to reduce poverty

Human MigrationHuman mobility reflects the political, economic, and cultural connectedness between core and periphery

The gravity model of migration is a model in urban geography derived from Newton's law of gravity, and used to predict the degree of interaction between two places. Newton's law states that: "Any two bodies attract one another with a force that is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them." When used geographically, the words 'bodies' and 'masses' are replaced by 'locations' and 'importance' respectively, where importance can be measured in terms of population numbers, gross domestic product, or another appropriate variables. The gravity model of migration is therefore based upon the idea that as the importance of one or both of the location increases, there will also be an increase in movement between them. The farther apart the two locations are, however, the movement between them will be less. This phenomenon is known as distance decay.

Reilly's law of retail gravitation states that larger cities will have larger spheres of influence than smaller ones, meaning people travel farther to reach a larger city.In general terms, migrants make their decisions to move based on push and pull factors Human movement often results from a perception that conditions are better, safer, easier, or in some other way superior in some distant placeThis push and pull of regions determines theNet migration: the gain or loss in the total population of that area as a result of the migration.

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Migration is either International (external) or Internal and Forced or VoluntaryEnvironmental migration is a type of forced migration caused by the degradation of land and natural resources.Example: Droughts in Africa and Floods in Asia

International Forced Migrationforced migration: migration against an individual’s willOften cultural/political migration (slavery, ethnic conflict, political instability or war)Many of these migrants become Refugees: People who are forced to migrate from their home country who are unable or unwilling to return because of persecution on account of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion.Examples1. Africa to the Americas during the period of slavery2. Forced migration after WWII of Germans in Eastern Europe to Germany3. Palestinians (1948 and 1967)4. Many of the refugees from Vietnam War (70s) became known as the boat people 5. Yugoslavians (90s)6. Central Africa7. Sudan8. Somalia9. Iraq10. Afghanistan11. Syria

Internal Forced MigrationNow called Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs)(often lack effective protection)Examples: 1. "Trail of Tears" refers to the forced migration of the Cherokee Nation in the nineteenth century2. In South Africa between 1960 and 1980, when apartheid policies forced some 3.6 million blacks to relocate to government-created homelands3. Enclosure movement in England (promote more efficient agriculture) 4. The Cultural Revolution in China in the 60’s5. Africa Today

International Voluntary Migration (Economic)guest workers: a person with temporary permission to work in another country.Positive aspects of emigration (leaving one’s country):• relieves unemployment pressure

• money is sent home• remittances are transfers of money by foreign

workers to their home countries. Negative aspects of emigration• brain drain (emigration of talented people) • breaks up families

Positive aspects of immigration (arrival of new individuals):• take low status/low paying jobs• contribute to the local economy by spendingNegative aspects of immigration:• immigrants are seen as “taking” citizens jobs • use government services (Education, health care,

receive welfare benefits)• may resort to crime to make a living

RandomnessElements of globalization of culture: uniform consumption preferences. enhanced communications. unequal access to cultural elements

Coyote: a person in Mexico that smuggles people across the borderguest workers: a person with temporary permission to work in another country.

Major modern migration flows:1. Europe to North America2. Southern Europe to South and Middle America3. Britain and Ireland to Africa and Australia4. Polynesians5. India to Eastern Africa (all British colonies)6. China to Southeast Asia7. Eastern US westward8. Russia eastward9. Gypsies10. Jews to Israel after 1948

Two major eras of voluntary migration to USA 1st major Era of immigration was from Europe during the 1800s and early 1900s2nd major Era of immigration was from Asia and Latin America since WWII ended in 1945Two waves of European MigrationFirst wave: European immigration was from North and Western Europe. 1800sSecond wave: European immigration was from South and Eastern Europe. Late 1800s early 1900s

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U.S. Immigration TodayFamily reunification accounts for approximately two-thirds of legal immigration to the US every year.The number of foreign nationals who became legal permanent residents (LPRs) of the U.S. in 2009 as a result of family reunification (66%) exceeded those who became LPRs on the basis of employment skills (13%) and for humanitarian reasons (17%) The largest number of legal immigrants to the United States comes from Mexico

Chain Migration: Migration of people to a specific location because relatives or members of the same nationality previously migrated there• reduces level of uncertainty• ties to family and friends at the destination• made possible by the chain of communications and

support established by other immigrants from their homeland

Europe Immigration Case Study Sending regions: North and West Africa, Eastern and Southern Europe, Turkey and Middle East.Receiving regions: Northwest Europe except British Isles and ScandinaviaThe UK receives most of its immigrants from: former colonies/British Commonwealth: South Asia, Caribbean and Southern AfricaFrance receives most of its immigrants from its former colonies of North and West AfricaPush factors:• high rates of unemployment (labor surplus)• faster growing populations (stage 2 and 3 of the

demographic transition)• low paying jobsPull factors:• labor shortage• higher wages and industrial development• a large % of the population is retired • high dependency ratio• stage 4 of the demographic transition model

Internal Voluntary Migration1. Intraregional: within a regionIn MDCs intraregional is often Suburbanization: movement from urban areas to the less densely populated surrounding the city2. Interregional: region to region

High mobility rates in the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand are due to:

• A history of immigration• High standard of living• High value place on personal freedomMexican migration to Northern border is an example of interregnal migration. Many of them find work in Mexican border town in what are called Maquiladora: A foreign owned export assembly plant in Mexico.Spatial distribution of maquiladoras in Mexico• Near the U.S. border (the Mexican government

originally insisted that they be within 35 miles of the US border)

• The labor used in such plants is overwhelmingly female:

• Mexico is attractive to multinational corporations for the following reasons:

• Proximity to US market keeps transportation costs low

• Inexpensive labor costs in Mexico• NAFTA (no tariffs) • Weak environmental regulations• Tax breaks• Mexico’s stable government• US shift to a tertiary economy

If so much more money can be made in the U.S. why aren’t there more illegal immigrants from Mexico? maquiladoras are an example of intervening opportunity: The opportunity of employment at a closer location may keep one from arriving at the original destination.FR Identify and discuss the four main waves of interregional migration within the United States over the last two centuries. Four main waves of interregional migration within the United States over the last two centuries:1. Eastern seaboard to the interior of the country (began mid 1800s): Land ownership 2. Rural-to-urban (began mid 1800s): Associated with industrialization3. Rural South to cities in the South, North, and West (mostly African Americans, early 1940s to the 70s): Escape Jim Crow (racist) laws and economic opportunityThis came after the movement of 1.75 million African Americans out of the Southern U.S. to the North and Midwest and West from the early 1900’s -1930.4. Manufacturing Belt (Frostbelt/Rustbelt) to Sunbelt (After WWII to present):In addition to the obvious attraction of warmer climates, migration to southern states is linked to the regional restructuring of the economy.

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Restructuring of economy is moving from Agriculture to Manufacturing or Manufacturing to a service based economy.Rather than investing in upgrading the aged urban industrial areas of the Northeast and Midwest, capital was invested in Sunbelt locations: Cheaper land and labor costs (increased profits)A disproportionate share of cutting-edge industries such as electronics, computers, and communications technology have thrived in the Sunbelt. The Sunbelt has benefited from deindustrialization.

Also hard hit were states in the Great Plains, where the loss in agricultural jobs and failure to attract cutting-edge industries and services has led to depopulation of many rural areas. Less primary sector jobs.

Within the US the pattern of net migration rates shows large population gains in the Sunbelt, with moderate gains in northern New England, and the Pacific northwestern states. Florida redistributes migrants from the North to other states in the South in much the same way that California traditionally has redistributed migrants from the Northeast and Midwest to other western states.

Today’s US migration patterns reflect:• the changing geography of economic opportunity in

the nation• the location of states relative to one another

(nearby states tend to exchange migrants)• historical patterns of movement (i.e. longtime

linkages between Florida and New York and between California and Texas)

• the public’s perceptions about the attractiveness of places (including intangibles like an agreeable climate, being near family and friends)

In LDCs migration often leads toover-urbanization: condition in which cities grow more rapidly than the jobs and housing they can sustainsquatter settlements: self-made structures built on land that is neither owned nor rented by its occupantsIn LDCs interregional migration is often from rural areas to squatter settlements outside large urban areas.There is a near total absence of formal sanitation, electricity, or education (basic infrastructure). Even if these resources are present, they are likely to be disorganized, or inferior. Shanty towns also tend to lack policing, medical services, and firefighting.

Fires are a particular danger for shanty towns because of the close proximity of buildings and flammability of materials used in construction.In LDCs migration often leads toover-urbanization: condition in which cities grow more rapidly than the jobs and housing they can sustain

Faced with the growth of these slums, the first response of many governments has been to eradicate them.Slum eradication usually results in the quick construction of another slum in another part in the cityWhy would a person choose to move to a squatter settlement knowing there aren’t going to be any services available and the sanitation conditions are going to be horrible?• lack of opportunity in rural areas Many of these immigrants find jobs in the Informal sector: economic activities that take place beyond official recordnot regulated or taxed by the government includes many economic activities (yard sales on a massive scale)

Many people do not plan on stayingReturn migration: the voluntary move of a group back to their country or region of birth. Reasons for return migration:• the new location was not as it had been perceived • inability to adjust to a new culture or climate• inability to establish themselves (find employment)• return to family• saved sufficient money• resolution of conflicts at home• end of environmental crisis (drought)Examples:• 20% of domestic moves in the U.S. are back to the

state of birth• about 40% of immigrants eventually leave Canada• about 25% of immigrants eventually leave Australia• 7 percent of African Americans in Los Angeles

County, California, moved away between 1985 and 1990, including many who went to the American South.

Ravensteins “Laws of Migration”1. Most is short distance.2. Longer-distance favors big cities.3. Most international migrants are young adults4. Globally migration is rural to urban (The most prominent type of intraregional migration in the world) (not in MDCs)

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Explain Wilbur Zelinky’s migration transition theory (specifically mention the stages)? In textbook

Primary Activities and Agricultural GeographyFR Topics FR Topics: Shifting Cultivation, 3 Ag. Revolutions, Green Revolution, Biotechnology, Monoculture, Industrial Ag., Poultry, Agriculture and the Environment, Organic Ag. , Agriculture and Politics, Von Thunen, Dairy Farminglivestock for sustenance and for profit. Agriculture: a science, an art, and a business directed at the cultivation of crops and the raising of livestock for sustenance and for profit. 3 stages of obtaining food1. Hunting and gathering2. Subsistence Agriculture: food produced for direct consumption of the growers and families (periphery)3. commercial agriculture: a system in which farmers produce crops and animals primarily for sale has dominated the twentieth century (core)Subsistence Agriculture usually follow one of three dominant forms: 1. shifting cultivation 2. intensive subsistence agriculture3. pastoralism

Explain how shifting cultivation works, where it has historically taken place, and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of its use.1. Shifting cultivation: a system in which farmers aim

to maintain soil fertility by rotating the fields within which cultivation occurs

This creates a Swidden: land that is cleared using the slash-and-burn process and is ready for cultivation. Step 1: Cut vegetationStep 2: Burn vegetationStep 3: Nutrients in vegetation releasedStep 4: Plant crops in naturally fertilized fieldStep 5: Repeat planting until field yields diminishing returnsStep 6: Abandon fieldStep 7: Return to field in 20 years when regeneration has occurredIntertillage: the practice of mixing different seeds and seedlings in the same swiddenBenefits of intertillage:• Spreading out food production over the growing

season• Reducing disease and pest loss

• Protection from loss of soil moisture• Erosion controlShifting cultivation works best with low population densitiesShifting cultivation is globally distributed in the tropics and subtropics, especially in the rainforests of : Central and West Africa the Amazon in South America much of Southeast Asia (Thailand, Burma, Malaysia,

and Indonesia)Too much rain will leach away the minerals below the level roots can reach; hence, tropical forests grow on surprisingly poor soils (lack nutrients).These forests depend for their continuance on the fragile but highly active biological communities that constantly recycle nutrients and energy from decaying life forms in the topmost layer of the soil. Advantages of shifting cultivation: Feeds population (more productive than hunting

and gathering) Low cost Minimal damage to environment Disadvantages of shifting cultivation: Requires a lot of land Can’t feed a large population Soil loses fertility Low crop yields Negative impact on the environment (If too large of

a population density)Shifting cultivation has been replaced with more intensive forms of agriculture because of population growth and the greater need for increased outputs per acre

The second dominant form of subsistence activity is2. intensive subsistence agriculture: a lot of human labor with the help of natural fertilizer on small parcels of land.The crops that dominate intensive subsistence agriculture are rice and other grains.Can support large rural populations.Intensive subsistence often has a Gender Division of LaborMen clear away vegetation, cut down trees, and burn stumps. Women sow seeds and harvest the crops.What is pastoralism? Where is this practiced today? Why in these areas?Although not obviously a form of agricultural production, pastoralism is a third, dominant form of

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subsistence activity associated with a traditional way of life and agricultural practice.3. pastoralism: the breeding and herding of animals for food (milk), shelter, and clothing.Practiced in cold and dry climates where subsistence agriculture is impracticable: deserts steppes (lightly wooded, grassy plains) savannas (grasslands)

Parts of North Africa and the savannas of Central and Southern Africa, the Middle East, and Central Asia.

pastoralism can be either sedentary (pastoralists live in settlements and herd animals in nearby pastures) or nomadic (they wander with their herds over long distances, never settling in any one place for very long).Pastoralists generally graze cattle, sheep, goats, and camels, although reindeer are herded in parts of Eurasia.

Transhumance: the movement of herds according to seasonal rhythms: warmer, lowland areas in the winter, and cooler, highland areas in the summer

Extensive Agriculture: Large-area farms or ranches with low inputs of labor per acre and low output per acre.Intensive Agriculture: Small-area farms and ranches with high inputs of labor per acre and high output per acre. plantation agriculture mixed crop/ livestock systems market gardening horticulture factory farms Agricultural practices have transformed geography and society as the global community has moved from predominantly subsistence to predominantly capital-intensive, market-oriented practices.

The First Agricultural Revolution (Neolithic) over 10,000 years ago farming replaced hunting and gathering invented seed agriculture and the use of

domesticated animals population increased settlements formed

Southwest Asia (Mesopotamia) also called The Fertile Crescent (1st place) Ethiopia Mesoamerica South America (Peru) Southeast Asia China

The Columbian Exchange has been one of the most significant events in the history of world ecology, agriculture, and culture. The term is used to describe the enormous widespread exchange of plants, animals, foods, human populations, communicable diseases, and ideas between the Eastern and Western hemispheres that occurred after 1492. (before 2nd ag revolution)

The Second Agricultural Revolution (or British Agricultural Revolution): a period of development in Britain between the 17th century and the end of the 19th century, which saw a huge increase in agricultural productivity and net output. (diffused to North America by European colonists)This in turn supported unprecedented population growth, freeing up a significant percentage of the workforce, and thereby helped drive the Industrial Revolution with urbanization. The primary causes were: early mechanization selective breeding four field crop rotation The enclosure movement was the process which was used to end some traditional rights, such as mowing meadows for hay, or grazing livestock on land which is owned by someone else (noble/king) Land was fenced (enclosed) and deeded to one or more owners. The sheep were then moved from one field to the nextThe process of enclosure has sometimes been accompanied by force, resistance, and bloodshed.

20th Century Agriculture or maybe 3rd Ag. Rev.(North America):Continued decline in the number of people employed in farmingMany family farms are consolidated by corporations. A family farm is a farm owned and operated by a family, and passed down from generation to generation. The family farm is viewed as a lifestyle to be preserved for tradition's sake.

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3 phases of 3rd Agricultural Rev (20th century Ag)1. Mechanization (significant amount): the replacement of human farm labor with larger, more powerful, and more efficient machines.2. Food manufacturing: agriculture is linked to the processing, canning, refining, packing, packaging, and so on—occurring off the farm and before the products reach the market3. Chemical farming: the application of artificial (synthetic) fertilizers, herbicides, fungicides, and pesticides to crops to increase yields.

The Haber-Bosch method for synthesizing ammonium nitrate into artificial or synthetic fertilizers represented a major breakthrough and allowed crop yields to overcome previous constraints. Some have argued they have been the single most important factor in avoiding the Malthusian catastrophe.

This revolution diffused to other parts of the world in an effort to improve the diets of people in Asia and Mexico (shifting from subsistence or collective to commercial farming)

IR8 and the PhilippinesIn 1960, the Government of the Republic of the Philippines with Ford and Rockefeller Foundations established IRRI (International Rice Research Institute).Annual rice production in the Philippines increased from 3.7 to 7.7 million tons in two decades. But the heavy pesticide use reduced the number of fish and frog species found in rice paddies.

This diffusion is called the Green Revolution (globalization of industrial agriculture, 1960s-80s) based on the development of:1. Mechanization2. Artificial fertilizers 3. Irrigation 4. Pesticides and herbicides5. Higher-yield varieties (HYV) of plants

Green Revolution Successes: Yields of some crops such as rice and wheat have

increased greatly Shorter growing seasons means an extra crop may

be grown each year HYV (High Yield Varieties) plants are often shorter,

and so can withstand strong winds and monsoon without severe damage

Farmers who can afford new seeds and mechanisation have become richer

Mechanisation improves quality of life of farmers by reducing backbreaking tasks

Land holdings have been enlarged and ‘squared off’, making them easier to farm

Commercialisation of farming puts peasants in touch with the outside world through trading contracts and access to the media

Transport linkages improve to cope with increased commercial production

Millions of people fewer than before suffer from starvation

Conclusion: An economic success for richer farmers. Has increased yields and reduced hungerIn Asia, rice production grew 66% between 1965 and 1985. India became self-sufficient in wheat production by the 1980s. regions impacted with increased crop yields.Latin America: Mexico, Central America, S. AmericaSouth Asia: IndiaS. East Asia: Indonesia, Vietnam, PhilippinesEast Asia: ChinaGreen Revolution Failures: HYV seeds are expensive, so only rich farmers can

afford them HYV seeds often need expensive fertilisers to thrive Farmers and consumers do not like the taste of the

new HYV seeds as much as traditional types Some HYV seeds cannot tolerate difficult

environmental conditions such as drought or floods Smaller peasant farmers who cannot afford the HYV

seeds, fertiliser or machinery have become poorerUnemployed rural labourers who have been replaced by machines migrate to the cities in search of work, creating social problems Some farmers cannot repay the money borrowed to

buy seeds or machinery We may lose the genetic stock of the traditional

types of rice as they are replaced by HYV’s the Green Revolution’s focus on rice, corn, and

wheat had little impact on Africa. African agriculture is based on different kinds of

crops, and soil fertility is considerably lower so the potential return on the investment is also lower.

Conclusion: Has increased the gap between rich and poor farmers. Has forced the poor off the land and into cities

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4th Agriculture Revolution????? (knox)Biotechnology: Genetically modified (GM) foods are foods produced from genetically modified organisms (GMO) that have had their DNA altered through genetic engineering (GE)Herbicide-tolerant GMO Crops allows the plants to tolerate exposure to herbicides. Roundup Ready seeds allow the farmer to grow a

crop that can be sprayed to control weeds without harming the resistant crop.

With the increasing use of herbicide-tolerant crops, comes an increase in the use of herbicide sprays. In some areas resistant weeds have developed, causing farmers to switch to other herbicides. Insect-resistant GMO CropsHave a gene from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), which produces a toxin specific to insects. These crops protect plants from damage by insects (63% of US cotton acreage)

In the case of Bt corn, the donor organism is a naturally occurring soil bacterium, and the gene produces a protein that kills in particular, the European corn borer.Corn produced through biotechnology is being used in many familiar foods, including corn meal, tortilla chips, and corn syrup, which is used as a sweetener in many foods such as soft drinks and baked goods.

Argument for applying biotechnology to agriculture: Can increase agricultural production Lowers the price of foodCriticismperceived safety issues:could produce new toxic substances (toxins) or allergens ecological concerns, irreversibility of contaminationGM plants produce seeds and pollen that can be very fine and travel large distances, transported by insects and wind. genes could possibly transfer from one species to anotherThe Grocery Manufacturers of America estimate that 75% of all processed foods in the U.S. contain a GM ingredient. In particular, Bt corn, which produces the pesticide within the plant itself, is widely grown. Another controversial issue is the patent protection given to companies that develop new types of seed using genetic engineering. Since companies have intellectual ownership of their seeds, they have the

power to dictate terms and conditions of their patented product. terminator seeds are from GMO crops that make sterile seeds. This guarantees annual purchases. Terminator seeds are currently under strong international opposition and face continual efforts of global bans.Other Agricultural IssuesMonoculture is the agricultural practice of growing the same crop over a wide area year after year on the same land.Monocropping is most frequently practiced in industrialized countries’; maize (corn), soybeans and wheat are three common crops often grown using monocropping techniques. It is increasingly being done in developing countries as genetically modified organisms (GMO) and industrial farming are displacing native crops and local farmers.Take home FRWhile economically a very efficient system, allowing for specialization in equipment and crop production, monocropping is also controversial, as it often leads to depletion of the nutrients of the soil and problems with weeds and pesticides. These in turn lead to the monocropping system being dependent on pesticides and artificial fertilizers. It also leaves the crop more susceptible to disease as genetic similarity between plants makes them equally vulnerable. An example of this would be the potato famine of Ireland in 1845–1849.Monocropping is commonly seen as the solution to one problem, whether the problem is economic, environmental or political, but simultaneously hosts many other problems. For example, in order to help reduce dependence on fossil fuels the US government is subsidizing tons of farmers to grow corn and soybeans in order to supply us with ethanol. The irony is that the production of bio-fuels is incredibly oil-intensive. Mono-cropping is incredibly chemical and energy intensive as studies have shown that the amount of energy used to produce one unit of bio-fuel is larger than the amount of energy that it produces. Also, the amount of pesticides and fertilizers needed to supply the thousands of acres in the US and abroad are seeping into the soil, affecting groundwater and the environment. Soil depletion is also a negative effect of mono-cropping. Because farmers are no longer rotating their

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crops and replenishing the soil of essential nutrients, the soil becomes dry and begins to erode. As the soil becomes arid and useless, the need for more land becomes an issue which just leads to the destruction of even more land. Another environmental impact of mono-cropping is deforestation. In the US and abroad large plots of land are being cleared at incredible rates to make more room for all of the acres of corn, soybeans, cabbage, coffee, palm trees and all the other cash crops, that have become the staples of so many economies. Not only does this deforestation affect the health of the soil, but the trees release all of their stored carbon when they’re cut down. Also this lack of trees has an effect on water quality and flooding. The deterioration of the soil that affects water quality in turn affects the animals that live off of that water. Also, the lack of forests makes flooding a bigger issue. Another side effect of mono-cropping is the displacement of indigenous peoples. When indigenous groups are forced off of their land in order to make room for a palm oil plantation, for example, the people then have to settle in unfamiliar territory. This new environment is usually unsuitable for their lifestyles. Indigenous groups run the risk of overgrazing the land by having animals in unsuitable conditions. Also the concentration of animals can pollute groundwater and create toxic runoff. While many people think that mono-crops are beneficial for the government, small villages and are the solution to our dependence on fossil fuels, it is important to think about all of the negative environmental side-effects.Another side effect of mono-cropping is the displacement of indigenous peoples. When indigenous groups are forced off of their land in order to make room for a palm oil plantation, for example, the people then have to settle in unfamiliar territory. This new environment is usually unsuitable for their lifestyles. Indigenous groups run the risk of overgrazing the land by having animals in unsuitable conditions. Also the concentration of animals can pollute groundwater and create toxic runoff. While many people think that mono-crops are beneficial for the government, small villages and are the solution to our dependence on fossil fuels, it is important to think about all of the negative environmental side-effects.

Food irradiationA food safety technology designed to eliminate disease-causing germs from foods. Treating food with ionizing

radiation can kill bacteria and parasites that would otherwise cause foodborne disease. Presently over 40 countries have approved applications to irradiate approximately 40 different foods. These include such items as fruits, vegetables, spices, grains, seafood, meat and poultry. Although this amount represents only a fraction of the food consumed annually, it is constantly growing. Studies by the US Center for Disease Control estimate that foodborne diseases cause approximately 76 million illnesses, 325,000 hospitalizations, and 5,000 deaths in the United States each year. • The FAO has estimated that about 25% of all

worldwide food production is lost after harvesting to insects, bacteria and spoilage.

• Economic losses due to insects and microbes have been estimated to fall between $5 and $17 billion yearly in the US alone.

• Food irradiation can help reduce these losses and can also reduce our dependence on chemical pesticides, some of which are extremely harmful to the environment.

Criticism and concerns about food irradiationConcerns have been expressed by public interest groups and public health experts that irradiation, might disguise or otherwise divert attention away from poor working conditions, sanitation, and poor food-handling procedures that lead to contamination in the first placeFood irradiation might be used to mask spoiled food discourage strict adherence to Good Manufacturing

Practices impair the flavor not destroy bacterial toxins already present cause chemical changes which are harmful to the

consumer and, on top of all, is unnecessary in today's food

system.Food irradiation is a way to try to come in and clean up problems that are created in the middle of the food production chain. It's a disincentive to clean up the problems at the source.

Norman Ernest Borlaug(March 25, 1914 – September 12, 2009) was an American agronomist and humanitarian, who has been deemed the father of the Green Revolution.He took up an agricultural research position in Mexico, where he developed semi-dwarf, high-yield, disease-resistant wheat varieties.

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During the mid-20th century, Borlaug led the introduction of these high-yielding varieties combined with modern agricultural production techniques to Mexico, Pakistan, and India. As a result, Mexico became a net exporter of wheat by 1963. Between 1965 and 1970, wheat yields nearly doubled in Pakistan and India, greatly improving the food security in those nations. These collective increases in yield have been labeled the Green Revolution, and Borlaug is often credited with saving over a billion people worldwide from starvation. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970 in recognition of his contributions to world peace through increasing food supply.Later in his life, he helped apply these methods of increasing food production to Asia and Africa.Criticisms and his view of criticsBorlaug's work has been criticized for bringing large-scale monoculture, input-intensive farming techniques to countries that had previously relied on subsistence farming. These farming techniques reap large profits for U.S. agribusiness and agrochemical corporations such as Monsanto Company and have been criticized for widening social inequality in the countries owing to uneven food distribution while forcing a capitalist agenda of U.S. corporations onto countries that had undergone land reform.Other concerns of his critics and critics of biotechnology in general include: construction of roads in populated third-world areas could lead to the destruction of wilderness; the inability of crops to fulfill all nutritional

requirements; the decreased biodiversity from planting a small

number of varieties; the environmental and economic effects of

inorganic fertilizer and pesticides; the amount of herbicide sprayed on fields of

herbicide-resistant crops.

Large scale farming is often called Agribusiness, corporate farming, factory farming, and/or industrialized agriculture.Industrialized agriculture: the role of the farm is moved from being the centerpiece of agricultural production into being only one part of a system of production, storage, processing, distribution, marketing, and retailing of foods.

Crops and livestock are standardized so that growing time is minimized, but yields and therefore profits are maximized. The standard size allows for mechanization of

processing at large scale (mass production) using assembly line concepts (reducing labor as well).

The methods include innovation in machinery and farming methods genetic technology patent protection to genetic information global trade economies of scale Economies of scale: The decrease in unit cost of a product or service resulting from large-scale operations, as in mass production.

Industrialized agriculture is widespread in developed nations and increasingly prevalent worldwide. Most of the meat, dairy, eggs, fruits, and vegetables available in supermarkets are produced using these methods of industrial agriculture.A feedlot is a type of animal feeding operation which is used in factory farming for finishing livestock, notably beef cattle, prior to slaughter. Large beef feedlots are called concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) in the United States. They may contain thousands of animals in an array of pens. Most feedlots require some type of governmental permit and must have plans in place to deal with the large amount of waste that is generated. Prior to entering a feedlot, cattle spend most of their life grazing on rangeland. Once cattle obtain an entry-level weight, about 650 pounds, they are transferred to a feedlot to be fed a specialized diet which consists of corn byproducts (derived from ethanol production). The animal may gain an additional 400 pounds during its 3–4 months in the feedlot. Once cattle are fattened up to their finished weight, the fed cattle are transported to a slaughterhouse.Antibiotics are used to promote growth and treat sick cattle, yet the cattle would not get sick if they were not fed a corn-based diet that subjects them to diseases caused by the malfunctioning of their rumenThe problem with giving livestock antibiotics is bacteria may become resistant, creating Superbugs. (antibiotic resistant organisms)In the core economies the transnational corporation is the dominant player in the food production process.

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Positive aspect of agribusiness:_____________

Negative aspect of agribusiness:____________

Case Study: PoultryMany people believe that the chicken production process is really manufacturingThe one-story broiler houses are essentially factories that use birds as machines to convert raw materials of corn and soybeans into a finished product of meat for human consumption.Characteristic of the present economic organization of poultry production in the U.S.Large scale operations (as seen in the number of birds per farm)Specialized farms (they raise poultry only)Features of the present geographic distribution of poultry production in the U.S. U.S. production is clustered in the American South Proximity to markets (East Coast) Proximity to transportation corridors Regional concentration in low wage areas Attracts immigrants Factors that have increased the demand for poultry. Population increase Health benefits Falling prices with increases in supply

SustainabilitySustainable agriculture: farming methods that preserve long-term productivity of land and minimize pollution of the soil, groundwater, and streams that drain the land. For example: Minimal tillage is a sustainable agriculture practice. A new crop is knifed into the soil over the stubble of the previous season. The stubble prevents wind erosion during the fallow seasonOrganic farming is the form of agriculture that relies on crop rotation, manure, compost, biological pest control, and mechanical, excluding or strictly limiting the use of synthetic fertilizers and synthetic pesticides, and genetically modified organisms.Organic agriculture has become a 28 billion-dollar industry in the U.S.Organic livestock are fed 100 percent organic feed and cannot be given antibiotics or growth hormones. Factors contributing to the increase in the number of organic farms.Health issues Consumers wary of digesting insecticides, herbicides, fertilizers, (chemicals)

Consumers wary of eating genetically modified organisms (GMOs) antibiotics used on livestockEnvironmental issues Chemicals (insecticides, herbicides) are bad for the

environment GMOs may contaminate other fields fertilizers can create dead zones in bodies of water Economic issues Small farms competing with large-scale farms

(agribusiness/ The economies of scale) are forced to shift to specialty food for niche markets that bring higher prices and greater profitability, e.g., producing higher-priced, higher-quality organic products

Population of the U.S. is increasing in wealth and is better able to afford (and willing to pay} higher prices for organic products.

Households have declined in size and have more disposable income to spend on higher-quality (organic) food rather than lower-quality (nonorganic) food.

Negative Aspect of Organic farming_______________________________

One study from the Danish Environmental Protection Agency found that, area-for-area, organic farms of potatoes, sugar beet and seed grass produce as little as half the output of conventional farming.

Arguments against organic foodA number of critics contest the notion that organic agricultural systems are more friendly to the environment and more sustainable than high-yielding farming systems. Among these critics are Norman Borlaug, father of the "green revolution," Nobel Peace Prize laureate, who asserts that organic farming practices can at most feed 4 billion people, after expanding cropland dramatically and destroying ecosystems in the process. Agriculture and PoliticsA subsidy is a form of financial assistance paid to a business. Most subsidies are made by the government to producers in an industry to prevent the decline of that industry (e.g., as a result of continuous unprofitable operations) or an increase in the prices of its products . The U.S. Agricultural Department is required by law (various U.S. farm bills which are passed every few

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years) to subsidize over two dozen commodities for an average of $20 billion/year.The beneficiaries of the subsidies have changed as agriculture in the United States has changed. In the 1930s, about 25% of the country's population resided on the nation's 6,000,000 small farms. By 1997, 157,000 large farms accounted for 72% of farm sales, with only 2% of the U.S. population residing on farms.The subsidy programs give farmers extra money for their crops, as well as guarantees a price floor. For instance for every bushel of wheat sold farmers are paid an extra 52 cents and guaranteed a price of $3.86. If the price of wheat was $3.80 farmers would get an extra 58 cents per bushel (52 cents plus the $0.06 price difference). Government policyFederal tax laws also provide incentives for biofuels. Under current law, blenders can receive tax credits equal to 51 cents per gallon of ethanol blended with gasoline. This makes ethanol more economical to produce, as part of that credit is, in effect, passed back from blenders to ethanol producers.Anticipated impact of growth in ethanol productionThe explosive growth of U.S. ethanol production is being felt by nearly every aspect of the field crops sector—domestic demand, exports, prices, and the allocation of acreage among crops —as well as the livestock sector, farm income, government payments, and food prices.

Positive aspects of government involvement 1. food prices are kept affordable 2. farming remains profitable3. the country does not become dependent on imported foodNegative aspects of agricultural subsidies:1. distorts the market value of the agricultural products (the real cost of food may be quite high )2. higher taxes3. overproduction4. dumping (donating or selling at a below market value price) of surplus food on foreign countries which may:Lower the local price driving farmers out of business.5. Subsidies can be regarded as a form of protectionism or trade barrier by making domestic goods and services artificially competitive against imports.

Discuss negative impact of agriculture on the environment.

In the past century, agriculture has been characterized by enhanced productivity, the replacement of human labor by synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, selective breeding, and mechanization. The recent history of agriculture has been closely tied with a range of political issues including water pollution, biofuels, genetically modified organisms, tariffs, and farm subsidies. In recent years, there has been a backlash against the external environmental effects of mechanized agriculture, and increasing support for the organic movement and sustainable agriculture.The Impact of Agriculture on the Environment soil erosion desertification deforestation elimination of some plant and animal species soil and water pollution (herbicides, pesticides, and

fertilizers) Sustainable agriculture integrates three main goals: environmental stewardship, farm profitability, and prosperous farming communities. Practices that can cause long-term damage to soil include excessive tillage (leading to erosion) and irrigation without adequate drainage (leading to salinization). Von Thunen’s Agricultural ModelA land use modelused to explain the importance of proximity to the market in the choice of crops on commercial farms(this created a concentric pattern: circles sharing the same centers)Von Thunen believed farmers compare two costs in deciding what to grow: transportation costs versus rentHe defined rent as the difference between revenues received and costs paid — in other words, the profit earned from the land.Because farmers must pay to transport their produce to the market, and these costs are directly proportional to distance, the profit for each product declines as a straight line with increasing distance from the marketThe decline in profit with increasing distance from the market is an example of distance decay.Von Thunen's model made several simplifying assumptions. all the farmers in a certain area would send their produce to one market townan evenly flat plain surrounded the market townthe fertility of the soil and the climate were the same everywhere on that plain

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the cost of transport was the same in every direction from the market town, and directly proportional to distance.Ring one Intensive farming (fruits, vegetables, and dairying

closest to the city) What is intensive agriculture?high inputs (labor, fertilizer, pesticides, machinery) makes a high cost so only a higher priced goods can turn a profit (strawberries for example)Why is intensive farming used in the inner ring? Perishable products (needs to get to the market

quickly) Higher land value so a higher value commodity

must be produced High transportation costs could prevent a profit2nd Ringtimber and firewood Fuel and building materials for industrialization Wood is heavy and expensive to transport if farther

away from the market3rd Ring Extensive field crops Grains Less profit per acre However: Cheaper to transport Can locate further from the city (less perishable) on

less expensive land4th ring Ranching Animal raising Can be self transportedFor example: On California’s poultry farms site factors are not as important as on other farms because chickens can be raised indoors on cheap land with poor soils. The most ideal bioclimatic zone for wheat would be the Ohio River Valley and the great prairies of Iowa, Illinois, and Indiana, however, wheat is grown on the high plains farther west in the arid region. Wheat is grown there not because it is the best place to grow it, but because it is the crop that will yield a profit there while other crops will not.

Discuss two factors that explain why agriculture land-use patterns today differ from those developed by Von Thunen’s model of 1826.What is this question asking?The rings often do not apply to the modern world

Can grow crops further is zero points. The rings are bigger is still von ThunenBetter technology is too vague zero points.Examples of how the rings are not relevant today:Forest no longer is near the cityRefrigeration, preservation, canning and much faster transportation allows perishable products to be shipped from beyond the inner ringtrucks and airplanes allows perishable food to get to the market faster so it doesn’t have to grow near city anymore which allows it to be produced in an outer ring.With Pasteurization milk is often transported from beyond the inner ring

Can import vegetables and dairy products from other countries Flowers grown in South American European cheese sold in grocery stores Berries flown in from Central America Grapes from ChilePolitical influences make certain areas artificially profitable through subsidies.cows in S. California (tax breaks on ag land)Rice in CA (subsidized water)

Milk sheds: The compact dairy farms that surround cities.Factors contributing to the steady decline in the number of dairy farms.Factor: Increased production of milkExplanations Cows produce higher yields, meaning fewer cows

are needed to meet the demand for milk; Mechanization/technological changes in the milking

process have enabled farmers to increase the size of their dairy herds (so there are less).

Development of agribusiness, factory farms, industrialization of agriculture.

Factor: Displacement by urbanizationExplanationDairy farmers close to cities where dairy farms traditionally have been located (milk shed) have been displaced by urbanization, leading to a decline in the number of dairy farms overall.Agriculture and the California EconomyCalifornia leads the nation in value of agricultural products, yield of products produced ($44 billion),multiplier effect: an increase in some economic activity starts a chain reaction that generates more activity than the original increase.

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Agricultural economists have worked out quite different multipliers for crop agriculture and livestock agriculture; the two average out to about 2.7. If this ratio is applied to the $32 billion agricultural production, it could then be said that the monetary impact of California agriculture is $86.4 billion.

Two concerns with Agriculture1. loss of prime agricultural land to urban populationsMore than 12% of original cropland has been converted to urban uses in California’s Central Valley. 2. mechanization displacing labor workers (brings social, economic and educational impacts)On one side are growers and agricultural researchers whose aim is to increase production while lowering costs.What is probably the most important factor that determines what type of agriculture a regions is involved in?

Economic Geography: ManufacturingWhat Geographers do besides teach:Work for the Government: • Urban Planning. Planners conduct studies of local

economic, social, and physical patterns to help plan (manage growth) the community’s future

Work in the private sector to find the best locations for • new shopping centers• supermarket chains, department stores, and other

retailers to determine the potential market for new stores.

• Distributors to find ways to minimize transportation costs

• Manufacturers to identify new sources of raw materials and markets.

The chapter deals with the secondary sector: Manufacturing (construction) activities that transform raw materials into more usable forms. They add value by making wheat into flour, copper ore into wire, and silicon into computer chips, and by assembling sophisticated components into computers, airplanes, and cars.

Prior to the Industrial Revolution, the distribution of industry was dispersed.

The world pattern of manufacturing is quite different to the pattern of agriculture. Manufacturing is concentrated in the northern hemisphere.

Industrial LocationCost minimization: industrial location strategy which seeks to minimize all input and distribution costsFactors in locating an industry are generally divided into two categories: situations and site. 1. site: the physical attributes of a location: its terrain, its soil, vegetation, and water sources, for example. site factors relate to the cost of doing business at a particular place because of the characteristics of the place. In economics they are called the factors of production:The land, labor, and capital – that are needed to produce goods and services. In geography we call them site factors:Land (Rent) • land costs• energy costs• amenitiesLabor • skilled (higher paid) vs. low-cost laborCapital resources that can be used to make more, like money or toolskey features of capital are the availability of money for lending, the level of infrastructure, the availability and use of tools, machines, and technologiesThe textile industry is most dependent on low-cost labor (site factor). Clothes are light and not fragile so transportation costs are cheap.Therefore textile production is most likely to be located in LDCs. The location of a maquiladora plant is a good example of the importance of site factors. (the distance to US market is short so transportation costs are not significant but the cheap labor is the deciding factor of its location)

2. situation: the location of a place relative to other places and human activities. Situation costs are critical to a firm which wishes to minimize transport costs to the plant and products from the plant. the integration of shipping, railroad, and highway systems through containerization has drastically decreased the cost of transportationOften called intermodal containerization. When transportation costs are significant companies have to decide to produce: Near Inputs

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Near markets or in between

1. Location near inputs - minimize transport costs of raw materials to the plant bulk-reducing industries- copper, steel historicallyA copper concentration mill tends to locate near a copper mine because it is a bulk-reducing industry. Copper concentration is a bulk-reducing industry, because the final product has a much higher value per weight. 2. Location near markets - minimize transport costs of products from the plant to consumers including: bulk-gaining industries (soda and beer bottling) single market products (auto parts) perishable goods (bread, milk, newspaper) Since 1980, new U.S. automobile assembly plants have been built in the Midwest to minimize national distribution costs. Producers of automobiles select locations primarily because of access to markets. 3. Location near break-of-bulk points (in between inputs and market): port location (steel today, oil refineries).A company which uses more than one mode of transport will often locate near break-of-bulk points.

Heavy, light, and footloose industries• Heavy industry, which are those manufacturing

industries handling heavy materials such as iron and steel, and which traditionally employ very few females.

• light industries is much more dispersed around the world. Light industries are manufacturing industries where the materials handled are light in weight, such as books, computers, toothpaste and television sets.

• A footloose industry is able to locate almost anywhere because markets, raw materials and transport influence only a small proportion of its total cost.

When deciding where to locate a factory:• If the decision is mostly based on the transportation

cost (should it be located near the raw materials or the market) then it is a situation factor.

• If the decision is mostly a based on the cost of producing the product (labor costs) it is a site factor.

• Alfred WeberThe German economic geographer Alfred Weber (1868—1958) did for the secondary industries what von

Thünen had done for agriculture: he developed a model for the location of manufacturing establishments. Weber made five controlling assumptions: (1) An area is completely uniform physically, politically, culturally, and technologically. This is known as the uniform, or isotropic, plain assumption. (2) Manufacturing involves a single product to be shipped to a single market whose location is known. (3) Inputs involve raw materials from more than one known source location. (4) Labor is infinitely available but immobile in location. (5) Transportation routes are not fixed but connect origin and destination by the shortest path; and transport costs directly reflect the weight of items shipped and the distance they are moved.

Weber's model attempts to explain industrial location. Weber used locational triangles to illustrate the impact of transport costs on industrial location. A. Transporting raw materials cost the same as the finished productB. Transporting raw materials costs less than finished product (maybe finished product delicate/more packaging)C. Transporting raw materials costs more than finished product (loss in bulk)D. More of raw material from R2 needed than R1 Ethanol and Corn: Classic Weberian location patternCriticism of Weber:• transport is not directly proportional to distance,

but generally becomes cheaper per kilometre over longer distances

• Does not take account of political considerations such as subsidies, tax holidays and export incentive zones.

• Changes in transport and communications in recent years are making traditional models of industrial location increasingly irrelevant.

• as more business is conducted electronically on the internet, the traditional pressures for industries to cluster together in agglomerations are disappearing.

Weber’s least cost theory accounted for the location of a manufacturing plant in terms of the owner’s desire to minimize three categories of costs:1. Transportation (most important to Weber) the location chosen must entail the lowest possible cost of moving raw materials to the factory and finished products to the market.

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2. LaborHigher labor costs reduce the margin of profit so a factory might do better farther from raw materials and markets if cheap labor made up for the added transport costs. 3. agglomeration is used to describe the benefits that firms obtain when locating near each other. Cost advantages:• attracts more customers than a single firm could

alone. • costs of providing infrastructure can be shared,

more extensive and sophisticated• can support a variety of suppliers and maintenance

firms • share a specialized pool of labor (engineers and

lawyers)Thus agglomeration makes a big-city location more attractiveagglomeration is central to the explanation of how cities increase in size and population.This concentration of economic activity in cities is the reason for their existence and they can persist and grow throughout time, only if their advantages outweigh the disadvantages. Excessive agglomeration leads to diseconomies:• crowding • Traffic/circulation problems (resulting in increased

transport costs and loss of efficiency)• high rents• rising wages• inflation (perhaps driven by strong demand for

scarce housing)• a general decay of infrastructure because of intense

use• Etc.It is this tension between agglomeration and diseconomies that allows cities to grow, but keeps them from becoming too large.Deglomeration occurs when companies and services leave because of increased costs of excessive concentration. (diseconomies)Urban prairie is a term coined to characterize large swaths of vacant city lots, typically covered with grass or untended weeds and litter. Urban prairie results from widespread building demolition, common in areas subject to extensive urban decay. These areas are not the same as a true, natural prairie. Cities with exceptionally large amounts of urban prairie include Detroit, Michigan, St. Louis, Missouri, Newark, New Jersey, and Buffalo, New York. Urban prairies have also developed in older areas of "sprawl" cities such as

Phoenix, Arizona, Jacksonville, Florida and Houston, Texas.Urban prairies can result from several factors. The value of the properties may fall too low to provide financial incentives for their owners to maintain their buildings. Frequently this is due to high unemployment, depopulation, deindustrialization, or crime rates. Abandoned properties are frequently acquired by local government as response to unpaid property taxes and they are often used for criminal activity, which tends to prompt demolition.backwash effects: the negative impacts on a region (or regions) of the economic growth of some other region. (Mexico vs. China)

Fordisom and post-fordims

Fordist production: a single firm controls most aspects of production from raw materials to the finished productThis creates mass production of the same item with a large inventoryProduction is now disaggregated: divide into partsManufacturing often has a complex commodity/supply chain.

A commodity chain is a sequential process used by firms to gather resources, transform them into goods or commodities and, finally, distribute them to consumers.

• In short, it is the connected path from which a good travels from producers to consumers.

• Commodity chains can be unique depending on the product types or the types of markets.

Post-FordismFirms are flexible and quickly respond to the whims of the market. Companies are smaller, can take advantage of niche markets, and subcontract many tasks.They also incorporatejust-in-time production: parts are delivered to the assembly plant shortly before (JIT) use less space needed, which creates less rent. Other characterization of post-fordism:• Teams: workers are placed in teams to figure out

for themselves how to perform a variety of tasks.• Problem solving: a problem is addressed through

consensus after consulting with all affected parties rather than through filing a complaint.

• Leveling: management do not get special treatment.Flexibility to work rules

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Outsourcing: the contracting out of a business function - commonly one previously performed in-house - to another place Of recent concern is the ability of businesses to outsource to suppliers outside the nation, sometimes referred to as offshore outsourcing (which are odd terms because doing business with another country does not mean you have to go offshore) There is now an international division of labor: the specialization of different people, regions, and countries in certain kinds of economic activities:Also known as the: global assembly line: a network of labor and production processes linking:• the production and supply of raw materials• the processing of raw materials• the production of components• the assembly of finished products• the distribution of finished productsAdvantages to manufacturers of a global assembly line: 1. economies of scale (cost advantages to manufacturers from high-volume production, since the average cost of production falls with increasing output)

Why are economies of scale important? A large business can pass on lower costs to customers through lower prices and increase its share of a market. This poses a threat to smaller businesses that can be “undercut” by the competition Secondly, a business could choose to maintain its current price for its product and accept higher profit margins. For example, a furniture-maker which could produce 1,000 cabinets at $250 each ($250,000) might expand and be able to produce 2,000 cabinets at $200 each ($400,000). The total production cost will have risen to $400,000 from $250,000, but the cost per unit has fallen from $250 to $200. Assuming the business sells the cabinets for $350 each, the profit margin per cabinet rises from $100 to $150.

2. production and assembly can take advantage of the geographical variations in costs (inexpensive labor)3. multiple sources for components (lack of dependence upon a single supplier) reducing its vulnerability to work stoppages arising from local labor disputes and other disturbances

The new international division of labor reflects the growing importance for industrial location of site factors.The major players in the global assembly line are transnational corporations: companies that participate not only in international trade but also in manufacturing, and/or sales operations in several countries. 90 percent of which were headquartered in the core states. Account for over $6 trillion in worldwide sales Flows of goods, capital, and information that take place within and between transnational corporations are becoming more important than imports and exports between countries.

These companies provide foreign direct investment: the total of overseas business investments made by private companies

Capital is becoming increasingly concentrated as giant transnationals merge with one another.conglomerate corporations: companies that have diversified into various economic activitiesThe General Electric Company, or GE (NYSE: GE), is a multinational American technology and services conglomerate incorporated in the State of New York. In 2009, Forbes ranked GE as the world's largest company. The company has 323,000 employees around the world.

The Future of Agriculture and ManufacturingIn the past two decades, there has been a locational shift in manufacturing from MEDCs to a number of LEDCs where labor costs are lower. Some LEDCs have been so successful in attracting manufacturing that their economies have grown rapidly and consistently through the 1980s and 1990s. These countries are known as Newly Industrializing Countries (NICs) or tiger economies Notable tiger economies include Taiwan, Hong Kong, Thailand, Malaysia, South Korea, Singapore, Mexico and Brazil. Export Processing Zones (EPZ or SEZ): In many cases, the NICs have established manufacturing industries for export markets, often in special economic zones (SEZ) where governments offer incentives to attract investors (such as transnational corporations) tax-free holidays, special labor regulations and preferential treatment. For LEDCs, the advantages of industrialization include:• Generation of an increase in material wealth

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• Replacement of a subsistence economy with a commercial economy

• Widening the range of personal choicesIncreasing employment opportunities

• Provision of goods to substitute for imported goods, thus reducing the flow of funds overseas.

Disadvantages of industrialization include:• Increased environmental pollution• Depletion of natural resources• Disappearance of traditional ways of life• Building of unattractive landscapesBefore industrialization can occur in a country, the agricultural sector must have developed to the point where a surplus is being produced to feed the industrial workers. For this reason, a balanced development strategy in an LEDC wishing to industrialize would usually emphasize the development of agriculture before manufacturing.The emergence of hi-tech manufacturing in the 1980s and 1990s has shifted the traditional focus areas of manufacturing Significant factors of location for hi-tech industries include:• Proximity to universities, research institutes and

large pools of highly educated skilled labor with well-developed ability in problem-solving;

• Avoidance of areas where labor is strongly unionized;

• Locally available entrepreneurial 'daring', creativity, and high-risk investment funds;

Situations on the outskirts of major areas of population with reputations for high quality of life and environmental qualitySupport from excellent communications and transport services.Many geographers now believe that the future of agriculture and manufacturing is linked to the concept of sustainable development.In the case of manufacturing, this means • developing and implementing a set of policies that

ensures efficient use of scarce resources• shifting the emphasis from non-renewable to

renewable resources• controlling pollution • employing appropriate technology that is consistent

with the country's endowment of resources • protects the welfare of those employed in the

industry.

Economic Geography: ServicesServices: Tasks that you pay others to do for you.

A shift toward a “postindustrial” economic order Deindustrialization: A relative decline in industrial employment in the core

basic industries: economic activities that provide income from sales to customers beyond city limits.nonbasic functions: economic activities that serve a city’s own population.

regional multiplier: The multiplier is the total number of jobs created in the basic and nonbasic sectors for each new basic job in a region.

backward linkages: firms that supply with components and services

forward linkages: firms using output.

ancillary activities: activities such as maintenance, repair, security, and haulage services variety of industries.

The factors of production (L,L,C) are less important for service industries than for manufacturing.

Market accessibility is more relevant

However, some types of services, can operate almost anywhere tertiary activities: takes the goods that are produced and manufactured by the primary and secondary sectors and either sells them to consumers or uses them to perform services for consumers. In recent years, geographers have begun to identify a fourth type of activities – quaternary activities. These are mainly found in nations with more complex economic structures, and they embrace services that are highly skilled and professional in nature. Examples include research and development work, information processing and management.quaternary industries(white collar jobs): financial, insurance, real estate (FIRE), health services, entertainment, education, and management (pneumonic device: make quarter the amount of money as quinary)And maybe a 5th sectorquinary industries (gold collar jobs): high-level management, administration and executive decision makers. There are fewer of these jobs, but they are some of the highest-paying.

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Economic Structure5 sectors of the economy:• Primary: Agriculture, gathering/extracting• Secondary: Manufacturing, processing,

construction, power production• Tertiary: Retail/wholesale trade, personal and

professional services• Quaternary: Information, research, management• Quinary: Executive decision makers The balance between these activities will vary from place to place. FR Discuss the historical economic structure changes in the US and how it affected migration.

• The US shifted from an agricultural economy to an industrial economy (primary to secondary)

• This promoted immigration from Europe with an increase in factory jobs.

The US then shifted from secondary to tertiary. (economic restructuring)

• demand for educated experts (some from abroad)

• Many citizens have taken higher paying service jobs instead of manufacturing

• Immigrants have been able to take many low-wage/low statues jobs that citizens are not interested in (ag and manufacturing)

• Thus restructuring has pulled some immigrants in.

Why have Europeans, Latin Americans, and Asian moved away from their countries:

• Lack of jobs• Poverty• poor economic opportunity

Migration has a lot to do with Demographic Transition

3 Types of Services:1. Consumer Services: Businesses that provide services to individual consumers who desire them and can afford to pay for them. a. Retail services - provide goods for sale to consumers.b. Personal services — provide services for the well-being and personal improvement of individual consumers.2. Business Servicesa. Producer services — services to help people conduct other business.b. Transportation and similar services —businesses that diffuse and distribute services.

Producer Services cluster in the center because of accessibility.3. Public Servicesprovide security and protection for citizens and businesses. government

FR Define range (higher and lower order) and threshold and give examples of both.range: the maximum distance that consumers will normally travel to obtain it. High-order goods and services are those that are relatively costly, specialized and/or infrequently required. A 60 mile range is not unusual. Examples?

Low-order goods and services are those that are relatively inexpensive and required at frequent intervalsExamples:

threshold: Minimum # of people needed to support the service\market area is the area surrounding a business from which the bulk of its customers are drawn

services are clustered in and have their origins in settlements.

FR Define and describe the major principles of Walter Christaller’s central place theory.central place: a settlement in which certain types of goods and services are available to consumers. Walter Christaller formulated theCentral place theory: A theory that explains the distribution of services, based on the fact that settlements serve as centers of market areas for services.

• larger settlements are fewer and farther apart than smaller settlements

• larger settlements provide services for a larger number of people who are willing to travel farther.

• towns and cities (central places) tend to be arranged in clear, orderly hierarchies

• For each large central place many smaller central places are located within the larger place’s hinterland.

Very small towns have general practitioners and few to no specialists--larger towns have more specialized doctors, and the largest towns have even more

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specialized practitioners. This is a function of threshold in particular, as a neurosurgeon would not encounter enough cases if she established her practice in a town of 1,000 people-perhaps one would require surgery in a year! It's also a function of range, though, as people are increasingly willing to travel longer and longer distances for more specialized services. You wouldn't fly halfway across the country for a sinus infection, but you probably would for a bone marrow transplant! Under ideal circumstances (on flat plains, with good transportation in every direction),with hexagonal-shaped market areas of different sizes arranged around different-sized places

rank-size rule: a statistical regularity in city-size distributions of cities and regions.The relationship is such that the nth largest city in a country or region is 1/n the size of the largest city in that country or region. The absence of the rank-size distribution in a less developed country indicates that there is not enough wealth in the society to pay for a full variety of services.Primate city: population of the largest city in an urban system is disproportionately largeExamples?Primacy is not simply a matter of sheer size. Some of the largest metropolitan areas in the world are not primate. For example: Found in both the core and the periphery Primacy in peripheral countries is usually a consequence of early roles as gateway cities. In core countries it is usually a consequence of roles as imperial capitals A forward capital is a city or location chosen because it has one or more of the following characteristics:(1) it is centrally located, either geographically or culturally(2) it is located on some sort of settlement frontier or designed to attract people to an area or region(3) it is located away from centers of colonial, cultural, or economic power(4) it is oriented away from one culture, group, or idea and toward anotherSome examples:Abuja/ Nigeria, Brasília/Brazil, Canberra/Australia, Helsinki/ Finland, Islamabad/Pakistan, New Delhi/India, Ottawa/Canada, Washington/United States

FR Define and explain what makes a city a world city?

world cities possess several functional characteristics:• business services international in scope • corporate headquarters• internationally influential media organizations • centers of culture • a vacation destination • Targets of TerrorismA city like New York, for example, attracts transnational corporations because it is a center of culture and communications. It attracts specialized business services because it is a center of corporate headquarters and of global markets; and so on. Why do services cluster downtown?Central business district (CBD): the central nucleus of commercial land uses in a city.Distinctive characteristics of the central city follow from the high land cost.1. land is used more intensively in the center than elsewhere in the city 2. some activities are excluded from the center because of the high cost of spaceRecently, services, especially retail, have moved from the CBD to suburban locations• land costs are lower • most of their customers live there Urban residents are now more likely to shop in suburban malls a short drive from their home. Factories have moved to suburban locations in part because of access to main highways.Shopping MallsAnchors: large department stores in malls.The shopping mall, surrounded by suburbs, is one of the most distinctive landscapes of post-World War II life in North America. Elsewhereness: artificial landscapes created to temporarily escape the ordinary or DisneyificationOther Examples:

Malls: Landscapes of consumption, landscape of leisure, or both??The mall (Vegas, etc.) is a “pseudoplace” meant to encourage one sort of activity—shopping/gambling—by projecting the illusion that something else besides spending money is actually going on.Mega malls are not merely for shopping but Malls have become social centersHowever, unlike the open-air marketplaces of the pastshopping malls are private spaces, not public spaces. Militarized Space: the increasing use of space to set up defenses against elements considered undesirable • surveillance cameras

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• fortress architecture • gated and guarded residential communities• 'bum proof' benches (or lack of street furniture) • sprinkler systems

Tourism: A Service Industry Giant: Tourism is the world's largest industry on the basis of its contribution to global gross domestic product (GDP). It generates about 5% of total world GDP (gross domestic product) and employs over 10% of the global workforce, and it's still growing. International tourism generates over USD 2 billion a dayList the top 5 countries for international tourist.1. 2. 3. 4. 5.Growth from several factors. • rising incomes in many countries • increased leisure time (longer paid vacations)• earlier retirement, and longer lives

Most U.S. tourist dollars are spent in safe and predictable settings where English's spoken-in national parks, specialized resorts, theme parks, rural idylls, health spas, and renovated historic towns and districts.

One of the fastest-growing segments of the tourist industry is cruising. Tourist movements:1. interior -to-coastal2. lowlands-to-highlands3. Urban-to-rural4. places of cultural and historical importanceCulture has become an important economic activitySense of place has become a valuable commodityTourism and Economic DevelopmentWhat are some of the positive and negative features of tourism as an economic development strategy?Positive features:• tourism can provide jobs• inject new money into a local economy• it is a relatively “clean” or non-polluting industry• can help sustain folk cultures (regional cultures,

arts, and crafts)• provide incentives for wildlife preservation

(environmental protection)• conservation of historic areas (buildings and sites.) Negative features:

• can lead to dependency with a high degree of economic vulnerability

• many tourism jobs are low pay and seasonal• typically, only 40 percent is captured by the tourist

region itself.• can alter folk cultures• tourists can disrupt the social and cultural values of

communities• bring unsightly development, pollution, and

environmental degradation. Ecotourism: responsible travel that conserves natural environments and sustains the well-being of local people.

Place Marketing: the deliberate manipulation of a place to enhance its appealtries to bring money and spending to an areaHistoric districts have been imitated, simulated, and even reinvented according to commercial considerations rather than principles of preservation or conservation.Many cities/places have sponsored/subsidized extensive makeovers of themselves, including:1. Investment in public spaces a. Festival Settings: the creation and refurbishment distinctive settings (waterfronts)b. These complexes integrate retailing (trendy shops), and entertainment activities, restaurants, bars/nightclubs, and hotels. Examples in Southern California:

Festival Settings often do not often provide social and economic benefits to neighboring portions of the inner cityand are NOT designed to blend well architecturally with surrounding communities2. The designation and conservation of historic districts and landmarksExamples in California:

3. Sponsoring festivals and sports events. Examples:

Economic DevelopmentEconomic development is the development of economic wealth of countries or regions for the well-being of their inhabitants. Can be defined as efforts that seek to improve the economic well-being and quality of life for a community by creating and retaining jobs and increasing the tax base.

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Why give to the poorest people in the world?_____________________________________________________________Why shouldn’t we give to the poor?_____________________________________________________________________What could be the consequences of not helping poor countries? _____________________________________________A failed (failing) state common characteristics: a central government so weak or ineffective that it

has little practical control over much of its territory an inability to provide reasonable public services widespread corruption and criminality refugees and involuntary movement of populations sharp economic decline the inability to interact with other states as a full

member of the international community.The term 'failed state' is a term of imprecise quantitative definition which is often used by political commentators and journalists

Development geography is the study of the Earth's geography with reference to the standard of living and quality of life of its human inhabitants.Geographically, the single most important feature of economic development is that it is uneven.Inequality in economic development often has a regional dimensionFor example China has huge disparities of wealth between the rich coastal provinces and the poor interior.The Brandt Line is a visual depiction of the North-South divide, proposed by German Chancellor Willy Brandt in the 1970s. It approximately encircles the world at a latitude of 30° N, but dipping south so as to include Australia and New Zealand in the "Rich North".The North-South Divide is the socio-economic and political division that exists between the wealthy, known collectively as "the North", and the poorer countries or "the South.“ Although most nations comprising the "North" are in fact located in the Northern Hemisphere, the divide is not primarily defined by geography.

Economic StructureThe three-sector hypothesis is an economic theory which divides economies into three sectors of activity: primary sector: economic activities that are concerned directly with natural resources of any kind (agriculture, mining, fishing, and forestry)

secondary sector: Manufacturing (construction) activities that transform raw materials into more usable forms. They add value by making wheat into flour, copper ore into wire, and silicon into computer chips, and by assembling sophisticated components into computers, airplanes, and cars.tertiary sector: economic activities involving the sale and exchange of goods and services. (Post Industrial Society) retail, banking, law, education, government, insurance, health care, tourism, accounting, advertising, and entertainment3 Phases of developmentFirst phase: Traditional civilizations (or pre-industrial)Workforce quotas:Primary sector: 70%Secondary sector: 20%Tertiary sector: 10%This phase represents a society which is scientifically not yet very developed, with a negligible use of machinery. The state of development corresponds to that of European countries in the early Middle Ages, or that of a modern-day developing country.Second phase: IndustrializationWorkforce quotas:Primary sector: 20%Secondary sector: 50%Tertiary sector: 30%More machinery is deployed in the primary sector, which reduces the number of workers needed. Third phase: Post-IndustrialWorkforce quotas:Primary sector: 10%Secondary sector: 20%Tertiary sector: 70%The primary and secondary sectors are increasingly dominated by automation, and the demand for workforce numbers falls in these sectors. The economic structure of the economy is the percentage of each sector.The United States economic structure is something close to the followingprimary sector less than 4% of the labor forcesecondary sector about 22% tertiary sector just over 74%Structure of China’s economy(2008):agriculture (39.5%)industry (27.2%)services (33.2%)

Quantitative (numerical) indicators of development: social, demographic, and economic

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Social Indicators: Development indicators based on a country’s success in meeting the basic needs of its citizens.This includes: Education often measured by literacy (% of people who can read and write) and number of school years attended.Health: nutrition (calories per day, calories from protein, percentage of population with malnutrition), population per doctor etcWelfare: government assistance to the unemployed, veterans, elderly, poor, disabled orphaned, access to clean water and sanitation etc.Demographic indicators (characteristics of a human population) include life expectancy, number of children, population growth, And infant mortality rate: the annual number of deaths of infants less than one year of age per 1,000 live births may be the best single index Reveals: nutrition, education, sanitation, healthDemographic data is used to distinguish MDCs and LDCs.Economic Indicators:Development indicators based on a country’s economic production (how much), what it produces, and how it produces. 5 indicators especially useful in distinguishing between MDCs and LDCs are GDP per capita, economic structure (% in primary, secondary or tertiary), worker productivity, access to raw materials, and availability of consumer good (all explained in textbook)GDP (gross domestic product) is, the total market value of goods and services produced within the borders of a country, regardless of the nationality of those who produce them. GNP (gross national product) is the total market value of goods and services produced by the residents of a country, even if they’re living abroad. So if a U.S. resident earns money from an investment overseas, that value would be included in GNP (but not GDP). And the value of goods produced by foreign-owned businesses on U.S. land would be part of GDP (Toyota).In geography the difference between the two is not important. Both are used to compare countries. The overall GDP or GNP of a country is not very useful because countries have such different populations. Therefore we divide the overall GDP/GNP by the population and get a per person number which is called per capita. This makes it much easier to compare how well people are doing in different parts of the world.

However, using GDP/GNP per capita also has many problems. It does not take into account the distribution of the money which can often be extremely unequal as in the Brunei where oil money has been collected by the monarchy and has not flowed to the people of the country.GNP does not measure whether the money produced is actually improving people's livesThe figure rarely takes into account the unofficial economy, which includes subsistence agriculture and cash-in-hand or unpaid work (Informal sector), which is often substantial in LEDCs. In LEDCs it is often too expensive to accurately collect this data and some governments intentionally or unintentionally release inaccurate figures.The figure is usually given in US dollars which due to changing currency exchange rates can distort the money's true street valueTherefore, GDP/GNP is often converted using purchasing power parity (PPP) in which the actual comparative purchasing power of the money in the country is calculated.This purchasing power exchange rate equalizes the purchasing power of different currencies in their home countries for a given basket of goods. Using a PPP basis is arguably more useful when comparing differences in living standards on the whole between countries because PPP takes into account the relative cost of living, rather than just a GDP/GNP comparison.Correlating economic, demographic and social indicators show that different indicators of development are associated with each other A major health care problem for people in Africa and Asia low literacy rates. Composite or qualitative indicators combine several quantitative indicators into one figure and generally provide a more balanced view of a country. Usually they include one economic, one social and one demographic indicator.

The Human Development Index (HDI) is an index combining measures of: life expectancy literacy educational attainment GDP per capitaThe basic use of HDI is to rank countries (0-1)A HDI between 1 and 0.8 is considered high (good)0.8 and 0.6 is considered medium

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0.6 to 0.4 is considered low.

Gender Empowerment Index1. women’s incomes2. participation in the labor force as administrators, managers, and professional and technical positions3. % of parliamentary seats held by women. Boardrooms in emerging markets are increasingly populated by women. In China, women account for 32 percent of senior managers, compared with 23 percent in the U.S. and 19 percent in Britain. In India, 11 percent of CEOs are women, compared with 3 percent of Fortune 500 bosses in the US.Women in the US Congress36 women have been or are currently serving as the governor of a U.S. state. 7 are currently

Forces affecting the rate of economic developmentThe factors affecting the rate of economic development may be political, social, physical or historical.Another way to look at the forces affecting economic development is to consider external forces, which are forces affecting the country from elsewhere, and internal forces, which are factors operating from within the country. External forces affecting the rate of economic development:culture contact played a significant role in economic development. For countries that were colonized by European powers, colonization brought mixed blessings. On one hand, many resources were exported at very low prices with few direct benefits for the colony. On the other hand, transport and other infrastructure were often built. Of course, the infrastructure was designed to help the colonial power rather than the local population, and so railways (to take one example) were often built to the sites of mines or other resources rather than to centers of population. Notwithstanding these problems, culture contact inevitably brings new ideas to a country, some of which may be beneficial in speeding economic development.Trade between countries allows countries to exchange resources and products it has in abundance for other goods that it lacks. In this way, trade helps most countries to advance, presuming the terms of trade are negotiated fairly for all parties. Japan lacks most natural resources, but through trade it has overcome these shortcomings and has developed economically to a very high level.

Financial flows into a country can help economic development by providing funds for investment that the country itself lacks. These funds allow factories to be built and resources to be developed, providing employment and taxation revenue for the government that can be used to provide services and build infrastructure elsewhere in the country. Of course, unless the financial flow is a gift in the form of aid, overseas investors always demand a profit on their investments, so the other side of financial flows is the outflow of profits and interest payments. By the early 2000s, the need to repay debt on borrowings and the profits on investments meant that the net flow of money in the world was from LEDCs to MEDCs. When foreign investment occurs in a country, it is often accompanied by an inflow of new technology, leading to technological change, new techniques and ways of doing things. Provided that the technology is appropriate for the country, this usually helps to encourage economic development. technology which is suitable for an MEDC, such as a labor saving machine, will not be appropriate for an LEDC, which would have to find scarce money to buy a machine to replace labor, which is abundant. Appropriate technology for an LEDC will therefore be cheap, and will allow production processes to remain fairly labor intensive.Transnational corporations can play an important role in LEDCs these days. Like colonization, they can be a mixed blessing for LEDCs, and indeed some people believe that transnational corporations are a new form of colonialism in which corporations rather than countries oppress less powerful groups of people, but do so economically rather than politically. Benefits that transnational corporations can bring to LEDCs include the investment funds and the new technology.Bilateral (between two countries) and multilateral (between several countries) trade agreements can assist the economic development of countries within the agreement, but may slow the economic development for countries outside the agreement. One of the most successful multilateral agreements for promoting economic development has been the formation of the European Union. The European Union has resulted from a series of multilateral agreements over a period of more than half a century. Other significant multilateral agreements include NAFTA (the North American Free Trade Association) and ASEAN (the Association of South East Asian Nations).Internal forces affecting the rate of economic development:

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Infrastructure refers to the services and facilities needed to support productive activities, and as well as transport, examples include telecommunications, electricity, water, port facilities and other public services. It is a general principle that countries with a high level of infrastructure will develop more rapidly than countries that do not have these facilities, everything else (such as political systems, levels of corruption etc) being equal.The political systems and planning mechanisms in a country also influence the rate of economic development. As a generalization, economies with open policies towards trade and investment (such as Hong Kong, South Korea, the United States and Australia) have faster and more stable economic growth than economies with closed or less transparent political systems (such as North Korea, Russia and Saudi Arabia). Rapid population growth is considered by some people to slow down economic development, although opinions differ on this point. Malthusians (believe there are too many people) argue that each extra person is a consumer, taking a share from a fixed pool of resources. On the other hand, some argue that each extra person is a productive resource that produces more than it consumes.There is no clear correlation between the rate of population growth and the rate of economic development.At first sight, we would expect that availability of natural resources would significantly affect the rate of economic development. We would expect that the more natural resources a country possesses, the faster would be its rate of economic growth. In fact, there are examples of wealthy countries with very few natural resources (such as Japan, Hong Kong and the Netherlands) as well as wealthy countries with abundant resources (such as USA, Germany, Canada and Australia). Similarly, there are poor countries with abundant natural resources, such as Papua New Guinea, Myanmar, Venezuela and Nigeria — such countries either do not have the finance to develop the resources or corruption is so great that the rate of economic development is impeded.Internal capital formation means the ability of a country to find its own funds to invest in development projects. People in LEDCs typically earn low incomes, forcing them to spend a large proportion of their income on basic necessities such as food, clothing and shelter. This leaves very little surplus for savings, and therefore banks have very little funds available for investment.

This creates a cycle of impoverishment, known as the Vicious Cycle of Poverty. In summary, low incomes lead to low investment, which lead to low levels of savings, which lead to low levels of productivity, which perpetuate low incomes. Unless some way can be found to break the vicious cycle of poverty, it becomes self-perpetuating.In cases where the vicious cycle of poverty is broken successfully, the foundation of sustainable economic development is usually agriculture. In LEDCs, a large proportion of the population are farmers. Therefore, if development is to have an impact on most of the population, it must have an impact on the agricultural sector of the economy. A sound farming sector is needed:to provide a food surplus to feed city dwellersto provide surplus labor for growing manufacturing and service sectors of the economyto enlarge exports

What are LEDCs like?Every Less Economically Developed Country is unique. Nonetheless, LEDCs do share some common characteristics, which may include some or all of the points listed below.A very high proportion of the population is involved in agriculture, usually about 70% to 90%.People are often underemployed and/ or involved in the informal sector.There is little income per person, and so many people exist near the subsistence level. The major proportion of people's expenditure, therefore, is on food and necessities. Savings are low, which means that investment in new equipment and infrastructure is also low. In severe cases, malnutrition may result at a personal level.Most exports comprise a narrow range of primary products (agriculture and mining products, obtained directly from the ground), such as foodstuffs and minerals. Examples include sugar, cocoa, timber, rubber and tin. This causes long-term problems as the prices of primary products have tended to fall when measured against imports of secondary (manufactured) and tertiary (services) products. Over-dependence on one or two primary product exports makes LEDCs vulnerable to shifts in the global economy.Housing and other services, such as education, sanitation and transport are inadequateLevels of technology are low, tools and equipment are limited, simple and expensive (unless hand made using traditional technology and local materials). There is an

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emphasis on animate energy — animals and people — rather than inanimate energy, based on energy sources such as oil or electricity.Many farms are very small in area and dispersed, as holdings are continually sub-divided as population increases. This makes the use of machinery almost impossible.Depending on the stage of the demographic transition model reached, birth rates tend to be high, and if death rates have fallen with medical advances, population growth rates may be high also.There is overcrowding in many rural areas.There is high illiteracy and use of child laborGovernments are often unstable, coups are relatively common, especially in South America and to some extent Africa, and quite a number of LEDCs are controlled by military governments.People are very dependent on their natural environment. People tend to live within the confines of their environment as they have limited means to change their surroundings.

Write a full page discussing the external and internal forces affecting the rate of economic development:What are LEDCs like?4 Models of development1. The Modernization Model 1940s to 60s: Rostow stages of economic development build the economy2. Dependency Model (1970s). Immanuel Wallerstein, a leading advocate of the approach characterizes the world system as a set of mechanisms which redistributes resources from the periphery to the core.3. Neoliberal or Counterrevolution Model: (1980s)Foreign Direct Investment with Multinational Corporations4. Sustainable Development Model (1990s): Development providing for the needs of the present without diminishing future generations.1. The Modernization Model1940s to 60s Modernization it was believed was made possible by building: (a) the physical infrastructure (transportation, energy and water systems) (b) the social institutions needed for capitalism, such as: taxes banks insurance

currency a legal system. private propertyModernization Real World Strategies : Stages of economic growth Emphasis on economic production Technology transfer (from MDCs) Large-scale industrialization projects (government

and foreign investment) Trickle Down Economics (money works it way down

to the masses)

The World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and other agencies were created to facilitate investment and technology transfer from rich to poor countries.All countries would pass through a set of stages of economic development if given enough time. The pathway to development was seen as the route followed by Western Europe and North America during the Industrial Revolution. Following a model proposed by the US economist Walter Rostow, it was argued that countries would progress through five stages Progressive stages of economic growth.1. Traditional SocietiesDuring the first stage, the country’s economy is dominated by primary activities-productivity, technological innovation, and per capita incomes remain low.2. Preconditions to take-off In the second stage, preconditions for economic development arise, including the commercialization of agriculture and increased exploitation of raw materials 3. Take-off In the third stage, foreign investment pours in, jumpstarting an economy that was already prepped for growth. An important aspect of the third stage is that a large proportion of foreign investment goes to infrastructure improvements, such as building roads and canals In discussing the take-off, Rostow's is a noted early adopter of the term “transition”, which is to describe the passage of a traditional to a modern economy. 4. Drive to MaturityThe drive to maturity refers to the need for the economy itself to diversify. The sectors of the economy which lead initially begin to level off, while other sectors begin to take off. This diversity leads to greatly reduced rates of poverty and rising standards of living, as the

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society no longer needs to sacrifice its comfort in order to strengthen certain sectors.5. Age of High Mass ConsumptionHigh per capita incomes and high levels of mass consumption. Strength of the Modernization model: Over the long term, all countries are capable of development.It has proved to works for some countries: Singapore, Hong Kong, South Korea, Taiwan (Asian Dragons) the American South, Czech Republic, Ireland

Weaknesses in the Modernization model(Rostow’s Assumptions):Rostow’s model has also been criticized for assuming that economies will naturally pass through each of the four stages consecutively. Rostow’s model did not explicitly account for factors such as: global politics, colonialism, physical geography, war, culture, and ethnic conflict, which may cause countries to follow quite different economic trajectories. Environmentalists and others have criticized Rostow’s description of the relationship between development and consumption, claiming that development does not necessarily equal high consumption. For some of these critics, development may mean other things like increased social welfare or ecological sustainability. Finally, the Rostow’s stages of development model does not account for deindustrialization.

Many of the first development projects were huge FAILURES!Examples oil-fired power plants create pollution automated factories cause a loss of jobs combine harvesters need fuel chain saws creates deforestation and erosion infant formula replacement for breast milk harmed

children (using unsafe water) Emphasis on economic production over human

welfare can lead to: environmental degradation unlivable cities traffic a poorly educated work force. the creation of a permanent underclass crime many other social problems.

These problems affect everyone in the society and can undermine the economic strength of the country.

2. Dependency Theory/ Model (1970s). Sees low development levels as being a result of the LDCs economic dependency on the MDCs.Developed by Immanuel WallersteinThe world is connected by a "world-economy" or “world system” with a core-and a periphery.The core is the developed, industrialized, democratic part of the world: Wealthy Powerful U.S., Europe, Japan, Australia and the periphery is the underdeveloped raw

materials-exporting, poor part of the world. Dependent upon Core countries for:

Military Equipment Technology Investment News and Entertainment Education

Resources are extracted from the periphery and flow towards the states at the center in order to sustain their economic growth and wealth. A central concept is that the poverty of the countries in the periphery is the result of the manner of their integration of the "world system", a view to be contrasted with that of free market economists, who argue that such states are progressing on a path to full integration. This theory is based on the Marxist analysis of inequalities within the world system, dependency argues that underdevelopment of the Global South is a direct result of the development in the Global North. It is claimed that this situation of dependence began when many of the LEDCs were colonized, and continues today because the MEDCs (through transnational corporations) force them to produce unprofitable primary products.

Single product primary exports:Cuba (74% of whose exports are sugar), Zambia (85% copper) , Iraq (98% oil), bananas in Central America, coffee in Brazil, and Kenya, copper in Chile, cocoa in Ghana and the Ivory Coast, palm oil in West Africa, rubber in Malaysia and Sumatra; sugar in the Caribbean islands, tea in Sri Lanka

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The Dependency theory believes this system has createdNeocolonialism: When a previously colonized country has become politically independent but remains economically dependent on exporting the same commodities (raw materials and foodstuffs)According to Dependency theorist one of the biggest culprits to the current system is the Multinational corporation (MNC) or transnational corporation (TNC): a corporation or enterprise that manages production or delivers services in more than one country.Criticisms of multinational corporations: their goal is profit not development eliminate domestic firms undermine the world’s environment perpetuate world poverty through low wages export jobs from MDCsDependency real world strategies. invest and improve human welfare (education,

health, food, water, and shelter needs). redistribute capital in more even manner (socialism) a bottom-up strategy import substitution: an LDC tries to develop its own

industries instead of importing manufactured goods from the MDCs

nationalization: To convert from private to governmental ownership and control (natural resources)

high import tariffs (to protect infant home-grown industries)

self-sufficiency (economic independence)Strength of the Dependency theory does not assume that socioeconomic change will

occur in the same way in all places. acknowledges change in the less developed world is

linked to the economic activities of the developed world.

shows that the world functions as a single entity. Weaknesses of the Dependency Theory Has very little hope for economic prosperity in

regions and countries that have traditionally been dominated by external powers.

The long-term ramifications of investing heavily in human welfare at the expense of economic production are an inability to pay for the human welfare benefits the country desires to provide.

Without a strong economic engine, the country could fall behind in infrastructure development.

The country will lag in technology (health and manufacturing).

Remaining a highly agricultural society increases the likelihood of higher population growth.

3. Neoliberal or Counterrevolution Model: (1980s)Economic Liberalism is Capitalism The counterrevolution is against socialismCritics of free trade and multinational corporations often conveniently ignore the negative consequences of an economy that relies heavily on governmental regulations and state-operated monopolistic enterprises (socialism). Socialist economies have: incurred extreme rates of poverty repressed human rights caused environmental damage Multinational corporations have at times: improved human rights reduced poverty rates (providing jobs) Trained local workers in new skills. Transferred TechnologyCountries with the biggest problems have almost no multinational corporations: sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, North Africa, and the Middle East.

Neo-liberal real world strategies Free trade (Tariffs and trade restrictions must be

reduced) International trade Foreign companies must be allowed to invest

(Foreign direct investment) Cut government spending Privatization (Government run monopolies must be

eliminated)

Structural adjustment loan/program is a type of loan to developing countries supported by the World Bank. They often carry neoliberal policy conditions. In other words if a country wants a loan they must open up their economy which is believed to help them in the long run.

4. Sustainable Development School/Model(1990s): Development providing for the needs of the present without diminishing the environment of future generations.Progress should not come at the expense of: reducing biodiversity depleting forests increasing pollution reducing the resource base

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Sustainability proponents argue that development and environmental protection are not necessarily conflicting goals (make long-term economic sense)Sustainable Development real world strategies Renewable resources Clean technology provides jobs conservation (ecotourism, recycling) Market mechanisms for environmental regulation

(emission trading also known as caps and trade) Women’s and children’s rights (Oriental carpet

industry in Asia is not considered sustainable, because children have their educations cut short. )

Loans to women and very poor (microcredit or microloans)

The Grameen (or “Village”) Bank in Bangladesh is one of the most successful and widely imitated programs to integrate women into the development process.

Associated with Sustainable Development is anti-globalization First of all…What is Globalization?:The spread of economic, social, and cultural ideas across the worldConsequences of Globalization Trade agreements link peoples in distant places investments and decisions made on one continent

affects the economic prospects of people thousands of miles away

Multinational corporations have gained a tremendous amount of clout through globalization

An organization that supports globalization is the World Trade Organization (WTO)WTO Pro: Promotes free trade will increase overall levels of economic well-beingWTO con: ignores environment issues ignores the labor rights record of developing

countries (wages will decline in MDCs) has a bias toward rich countries and multinational

corporations (for example subsidies for agricultural products in the rich countries remain high)

the vast majority of developing countries have very little say in the WTO system

the decision making is non-inclusive and non-transparent

The Anti-globalization movement opposes the: unregulated power of large, multi-national

corporations

and the powers exercised through trade agreements

Generally speaking, protesters believe that the global financial institutions (IMF, WTO and the World Bank) undermine local decision-making methods.Corporations extract natural resources and move on after doing permanent damage to the environment.Activists goals are to end privatization measures of the World Bank, IMF, and the WTO.The activists are especially opposed to "globalization abuse" and the international institutions that promote neoliberalism without regard to ethical standards.

Urban Geography Cities in the periphery, Latin America, and EuropeCompared to the private automobile, public transportation offers more energy efficiency. Public transit is more extensive in Western European cities than in the United States primarily because European governments subsidize public transit. The U.S. government has encouraged the use of cars in part by building interstate highways. Urbanization: The process whereby an increasing percentage of people live in an urban area

The Industrial Revolution promoted urbanization. Of the ten largest urban areas in the world, how many are in More Developed Countries today? 2 The important element of urbanization is an increase in the • number of people living in urban settlements. • percentage of people living in urban settlements. • land area occupied by urban settlements.The U.S. Census Bureau defines an urban area as a city with a population over 2,500. TQThe city plus its contiguous built-up suburbs is the urbanized area. World's largest citiesThe question of determining the world's largest cities does not allow a single, simple answer.It depends on which definitions of "city" and "size" are used, and how those definitions are applied.

The "size" of a city can refer to either its land area or, more typically, its population.

The borders of a city can be defined several ways:Administrative"City" as strictly defined by a given government (city proper). Typically based on a municipality or equivalent

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entity, or sometimes a group of municipalities under a regional government.Morphological"City" defined as a physically contiguous urban area, without regard to territorial or other boundaries. The delineation is usually done using some type of urban density, such as population density or density of buildings. Satellite and/or aerial maps may be used. For statistical convenience, such areas are sometimes adjusted to appropriate administrative boundaries, yielding an agglomeration.Functional"City" as defined by the habits of its demographic population, as by metropolitan area, labor market area, or similar. Such definitions are usually based on commuting between home and work. Commuter flow thresholds into the core urban area are established by the national census authority, determining which areas are included.Metropolitan statistical area (MSA)1. A central city with a population of at least 50,0002. its county (within which the city is located)3. Adjacent counties in which at least 15 percent of the residents work in the central city’s countyThe United States Census Bureau has designated the five county region as the Los Angeles-Long Beach-Riverside combined statistical area, with a July 1, 2006 population estimate of 17,776,000.The United States Office of Management and Budget (OMB) has defined 125 Combined Statistical Areas (CSAs) for the United States of America. The OMB defines a Combined Statistical Area as an aggregate of adjacent MSAs that are linked by commuting ties. The Combined Statistical Area is the most expansive of the metropolitan area concepts.The Greater Los Angeles Area, or the Southland, is the agglomeration of urbanized area around the county of Los Angeles. Greater Los Angeles includes the Los Angeles metropolitan area, the Inland Empire, and the Oxnard–Thousand Oaks–Ventura area. • San Diego and Imperial counties, while a part of

Southern California, are not included in this agglomeration.

Megalopolis: large metropolitan areas so close together that they form one continuous urban complex In 2007 over 50% of the world’s population became urban

The Urbanization Process

Urbanization was stimulated by advances in farm productivity that:(1) provided the extra food to support the increased

numbers of townspeople, and (2) made many farmers and farm laborers redundant,

prompting them to migrate to cities.shock city: fast, unplanned and irregular growth, often with disturbing changes in economic, social, and cultural life.• In the first half of the 20th century, the fastest urban

growth took place in the western cities (New York, London, etc.).

• They were magnets for immigration and job opportunities.

• However, later on, more and more undeveloped counties and cities started to double or triple in population as well, despite having less resources and technology to sustain their people.

Cities of the Periphery are often Unintended MetropolisesWith great amounts of dualism (extremely rich and poor people)megacity: a city with over 10 million peopleA global city, also known as a world city, is a prominent centre of trade, banking, finance, innovation, and markets. Whereas "megacity" refers to any city of enormous size, a global city is one of enormous power or influence. Global cities, have more in common with each other than with other cities in their host nations. The problems of the cities of the periphery stem from the way in which their demographic growth has outstripped their economic growth.Peripheral cities problems : • Lack of Infrastructure (schools, roads, electricity) • corruption• shortages of housing• poor health care • transportation problems• Environmental problems (pollution)• lack of clean water• poor sanitation• fiscal problems• unemployment and underemployment • informal economic activities• cycle of poverty• crimeDoes Global Urbanization Lead Primarily to Undesirable Consequences?Latin American Cities1. CBD Was the original colonial city

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Spine: high quality expansion of the CBD catering to the wealthy. 2. An elite residential sector next to the spine3. Zone of Maturity(middle class housing) Gradually improved, upgraded, self-built housing4. In situ (in place) accretion (growth): Transition between slum and zone of maturity. Improvements in progress. 5. Shanty or squatter neighborhoodsOn the edge of citiesOn the least desirable land (steep, swampy etc)Compare and contrast the causes and size of urban migration in the MDCs versus LDCs. Contrast Size of migration:• larger in LDCs or less in MDCsCompare Cause:• jobs • Opportunities, wide range of services,Contrast• Causes of migration (Why):• Natural increase is high in LDCs• rural migrants are pushed into cities out of

desperation • In the core people move to cities because of

lifestyleEuropean Cities:1. Complex street patternsorthogonal. Relating to or composed of right angles2. Plaza and squares3. High population density4. Low skylines5. Lively downtowns6. Pedestrian areas7. Neighborhood stability (people don’t move very often)8. Public housing: Housing owned by the government rented to low-income households.• In the larger cities of Britain, France, and

Germany roughly 20-40% of all housing is public housing (on final)

Public housing in the United States • has been administered by federal, state and local

agencies to provide subsidized assistance for low-income and poor people. Increasingly provided in a variety of settings, public housing used to be one or more blocks of low-rise and/or high-rise housing operated by a government agency. They are often referred to as "the projects"

• in the U.S., citizens typically pay 30 percent of their income if they are living in public housing

• section 8 of the Housing Act of 1937 often simply known as Section 8, authorizes the payment of rental housing assistance to private landlords on behalf of approximately 3.1 million low-income households. It operates through several programs, the largest of which, the Housing Choice Voucher program, pays a large portion of the rents and utilities of about 2.1 million households. The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development manages the Section 8 programs.

• in LA about 95,000 people live in subsidized houses or apartments

FR Similarities between Europe and Latin America cities?• Plazas and squares• Lively downtowns (shops, restaurants, cafes, and

cultural facilities)• Wealthy people still live in the inner rings of the

high-class sector• High population densityDifferences?• Latin American cities have Shanty towns/squatter

settlements • Public Housing in Europe• Complex street patterns in EuropeParts of an Urban Area• central business district CBD• zone of transition• suburbsCentral business district (CBD): the central nucleus of commercial land uses in a city. Activities and structures typically found in a city’s Central Business District (CBD): CBDActivities:• business services• shops (retail) • city government (court house)• structures: • the tallest buildings• city hall • major hotels• museumsWhy are these activities and structures located in the CBD? • Accessibility (can support services with a large

threshold and range)

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• Zone in transition: area of mixed commercial and residential land uses surrounding the CBD.

• Warehouses• Apartment buildings• Public housing • Older residential neighborhoods• Gentrified buildings

Suburbs are residential areas surrounding a large urban area.• People are attracted to suburbs in part because

suburbs are characterized by private land surrounding the house.

• The largest percentage of the U.S. population lives in the suburbs

Edge cities: nodal concentrations of shopping and office space that are situated on the outer fringes of metropolitan areas, typically near major highway intersections. What kinds of activities and structures are typically found in Edge Cities? How do CBDs and Edge Cities differ?Edge cities: suburban downtownsactivities: • shopping• office space/jobs• Entertainment • structures: • malls• office parks• movie theaters• suburban housing• major highway intersections.

A business/office park is an area of land in which many office buildings are grouped together. These are popular in many suburban locations, where it is cheaper to develop land because of the lower land costs and the lower building costs for building wider, not necessarily higher. They are also often located near highways or main roads.Edge cities In Southern California: _________

Three urban land (structure) use models of North American cities.Burgess Concentric (has a common center/circles) Zone Model, 1925Burgess: Bulls eye Chicago is a good location in which to develop urban models because it is located on a flat prairie.

Zone 1• The central business district (CBD)2 Zone of transition• Rooming houses, small apartments, and tenements

attract the lowest income segment• Immigrants to the city first live in this zone in small

dwelling units.Example In Southern California: _________3 Zone of independent workers’ homes• Located close to factories of zones 1 and 2• Often characterized by ethnic neighborhoods —

blocks of immigrants who broke free from the ghettos

• Spreading outward because of pressure from transition zone and because blue-collar workers demanded better housing

Example In Southern California: ______________4 Zone of better residence• The fourth zone has newer and more spacious

houses for middle-class families. • Established city dwellers, many of whom moved

outward with the first streetcar network• Commute to work in the CBDExample In Southern California: ______________5 Commuter’s zone• Beyond the continuous built-up area of the city. • Some people who work in the center nonetheless

choose to live in smaller suburbs. • Located either on the farthest extension of the

trolley or commuter railroad lines• Spacious lots and large housesExample In Southern California:_________________________

Invasion and succession: a process of neighborhood change whereby one social (economic) or ethnic group succeeds another in a residential area.Eventually, people and economic activities in the center are pushed out into farther rings. Invasion and succession is essentially a series of migration waves, with one group moving in and establishing itself.Because of this constant invasion and succession pattern, often a ring known as the zone in transition forms just outside the CBD. This ring never becomes developed because investors know it will constantly be caught in the shifting urban pattern. Theory represented the American city in a new stage of developmentBefore the 1870s, cities such as New York had mixed neighborhoods where merchants’ stores and sweatshop factories were intermingled with mansions and hovels

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Rich and poor, immigrant and native-born, rubbed shoulders in the same neighborhoodsIn Chicago, Burgess’s home town, the great fire of 1871 leveled the coreThe result of rebuilding was a more explicit social patterningChicago became a segregated city with a concentric patternThis was the city Burgess used for his modelCritics of the modelPointed out even though portions of each zone did exist, rarely were they linked to totally surround the cityBurgess countered there were distinct barriers, such as old industrial centers, preventing the completion of the arcOthers felt Burgess, as a sociologist, overemphasized residential patterns and did not give proper credit to other land uses

Hoyt Sector Model 1939• Cities that have not been dominated by successive

waves of migrant or immigrant ethnic groups tend to be organized around the linear development of two main features that grow outward from the CBD:

• Industrial districts• High-class residential districts.• Example In Southern California: _______________

Harris-UlmanChauncy Harris and Edward UllmanMultiple Nuclei Model: a city is a complex structure that includes more than one center around which activities revolve. • Social groups are arranged around a collection of

nodes of activities. • Outlying Business Districts, and/or heavy

manufacturing are the other nuclei besides the CBD • The multiple nuclei theory best explains why

different neighborhoods of a city attract people of different ethnic origin.

FR Assess/evaluate the three models of urban structure of North American cities.• If the models are combined they are useful. • Most people live near others that have similar

characteristics.• Negative aspect of models (Feminist Critiques)

• They ignore dual-income families (Not all households have a single bread winner who commutes everyday)

• They ignore households headed by single women.• Most women seek employment locations closer to

their homes than do men, and this applies to almost all women, not just those with small children.

• Not all people have kids• Some like to live in urban setting and see suburban

life as boringThese people are often called• Yuppies (short for "young urban professional" or

"young upwardly-mobile professional") is a term that first came into use in the late 1980s which refers to a financially secure, upper-middle-class young person in their twenties or early thirties.

• DINKS: Dual (or double) income, no kids. Or DINKY Dual (or double) income, no kids yet. DINK is sometimes used in reference to gay and lesbian couples who are childless. This may also be a more appropriate term for heterosexual couples who prefer not to have children and consider themselves childfree

Urban decay is the process whereby a previously functioning city, or part of a city, falls into disrepair. It may feature deindustrialization, depopulation, abandoned buildings, high local unemployment, fragmented families, crime, and a desolate, inhospitable city landscape.Urban decay has no single cause; it results from combinations of inter-related socio-economic conditions including the city’s urban planning decisions, the poverty of the local populace, the construction of freeway roads and rail road lines that bypass the area, depopulation by suburbanization of peripheral lands, real estate neighborhood redlining, xenophobic immigration restrictions, and racial discrimination. In cities such as New York and Boston, gentrification has eased urban decay in some areas of the cities, although most U.S. cities have highly blighted areasAnother characteristic of urban decay is blight—the visual, psychological, and physical effects of living among empty lots, buildings and condemned houses.

Such desolate properties are socially dangerous to the community because they attract criminals and street gangs, contributing to the volume of crime.

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Since the 1970s and 1980s, urban decay has been associated with Western cities, especially in North America and parts of Europe. Problems with cities in the core/North America: political fragmentation• congestion (from over agglomeration)• air and water pollution• from heavy reliance on automobile transportation• high land prices• affordable housing shortages• deteriorating neighborhoods in the inner coredeteriorating infrastructure (Roads, Transit Systems, Communications Systems, Power Grids, Gas Suppliers, Water Mains, Sewers, and Drains)• a poor and disenfranchised population in contrast

to the affluent suburbs (dualism)This population is often called the Underclass: a class of individuals who experience a form of poverty from which it is very difficult to escape because of their isolation from mainstream values and the formal labor market.Cycle of poverty: the transmission of poverty from one generation to another through a combination of domestic circumstances and local, neighborhood conditions. • fiscal problems: the increasing difficulty of raising

sufficient tax revenues to pay for the upkeep of urban infrastructure and city services.

Cities then have two Choices 1. raise tax revenues.2. cut back on services

Decentralization or Urban Flight:middle class people move out of urban areas with their money. Results of Decentralization • poorer, disadvantaged, often minority residents are

left behind• housing often becomes run-down• loss of good jobs to suburbs• vacant storefronts• empty offices, and • deserted factoriesWhat similar urban problems exist in core and peripheral cities? • Crime• Poor health care• Traffic• Environmental problems (pollution)• Affordable housing shortages • Cycle of poverty

• Fiscal problems• Urban problems unique to LDCs?• Poor sanitation• Lack of clean water• Lack of infrastructure (schools)• Shortages of housing• CorruptionUrban renewal or revitalization:Cities identify blighted inner-city neighborhoods, acquire the properties from private owners, relocate the residents and businesses, clear the site, and build new roads and utilities.Urban renewal may improve Brownfield sites: abandoned or underused industrial and commercial facilities available for reuse. Expansion or redevelopment of such a facility may be complicated by real or perceived environmental contaminations.

Case Study: Inner City redevelopment (Revitalization)London’s Docklands are now recognized as the largest urban redevelopment scheme in the world, with millions of square feet of office and retail space, and substantial amounts of new housing.Once the commercial heart of Britain’s empire, employing over 30,000 dockyard laborers, London’s extensive Docklands fell into a sharp decline in the late 1960s because of competition from specialized ports using new container technologies. In 1981 the London Docklands Development Corporation was created by the central government and given extensive powers to redevelop the derelict dock areas. Between 1981-1998 many changes occurred within the Docklands.• Employment opportunities• Low rents attracted a number of hi-tech and

financial firms.• Improved Housing (Many of the former warehouses

have been transformed into luxury flats)Although the redevelopment of London's Docklands brought many benefits to the area there are some groups who oppose the changes. This includes some of the original inhabitants of the area who are now unable to afford to live there.The majority of the jobs in the new hi-tech industries are unsuitable to unemployed dock workers. They do not have the skills needed for jobs in these industries. Close knit communities have been broken up. Many believe there are insufficient services for people living in the area e.g. care for the elderly.

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These massive displays of wealth and consumption often stand in direct contrast to neighboring areas of the inner city that have received little, if any, monetary or other social benefit from these government subsidized projects.

gentrification:the invasion of older, centrally located working-class neighborhoods by higher-income households seeking the character &convenience of less-expensive & well-located residences.Gentrification often displaces poorer minority residents.Zoning ordinances: Planning regulations that define permissible land-uses for parcels of the city: residential, commercial, and/or industrial A legal form of segregation in U.S. cities is achieved through zoning. Zoning causes residential suburban segregation: 1. from commercial and manufacturing activities2. housing is usually built for a single social classSix Socio-Spatial Formations• Citadels – Protected Enclaves of the Rich• Gentrified Areas• Middle-Class Suburbs• Working-Class Neighborhoods• Ethnic Enclaves• Excluded Ghettos

Suburbs and Smart Growth Unincorporated Areas: not part of a cityAlmost one in every five Californians lives in an unincorporated area. Counted by themselves, these 6.4 million people constitute the largest community in California, far eclipsing the largest city in the state, Los Angeles, with its 3.7 million residents. It's not often appreciated that counties, like cities, serve residents with local police (sheriff), streets and roads and other public works, planning, parks and recreation, public libraries, water supply, waste disposal, and fire protection. Why do some people prefer living in unincorporated areas?The process of legally adding land area to a city in the United States is annexation. Master-Planned Communities: architecturally compatible housing units often with recreational facilities. Walnut Examples: ___________ homeowners association: an organization comprised of all owners of units in the development. They collect fees, fines, and assessments from homeowners,

maintain the common areas, and enforce the governing documents. These may include detailed rules regarding construction and maintenance of individual homes.Convents, Conditions, and Restrictions (CC and Rs)Homeowners associations are increasingly common in the United States exercising control over 19% of American homes, 20 million homes.

Association regulations examples:Despite the occasional horror stories told about infamous homeowners' associations, residents who have chosen this lifestyle usually enjoy the convenience they receive in exchange for their membership in this mini-government. If properly managed, homeowners' associations can be an excellent insurance policy for the value of your property and that of your neighbors. Difference between a condominium and a TownhomeA buyer of a townhome purchases his or her individual unit, as well as the ground underneath that unit. Each townhome has its own roof, in contrast to condominiums.The terms of condominium ownership sometimes are cloudier, simply because owners share more common areas (for example, stairs and hallways) than do townhome owners. The rules enforced by high-rise condo associations are sometimes stiffer, perhaps because residents are living in closer quarters, with many more residents per square foot. Condo owners are responsible for the space inside their own walls, which means they can paint them however they wish. They don't enjoy that same privilege on the outside of their homes, however. "Common areas" are generally defined to include shared hallways, parking lots, any exterior walls and the land on which the condominium development sits, as well as any amenities on premises for the enjoyment of residents. What is the difference between suburbanization, counterurbanization and exubanization?Suburbanization is movement to residential areas surrounding a large urban area (flat area). Who: Younger, wealthier, and better-educated upwardly mobile residentsSuburbs in the U.S.:• detached single-family homes • lower population density than inner city

neighborhoods.• grew in the 20th century as a result of improved

roads

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• have increased commuting distance and numbers. Discuss the causes of suburbanization in the U.S./Why do most Americans want to live in the Suburbs?• inner city push factors• high housing density• crime levels• pollution Pull Factors1. Home ownership2. Better schools3. Space/yard4. A wish to improve quality of life.5. Housing prices6. Peaceful retirement

Exurbanization is the movement from cities to rural areasWhy?Counterurbanisation is movement from large cities to smaller and medium sized towns.Who • Retirees• Tourist• People with second homes• Long distance/part time commuters

Changes in the townsTourist and elderly services not agricultureSprawl: The Good, Bad, and Ugly.Sprawl: low density housing built on the edge of cities, consuming a lot of land, auto-dependentLevittown was the first truly mass-produced suburb and is widely regarded as the archetype for postwar suburbs throughout the country. And not contiguous to the existing built-up area. Leapfrog Development: Urban development well beyond the urban fringe, separated from the urban fringe by rural land. Negative aspects of sprawl: 1. Wastes Land2. Wastes Tax money3. Increases Traffic4. Pollutes Air 5. Wastes Energy6. Kills street life7. Isolates people (elderly and housewives) 8. Paves over farmlandMore than 12 percent of original cropland has already been converted to urban uses in the Central Valley.We now spend more time than ever in stressful traffic, and nearly 30% our income on car payments, gas,

maintenance, and insurance. A great majority of our tax dollars go towards the endless building of roads and highways, with little left for valuable things like education, public spaces, or train systems. Gridlock is strangling our national and regional economies as more and more time is wasted stuck in traffic. This greatly reduces our nation's productivity while raising the cost of doing business.

Two Ways To GrowThe traditional neighborhood and suburban sprawl. They are polar opposites in appearance, function, and character: they look different, they act differently, and they affect us in different ways.The traditional neighborhood was the fundamental form of European settlement on this continent through the Second World War. It continues to be the dominant pattern of habitation outside the United States, as it has been throughout recorded history. The traditional neighborhood —represented by mixed-use, pedestrian-friendly communities of varied population, either standing free as villages or grouped into towns and cities— has proved to be a sustainable form of growth. It allowed us to settle the continent without bankrupting the country or destroying the countryside in the process. Suburban sprawl, now the standard North American pattern of growth, ignores historical precedent and human experience. It is an invention, conceived by architects, engineers, and planners, and promoted by developers that occurred after the Second World War. Unlike the traditional neighborhood model, which evolved organically as a response to human needs, suburban sprawl is an idealized artificial system. Unfortunately, this system is already showing itself to be unsustainable. Unlike the traditional neighborhood, sprawl is not healthy growth; it is essentially self-destructive. Even at relatively low population densities, sprawl consumes land at an alarming rate, while producing insurmountable traffic problems and exacerbating social inequity and isolation. These particular outcomes were not predicted. Neither was the toll that sprawl exacts from America's cities. As the ring of suburbia grows around most of our cities, so grows the void at the center. Even while the struggle to revitalize deteriorated downtown neighborhoods and business districts continues, the inner ring of suburbs is already at risk, losing residents and businesses to fresher locations on a new suburban edge.

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The Five homogeneous Components of SprawlThey can be arranged in almost any way but the dominant characteristic of sprawl is that each component is strictly segregated from the others. 1. Housing subdivisions.These places consist only of residences. They are sometimes called villages, towns, and neighborhoods by their developers, which is misleading, since those terms denote places which are not exclusively residential and which provide an experiential richness not available in a housing tract. Subdivisions can be identified as such by their contrived names, which tend toward the romantic —Pheasant Mill Crossing (Snow Creek)—and often pay tribute to the natural or historic resource they have displaced. 2. Shopping centers,also called strip centers, shopping malls, and big-box retail. These are places exclusively for shopping. They come in every size, from the 7-11 on the corner to the Mall of America, but they are all places to which one is unlikely to walk. The conventional shopping center can be easily distinguished from its traditional main-street counterpart by its lack of housing or offices, its single-story height, and its parking lot between the building and the roadway. 3. Office parksand business parks. These are places only for work. Derived from the modernist architectural vision of the building standing free in the park, the contemporary office park is usually made of boxes in parking lots more likely to be surrounded by highways than by countryside. 4. Civic institutions.Public buildings: the town halls, churches, schools, and other places where people gather for communication and culture. In traditional neighborhoods, these buildings often serve as neighborhood focal points, but in suburbia they take an altered form: large and infrequent, generally unadorned owing to limited funding, surrounded by parking, and located nowhere in particular.For example the dispersion of surrounding homes often makes schools in new suburbs difficult to walk to and are designed based on the assumption of massive automotive transportation. 5. Roadways.The fifth component of sprawl consists of the miles of pavement that are necessary to connect the other four disassociated components. Since each piece of suburbia serves only one type of activity, and since daily life involves a wide variety of activities, the residents of

suburbia spend an unprecedented amount of time and money moving from one place to the next. Since most of this motion takes place in singly occupied automobiles, even a sparsely populated area can generate the traffic of a much larger traditional town.Low-density land-use patterns require greater lengths of pipe and conduit to distribute municipal services. This explains why suburban municipalities are finding that new growth fails to pay for itself at acceptable levels of taxation. SPRAWL IS NOT INEVITABLE.It is not an unavoidable symptom of modern growth. Sprawl is the direct result of specific government transportation choices and policies, combined with archaic zoning laws.

Smart growth includes:1. Establishing urban growth boundaries2. Establish greenbelts (open space around a city)3. Preserving farmland 4. Investing in public transportation (cheaper, less polluting, and more energy-efficient than the automobile5. New Urbanism: Dense, residential neighborhoods within walking distance of schools, green-space, and a downtown plaza (offices, shops and restaurants.) 1. Mixed-Use Development: development designed to include multiple land uses, such as residential, retail, educational, recreational, industrial, or offices, in order to minimize the need for travel outside of the development.2. Take advantage of compact building design3. Create housing opportunities for a range of household types, family size and incomes4. Create walkable neighborhoods5. Reinvest in and strengthen existing communities 6. In-filling: developing the existing urban area, where services are already available and can be provided at lower costs.Because of new urbanism the density gradient has reduced the differences in densities found within an urban area. Arguments against New Urbanism:1. Traffic congestion and air pollution is greater2. Agricultural production not threatened3. Increases housing prices4. Automobile use will not decline

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