The Philosophical Foundations of

Classical rDzogs chen in Tibet Investigating the Distinction Between Dualistic Mind

(sems) and Primordial knowing (ye shes)

David Higgins

UNll I Universite de Lausanne

FACULTE DES LETTRES

SECTION DE LANGUES ET CIVILISATIONS ORIENTALES

THE PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CLASSICAL RDZOGS CHEN IN

TIBET: INVESTIGATING THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN DUALISTIC

MIND (SEMS) AND PRIMORDIAL KNOWING (YE SHES)

THESE DE DOCTORAT

presentee a la

Faculte des Jettres de l'Universite de Lausanne

pour I'obtention du grade de Docteur es lettres

par

DAVID HIGGINS

Directeur de these

TOM J.F. TILLEMANS

UNll 1 Universite de Lausanne Faculte des lettl'es

IMPRIMATUR

Le Decanat de la Faculte des lettres, sur Ie rapport d'une commission composee de :

auto rise I'impression de la these de doctorat de

MONSIEUR DAVID HIGGINS

intitulee

The Philosophical Foundations of Classical rDzogs chen in Tibet. Investigating the Distinction between Duali�tic Mind (sems) and

Primordial Knowing (ye shes).

sans se prononcer sur les opinions du candidat / de la candidate,

La Faculte des lettres, conformement a son reglement, ne decerne aucune mention.

�7 /l � .. � L··o....tv\.-l./ J Fran(,;o is Rosset Lausanne, Ie 19 juin 2012

Doyen de la Faculte des lettres

CONTENTS

Contents

Prologue 4

Section One: Understanding the rDzogs chen Distinctions 13

Part I Background 14

1 I Introduction: the Distinctions as a Window on Classical rDzogs chen 14 1 . Two Principal Distinctions : Sems/Ye shes and Kun gzhi/Chos sku 14 2. The Place of the Distinctions in Classical rNying ma Soteriology 20 3 . The Disclosive Paradigm 23 4. On the Obscure Origins of the sNying thig System 26 5 . The Lives and Works of Four Major rDzogs chen Figures 31 6. Previous Studies and Scope of Present Work 49

Part II The Problem of Knowledge: The Sems/Ye shes Distinction 53

2 I The Nature and Scope of the Mind/Primordial Knowing Distinction 53 1 . The Scope of the Distinction 53 2. The rDzogs chen sNying thig Analysis of Mind (sems) 62

2. 1 Dualism 63 2.2 Ignorance 65 2.3 Reification 70

3 . The rDzogs chen sNying thig Analysis of Ye shes and Related Concepts 74 3 . 1 rDzogs chen Intepretations of Sems nyid 75 3 .2 rDzogs chen Interpretations of Rig pa and Rang rig 82 3 .3 rDzogs chen Interpretations of Ye shes 95

4. Concluding Remarks: Reframing the Two Truths 107

3 Classical Justifications of the Mind/Primordial Knowing Distinction 116 1 . Why the Distinction? 116 2. Some Consequences of Not Distinguishing Mind and Primordial Knowing 121 3 . Criticisms of the Cessation of iiiiina Doctrine 123 4. Clarifications and Transcendental Arguments 129

Part III The Problem of the Ground: The Kun gzhi/Chos sku Distinction 136

4 I The Ground in Early rDzogs chen (8th to lltb c.) 136 1 . Background 136 2. Two Dimensions of the Ground Problem 138 3 . The Yogacara Model : Scope and Limitations 143 4. Toward a Primordially Unaffected Ground of Consciousnesss 146

• Ye shes sde ' s Eighth Century Synthesis of Yoga car a and Tathagatagarbha Views 156 5 . Conceptual History of the Ground in Early rDzogs chen 160

5 . 1 Soteriological Context of the Ground 160 5 .2 A Typology of the Ground in early rDzogs chen 164

(a) Ground as the nature of Mind (sems nyid, ye shes, rig pa) 164 (b) Ground as the nature of Reality (de bzhin nyid, de kho na nyid, chos nyid) 166 (c) Ground as Buddha Nature (bde gshegs snying po, byang chub snying po) 169

5 Distinguishing the sN ying thig Ground of Freedom (grol gzhi) 179 1 . Stages of Differentiating the Sutric and rDzogs chen Grounds 179

1 . 1 Identity : Ground as Common Source of SaqIsara and Nirva1).a 181 1 .2 Divergence : Conflicting Interpretations of Kun Gzhi 184 1 .3 Difference : Clearly Distinguishing the Grounds 188

2. A Central Problem: Does ElTancy Exist in The Ground? 195 2. 1 The Response of gNyags Jfianakumara (8th century) 195 2.2 The Response of Rog Bande Shes rab 'od ( 12th century) 197 2.3 The Response of Klong chen rab 'byams pa ( 14th century) 199

3 . The sNying thig Primordial Ground and its Critics 203 3 . 1 The Abiding versus Metaphysical Grounds 204 3 .2 Mi bskyod rdo rje ' s Critique and rNying rna Responses 209

4. Concluding Remarks : The rDzogs chen Idea of Freedom 213

Part IV The Problem of the Path : Implications of the Sems/Ye shes Distinction 218

6 I rNying rna Path Hermeneutics and the Problem of Reconciliation 218

1 . Overview: Bridging the Vehicles 222 2. The Problem of Gradualism in rNying rna Perspective 225 3 . Nature and Scope of the Reconciliation Problem 228

3 . 1 The Exegetical Dimension : Doctrinal Synthesis and Narrative Unity 229 • CompaIison with gSar rna Path Summaries of Atisa, sGam po pa, Tsong kha pa 233

3 .2 The Hermeneutical Dimension : Intemalizing the Path 241 4. rNying rna Soteriological Schemes : From Soteriology to Aletheiology 245

4. 1 The Path as Emancipation Process and Clearing Process 245 4.2 Yon tan rgya mtsho on Disciplines (sdom) as Stages of Refinement 249

2

7 I rDzogs chen Transformations of the Path 251

1 . The rDzogs chen Path Without Progression (bgrod du med pa 'i lam) 251 2. Where the Ladder Ends : A Path Beyond Its Representations 260

Section Two: Tibetan Texts and Translations 263

1 . Klong chen pa's Sems dang ye shes kyi dris Ian 264 1 . 1 Introductory Remarks 264 1 .2 Translation: A Reply to Questions Concerning Mind and Primordial Knowing 269 1 . 3 Sources and Conventions Used in Preparing Clitial Edition 285 1 . 3 A Critical Edition of Sems dang ye shes kyi dris Ian 286

2. Klong chen pa's Theg mchog mdzod (excerpts) 296 2. 1 Introductory Remarks 296 2.2 Translation: Treasury of the Supreme Vehicle (excerpts) 297 2.3 Sources and Conventions Used in Preparing Edited Text 311 2.4 Edited Text of Theg mchog mdzod XIV (excerpts) 312

3 . 'Jigs med gling pa' s Yon tan mdzodXII.9-13 with Yon tan rgya mtsho ' s Commentary 323 3 . 1 Introductory Remarks 323 3 .2 Translation: Treasury of Qualities XII.9-23 with Commentary (excerpts) 323 3 .3 Sources and Conventions Used in Preparing Edited Text 331 3 .4 Edited Text of Yon tan mdzod XII.9-13 and Commentary 331

Bibliography and Abbreviations 337

Index 356

3

I Prologue

"The distinction between mind and primordial knowing Should be understood by those who are wise."

Pearl Garland Tantra (Mu tig phreng ba)

Although the past three decades have witnessed a surge of interest, both popular and

academic, in the syncretistic Tibetan tradition known as rDzogs chen ("Great Perfection") ,

there has been little to date in the way of critical study of its philosophical foundations or

key doctrinal developments . ! A noteworthy case in point is the absence of any systematic

appraisal of rNying rna ("Ancient Ones") views on the nature of mind that traces their

evolution and complex relationships with Indian Cittamatra, Madhyamaka, Pramal).avada,

and Vajrayana views . rNying rna contributions to the understanding of human consciousness

merit attention not only because of their intrinsic interest and relevance to contemporary

philosophies of mind but also, and most importantly, because they provide an indispensable

key to understanding this tradition' s complex systems of thought and practice . As a tentative

step toward at least defining the parameters of this crucial but neglected field of inquiry, the

following work investigates the nature and significance of the distinction between dualistic

mind (sems) and primordial knowing (ye shes) , along with the related distinction between

the all-ground (kun gzhi) and dharmakaya (chos sku) , as these developed within the Tibetan

1 The current lack of critical engagement with the subj ect matter of rDzogs chen - of a kind and calibre one has come to expect in contemporary Buddhist epistemology for example - can, and often does, give the impression that philosophical rigour, clarity and systematicity are simply lacking in, or have been avoided by, rNying rna thinkers. I can think of three reasons for this misconception: I ) the relatively recent development of rNying rna studies; 2) the enduring stereotype (among Western and Tibetan scholars) of rNying rna (Ancient) as an antinomian tradition pursued by wild-eyed shaman-mystics averse to scholarship, rational discourse and textual analysis in contrast to the more sober-minded rationally inclined gSar rna (New) scholar-clerics (on which see Dalton 2002: 1 2) ; 3) the challenging nature (both to understanding and praxis) of rNying rna views of mind vis-a.-vis the prevailing Anglo­American representationalist epistemology that underlies much of the recent work on Buddhist theories of knowledge. The third consideration is of particular relevance here as I will argue that rNying rna attempts to articulate the conditions for the possibility of nondual primordial knowing (ye shes) led them, in interesting ways, to abandon subject/obj ect epistemologies, realist as well as anti-realist, in a manner comparable to attempts by Heidegger, Merleau-Ponty and Wittgenstein to overcome mediational epistemologies in Western philosophy.

4

rDzogs chen tradition between the 8th and 14th centuries . In taking a synoptic view of these

philosophical developments , my aim has been to trace the conceptual genealogies of the

distinctions and examine how they were shaped by, and reciprocally shaped, the scholastic

and contemplative milieux in which they emerged. From their origins as spiritual

instructions (man ngag) transmitted by early, mostly Indian masters of the Royal Dynastic

Period (6 10-9 1 0)2 , through their defence and articulation within wider contexts of Buddhist

doctrine and soteriology by scholar-adepts of the Period of Monastic Hegemony ( 1 249-

1 705), the distinctions emerge as formative elements of rDzogs chen theory and praxis .

As a work of philosopical interpretation and reconstruction, my investigation has

been guided by a number of pertinent questions : Why did rDzogs chen writers from the 1 2th

century onward consider the sems/ye shes and kun gzhi/chos sku distinctions so crucial for

understanding the rDzogs chen path and Buddhist soteriology in general? What antecedent

Buddhist doctrines contributed to the distinctions and how were they in turn (re )interpreted

in light of them? Wherein lay the power and attraction of the underlying constellation of

guiding ideas/ideals - ye shes, rig pa, chos sku, byang chub kyi sems, gzhi - that so inspired

scholar/practitioners? What was the relationship between these idees forces and the

contemplative practices and experiences with which they were inextricably connected?3 In

addressing such questions , my objective has been not only to elucidate some of the ideas

that were central to the classical sNying thig system but also to bring into sharper focus the

2 The three periods referred to in this thesis are the Royal Dynastic Period (6 1 0-9 1 0), The Period of Fragmentation (9 1 0- 1 249), and the Period of Monastic Hegemony ( 1 249- 1 705). This is a pared down version of the periodization scheme proposed by Cuevas 2006. I sometimes use '"classical" with reference to the Period of Monastic Hegemony.

3 Determining a genetic relationship between Buddhist ideas and practices is far from unproblematic, as recent debates on this issue suggest. For a defence of the view that all central Buddhist metaphysical views derive from meditative praxis, see Schmithausen 1 973, an abridged version of which was published as "On the Problem of the Relation of Spiritual Practice and Philosophical Theory in Buddhism," Schmithausen 1 976. For a recent criticism of this view, see Franco 2009. Against theories presupposing an isomorphic relationship between metaphysics and meditation, Franco (2009 : 96 f.) advocates an inquiry standpoint that acknowledges the complexity and heterogeneity ofthis relationship, arguing that '"its varieties cannot be reduced to a single homogeneous model ." On balance, it seems prudent not only to acknowledge the central place that the reciprocal relationship between views and meditation occupies in Buddhist soteriological systems - as ref1ected in the 'emic ' categories used to schematize teachings such as the four successive disciplines (yoga : rnal 'byor) of view (Ita ba), meditation (sgom pa), conduct (spyod pa) and fruition ( 'bras bu), or the three insights (prajna : shes rab) born of studying (thos pa), thinking (bsam pa) and meditation (sgom pa) - but also to take into consideration (as far as is possible) the constellation of linguistic, historical , doctrinal-systematic, sectarian, imaginative and didactic factors that typically condition traditonal presentations.

5

motivating interests , concerns and questions that led its adherents to investigate and

formulate the distinctions in the ways that they did. This type of genealogical inquiry is less

speculative than one might suppose. Fortunately, rDzogs chen is a tradition that has left

many guideposts in the form of questions posed, problems defined, and intentions explicitly

stated (these latter are typically found in "statements of intent" at the beginnings of works or

in colophons) . These have served as points of departure and orientation for the present

investigation which attempts to probe beneath doxographical surface of rDzogs chen

exegesis to get at the philosophical and soteriological issues involved. Indeed, the history of

rDzogs chen attempts to articulate and justify the principal distinctions can fruitfully be read

as a series of ongoing responses to certain general problem areas that long preoccupied

rDzogs chen scholars and practitioners . In this regard, it is important to stress that the aim

and significance of the rDzogs chen distinctions are only understandable when situated

within context of living praxis - the evolving repetoire of spiritual exercises - from which

they developed and toward which they were oriented .4

The main section of this thesis is organized around three soteriological problem areas

(with two chapters devoted to each) that I have staked out for the purpose investigating the

distinctions . Taken in sequence, these encompass problems concerning the nature of

liberating knowledge (gnoseology) , the grounds of human reality (ontology) , and the

4 Pierre Hadot has made a similar claim with regard to premodern Greco-Roman and Christian philosophies. Based on his meticulous translations and interpretations of the Greek and Latin sources, Hadot argues that these philosophies were inextricably bound up with certain exercitia spiritualia (a term adopted by Ignatius of Loyola based on the original sense of the Greco-Christian term aksesis) that were concerned less with abstract theorizing and doctrinal exegesis than with the formation and transformation of the individual. Therefore, the sense and significance of these works only becomes intelligible when they are considered in light of this context of ' living praxis ' . According to Hadot, the work of ancient philosophy, "even if it is apparently theoretical and systematic, is written not so much to inform the reader of a doctrinal content but to form him, to make him traverse a certain itinerary in the course of which he will make spiritual progress." (Hadot 1 995 : 64) "Philosophy then appears in its original aspect: not as a theoretical construct, but as a method for training people to live and to look at the world in a new way. It is an attempt to transform mankind. Contemporary historians of philosophy are today scarcely inclined to pay attention to this aspect, although it is an essential one. The reason for this is that, in conformity with a tradition inherited fi'om the Middle Ages and from the modern era, they consider philosophy to be a purely abstract­theoretical activity." (Ibid. : 1 06). In the rDzogs chen context, mKhas pa Nyi rna 'bum ( 1 1 58- 1 2 1 3) has drawn a similar contrast between adherents of philosophical systems (grub pa 'i mtha 'i rjes su 'dzin pa) who deal with a ground that is an intellectual object (shes bya 'i gzhi) and adherents of the path (lam du rjes su 'dzin pa) who deal with a ground that is asceliained as their abiding condition (gzhi kyi gnas lugs). See his rDzogs pa chen po Tshig don bcu gcig pa: 1 6 .9 f. and Klong chen pa' s Tshig don mdzod: 778.5 f.. These differing views on the ground (viz., one ' s fundamental soteriological frame of reference) are investigated in chapter 5.

6

Buddhist path (soteriology) . This main section is preceded by an introductory chapter (part

one) that introduces the distinctions as cornerstones of rDzogs chen sNying thig doctrine

and throws light on their historical and sociocultural background. The problem of

knowledge investigated in part two concerns the ancient Buddhist question of what

conditions are necessary for a person to become enlightened (bodhi) . Posed another way,

what are the conditions of possibility of the unconditioned nondual mode of awareness

deemed constitutive of being a buddha or ' awakened one ' (buddhajfiiina)? Chapter two sets

out, in light of this question, to investigate the scope and nature of the distinction between

mind and primordial knowing. It examines the characteristics associated with each, and then

briefly considers how the distinction laid the foundations for classical rDzogs chen and

shaped its often creative (re )interpretations of Buddhist doctrine . Chapter three examines

some key philosophical arguments that were adumbrated during the classical period to

justify and defend the distinction, with special focus on the use of transcendental arguments

of the general form 'for y to be possible, x must be the case ' .

The problem of the ground that forms part three of the thesis concerns the ultimate

' grounds ' of freedom and error, where the term gzhi ( ' ground' ) refers both to what is

considered fundamental and to sources of legitimation (in a manner similar to the dual

senses of the English ' ground ' and German 'Grund ' ) . Chapter four takes up rDzogs chen

investigations into the conditions of possibility of the mode of being of a buddha, variously

termed the ground (gzhi) , the ground of all (kun gzhi), dharmakiiya (chos sku), the abiding

condition (gnas lugs) . It surveys the early development of rDzogs chen ground and all­

ground conceptions as they developed in relation to three constellations of core

soteriological ideas : nature of Mind (sems nyid, ye shes) , nature of Reality (chos nyid, de

bzhin nyid) and buddha nature (byang chub snying po, de bzhin gshegs pa 'i snying po) .

Chapter five addresses the question of why classical sNying thig sources increasingly

emphasized a distinction between grounds of freedom (grol gzhi) and error ( ' khrul gzhi)

when earlier rDzogs chen sources tended to emphasize unity rather than difference. In doing

so, it investigates how classical rNying rna exegetes sought to reconcile their own early

rDzogs chen ground conceptions (gzhi, kun gzhi) with Y ogacara speculations on the

iilaya[vijfiiina] (kun gzhi [rnam par shes paD and with Tathagatagarbha discourses on innate

7

buddahood. The focus then shifts to the sNying thig conception of the primordial ground

which was radically distinguished both from the all-ground (kun gzhi) in all its modalities as

well as the various so-called intellectual grounds (shes bya ' i gzhi) that were criticized as

foundationalist abstractions . The final part of the chapter looks at rDzogs chen

reinterpretation of the ancient Indian idea of freedom (mok�a) as a fundamental mode of

being of the subject rather than a teleocratic aim ("freedom from saqlsara") as it has often

been viewed in the Indian tradition.

The problem of the path investigated in part four of the thesis brings into focus some

of the soteriological implications of the distinction between mind and primordial knowing

that became central to rNying rna path hermeneutics in the classical period . Chapter six

takes up the problem of how the authors of classical rNying rna path summaries sought to

reconcile progressivist sutric and non-progressivist tantric models of the Buddhist path on

the basis of this distinction . The rNying rna authors faced two main problems of

reconciliation: an exegetical or content-focused problem of combining in a single narrative

structure the quite different models of the path delineated in the sutras and tantras, and a

hermeneutical or context-focused problem of how an individual can make sense of and make

an experience of (nyams su len) these divergent paths through his or her own application. In

contrast to the authors of Lam rim (Stages of the Path) scriptures of other Tibetan schools

who largely confined their path summaries to non-tantric Mahayana content, relegating the

study and practice of tantra to separate works and disciplines, rNying rna exegetes sought to

accommodate the heterogenous subject matter of the vehicles within a disclosive

Mantrayana-Tathagatagarbha-based path structure and to thematize the problems of

reconciliation in terms of the mind/primordial knowing structure of consciousness . Chapter

seven turns to the question of how one follows a path where there is, quite literally, none to

follow. A disclosive view of awakening leaves little room for ideas of linear progression and

teleological deliberation . "The path of spiritual awakening has nothing to do with

progression," says a work ascribed to Padmasambhava, "it is the very essence of the

awakened mind." Thus the problem of reconciling siltric and tantric paths comes down to to

the problem of accomodating a path espousing purposive progression (rtsol bcas) to an

effortless (rtsol med) rDzogs chen path that spontaneously unfolds precisely when the

8

willful deliberations of dualistic mind have ceased . For Klong chen pa, ( 1 308- 1 364) this

vital tension between voluntary (sems-based) and involuntary (ye shes-based) aspects of

soteriology captures the dialectical nature of the path itself - the progressive familiarization

with primordial knowing as the turbidity of mind and mental factors cease . In this sense,

primordial knowing is both a vision of things as they are undisorted by reifications and a

mode of being and living that is commensurate with this vision.

The second section of the thesis comprises a short selection of translated materials on

the principal distinctions together with edited texts preceded by introductions that elucidate

their historical and doctrinal contexts . My principle of selection has been to focus on

writings that provide original developments and important clarifications of the principal

distinctions . Translations and critical editions are based on different rescensions of the texts

and are accompanied by annotations reflecting variant readings . This has proved especially

important in handling quotations from the seventeen tantras which can vary significantly

among the different rescensions .The first entry is Klong chen pa ' s Sems dang ye shes kyi

dris lan (Reply to Questions Concerning Mind and Primordial Knowing), a succinct,

eloquent treatise from the author ' s Miscellaneous Writings (gSung thor bu) that was

composed at the behest of his student and biographer Chos grags bzang po . The text clarifies

how the mind/primordial knowing distinction is implicit in tathiigatagarbha doctrines of the

final promulgation (the so-called "third turning") of buddhadharma in India and provides a

solid basis for understanding the import of Buddhist view and meditation. The next entry

consists in two selections from the fourteenth chapter of Klong chen pa ' s monumental

Treasury of the Supreme Vehicle (Theg mchog mdzod) that introduce his most lengthy and

philosophically rigorous treatments of the key distinctions on the basis of the seventeen

tantras (rgyud bcu bdun) of the Heart Essence (snying thig) tradition . The final entry is a

section from 'Jigs med gling pa 's ( 1729- 1798) 1 8th century Klong chen sNying thig

synthesis Treasury of Qualities (Yon tan mdzod) with commentary by Yon tan rgya mtsho

(b . 1 9th c . ) that covers the first three of ten distinctions outlined in the twelfth chapter of this

sweeping summary of the Buddhist path (combining subject matter from Klong chen pa ' s

Sems nyid ngal gso 'grel, Yid bzhin mdzod 'grel and sNying thig writings among much else) .

These first three distinctions turn on the basic sems/ye shes distinction and reflect the strong

9

accent on direct personal guidance (man ngag) as the proper context for their realization that

has been hallmark of this 1 8th century renaissance of the sNying thig tradition, a renaissance

that is still very much alive today.

My interest in the two principal rDzogs chen distinctions goes back to my first

encounter with Tibetan Buddhism in India in 1980. During five months spent travelling

throughout northern India I was greatly impressed with the many learned Tibetans I met but

at the same time somewhat intimidated by the labyrinthine complexity of their cultural

heritage . It was therefore a delight to come across practical summaries of the Buddhist path

- specifically, Herbert Guenther ' s translations of sGam po pa' s Lam rim thar rgyan and

Klong chen pa' s Sems nyid ngal gso - that had been composed during the so-called later

diffusion (phyi dar) of Buddhism in Tibet with the express purpose of systematizing the

principal ideas and practices of their respective traditions for the benefit of aspiring scholars

and practioners . In my initial reading and comparison of these "Stages of the Path" (lam

rim) works, it became clear that the distinction between mind (sems) and Mind as such

(sems nyid) or primordial knowing (ye shes) loomed large in Klong chen pa' s approach to

Buddhist soteriology . On returning from India, I began a long period of intensive study with

the late Dr. Herbert Guenther with a primary focus on Tibetan path literature . My study of

rNying rna path summaries such as the Klong chen pa's Sems nyid ngal gso and Yid bzhin

mdzod, ' Jigs med gling pa 's Yon tan mdzod, and their commentaries, confirmed the central

place the sems/ye shes distinction occupies in classical rNying rna exegesis . What

distinguished these path summaries from those of other traditions I was studying was their

attempt to systematize the heterogenous doctrines and practices of the different idealized

vehicles of Buddhism - Hlnayana, Mahayana and Vajrayana, and rDzogs chen itself - within

a fundamentally Mantrayana-Tathagatagarbha model of the path . This was a model that

presented the path not as a developmental process of accumulating merits and knowledge

that serve as causes and conditions leading to goal-realization, but as a disclosive process of

directly recognizing and then becoming increasingly familiar with primordial knowing as

the mind ' s reifications and their obscuring effects subside . At the time, the momentous

soteriological ramifications of this disclosive perspective did not entirely escape my notice .

But it was only when I began studying the sNying thig system proper, and began receiving

10

guidance from some of its most learned contemporary teachers, that I came to view the

distinctions as central pillars of the classical rDzogs chen sNying thig doctrinal system and

as indispensable keys to understanding its extraordinarily rich and varied repetoire of

liberative practices .

A work of this nature is very much a collaborative effort. Although I alone am

responsible for the final product, its creation would not have been possible without the

generous assistance, expertise and companionship of many exceptional people . My first debt

of gratitude is to Tom Tillemans who supervised this thesis with great interest and kindness

while, at the same time, upholding the highest standards of philological and philosophical

accuracy . The many conversations we had over earlier drafts of this thesis - in cafes, on

rivers, across continents , and even on university campuses - greatly enriched my

understanding of the philosophical issues at the heart of this thesis and the doctrinal contexts

in which they arose. I am also deeply indebted to the late Herbert Guenther who generously

shared with me his encyclopedic knowledge of all things rNying rna and bKa' brgyud

during the many years I was fortunate enough to study with him. His inexaustable passion

for learning and wide-ranging interests have remained a constant example and reminder of

how much is possible and how much is at stake in trying to understand what texts have to

say. On this note, I would like also to extend my profound gratitude to all the Buddhist

teachers who have, over many years , deepened both my understanding of the subject of this

thesis and my appreciation of the traditions in which it developed. Above all I am thankful

to Ch6kyi Nyima Rinpoche, Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche, Dilgo Khyentse Rinpoche, and Penor

Rinpoche for all they have taught me.

Thanks are also due to my thesis committee members Klaus-Dieter Mathes and

Jacob Dalton whose thought-provoking discussions , helpful suggestions and careful

attention to details have made for a stronger work. The work has also benefited greatly from

correspondence and conversations with many friends and colleagues along the way

including Johannes Bronkhorst, Thomas Doctor, James Gentry, Eric Schmidt, Dorji

Wangchuk, Orna Almogi, Use Guenther, Jeanette Lavigne, and Kent Johnson, to name only

a few. Whether through helpful suggestions , stimulating dialogues , or clarifications of

1 1

' difficult points ' (dka ' gnad), their contributions are reflected in one way or another in the

pages that follow. During the research and writing of the thesis , financial support was

gratefully received from the Fonds Elisabet de Boer of the University of Lausanne.

Finally, my heartfelt thanks go to my parents , my children and, above all, my wife,

N aseem, whose support, patience and kindness sustained me through this project.

12

Section One

Understanding the rDzogs chen Distinctions

1 3

Part I : Background

1 I Introduction: the Distinctions as a Window on Classical rDzogs chen

The darkness of mind and mental factors does not allow the sun of primordial knowing to be seen. But when the skylight of primordial knowing opens revealing open awareness in all its nakedness , the darkness of mind and mental factors dissipates and the basic nature of primordial knowing in its original purity envelops all .

Klong chen pa, Chos dbyings mdzod 'grel5

§ 1 . The Two Principal Distinctions : Sems/Y e shes and Kun gzhilChos sku

Between the 8th and 14th centuries, a succession of rNying rna scholar-practitioners

articulated and defended certain philosophical distinctions that were considered

indispensable for understanding Great Perfection (rdzogs chen) view and practice . Among

these, two principal distinctions - between mind and primordial knowing (sems/ye shes) and

between the all-ground and dharmakaya (kun gzhilchos sku) - are introduced in the

seventeen Atiyoga tantras (rgyud bcu bdun) that make up the Heart Essence (snying thig)

subclass of the Esoteric Guidance Genre (man ngag sde) of rDzogs chen teachings . 6 rNying

5 Chas dbyings mdzad 'grel: 580.4 f. : sems dang sems byung gi mun pas ye shes kyi nyi ma mthang du mi ster lal rig pa ye shes kyi mthangs phye ste Ijen la bud dusl sems sems byung gi mun pa sangs te l ka dag ye shes kyi chas nyid gtibs pa 'al l

6 The principal distinctions are traditionally associated with the hearing lineages (snyan brgyud) ofVimalamitra and other early rDzogs chen masters. They receive their first systematic treatment in the seventeen Atiyoga tantras, their commentaries (six of which are extant) and supporting materials in the Bi ma snying thig and canonical collections. Among the seventeen tantras, the most extensive and influential accounts of the distinctions occur in the sGra thal 'gyur chen po (Tb vol. 1 2, 1 2 . 1 - 1 73 . 3 ; Ati vol. 1 , 1 -205), Rig pa rang shar (Tb vol . 1 1 : 323 . 1 -699. 1 ; Ati vol. 1 : 3 89-855) , Mu tig phreng ba (Tb vol . 1 2 : 304.7-393 .6 ; Ati vol. 2 : 4 1 7-537), Kun tu bzang pa klang drug (Tb vol. 1 2 : 3 94. 1 -467 . 3 ; Ati vol. 2 : 1 1 1 -2 1 4), and Kun tu bzang p a thugs kyi me lang (Tb vol. 1 2 : 245 . 5-280 . 1 ; Ati vol. 1 : 233-80) . On issues conceming the nature, canonization and possible 1 2th century Tibetan provenance of this collection, see Germano 2005. Other important and influential canonical sources for the detailed sNying thig analysis of sems/ye shes include the Dur khrad phung pa 'bar ba man ngag gi rgyud ascribed to Vimalamitra and contained in

14

rna historical and biographical works trace these two principal distinctions to the teachings

of early rDzogs chen masters, in particular the oral transmissions of Vimalamitra (bi ma

snyan brgyud) , an identification that appears at first glance to be supported by the many

esoteric instructions (man ngag) on the two distinctions found scattered among rNying rna

collections such as the Bi ma snying thig7, Bai ro rgyud 'bum, rNying ma rgyud 'bum and

dGongs pa zang thaI. The close connection between the oral transmissions of Vimalamitra

and the seventeen tantras which he is said to have co-translated and composed commentaries

on8 has been frequently attested in rDzogs chen sNying thig exegesis from the 1 2th century

onward. A relatively early example is the Tshig don bcu gcig pa (The Eleven Topics) by

mKhas pa Nyi rna 'bum ( 1 158- 12 13) that summarizes the essentials of sNying thig doctrine

and practice on the basis of the seventeen tantras which are quoted alongside excerpts from

oral teachings of Vimalamitra.9

A survey of these sources confirms that the sharply drawn and meticulously detailed

accounts of the principal distinctions presented in the seventeen tantras represent the

the NyG as well as the Bg (Tk vol. 7: 595.6 f. ; Bg vol . 8: 204.7 f.) , the Thig Ie kun gsa! chen po 'i rgyud (Tb vol . 1 3 : 296.6-492 .5 f.) which i s assigned to the Secret Cycle (gSang skor) subclass of Man ngag sde tantras, and the Spros bral don gsal chen po 'i rgyud (Tb: vol . 1 3 : 2. 1 -288 .6 f.) which is classified in the Ultra Pith Cycle ( Yang ti 'i skor) . This latter text appears to be expanded version ofthe Thig !e kun gsal with interpolations of supplementary material, though it is equally plausible that the latter is in fact an abridgement of the longer (earlier) tantra given that it in many instances appears to correct or clarifY passages from the longer work. The colophon of the Thig Ie kun gsa! notes that it was transmitted by dGa' rab rdo rje to Mafljusjrlmitra and subsequently translated by Srlsirhha and Vairocana. The Spros bra! don gsa! is included in a group of nine Padmasambhava-based texts associated with Nya Nyang ral nyi rna 'od zer ( 1 1 24/36- 1 204) and is said to have been revealed by his reincarnate successor Gu ru chos kyi dbang phyug ( 1 2 1 2- 1 270). See Germano 2005 : 22 f.. The mTshams brag edition of the rNying rna rgyud 'bum additionally includes a chapter summary of the latter text entitled Spros bral don gsa! chen po 'i rgyud kyi Ie don bsdus pa (Tb: vol. 1 3 : 288 .7-296 .6). The key distinctions also occupy an important place in the dGongs pa zang thaI gTer rna collection of Rig 'dzin rGod Idem ( 1 337 - 1409). rGod Idem traces precepts on distinguishing serns and ye shes to the oral transmissions of dGa' rab rdo rje (dga ' rab rdo rje 'i snyan brgyud) and Vairocana (bai ro (sa na 'i snyan brgyud) and precepts on distinguishing kun gzhi and chos sku to the oral transmissions of Vairocana, but also takes up the distinctions in the context of discussing the oral transmissions of Vimalamitra (bi rna la 'i snyan brgyud). See dGongs pa zang thaI vol. 2 : 472, 488.3 f. and vol. 4: 1 83 f..

7 On the chronology of the Bi rna snying thig and seventeen tantras, see Prats 1 984: 1 97-209 and Achard 1 999 : 78-83 . 8 On the six commentaries extant in the recently discovered bKa ' rna shin tu rgyas pa ( 1 20 volumes), the most extensive and important available collection of exegetical and commentarial literature in the rNying rna tradition, see Bibliography.

9 This text, the rDzogs pa chen po Tshig don bcu gcig pa, presents a philosophical synopsis of the seventeen tantras structured according to eleven key 'topics ' (tshig don : padCirtha) or adamantine topics (rdo rje 'i gnas) of the sNying thig system. This work likely served as a prototype for Klong chen pa' s similarily structured but more extensive Tshig don rin po che 'i rndzod (Precious Treasury o/Topics) .

15

culmination of a conspicuous gnoseologiCal trend in early rDzogs chen exegesis of the

Royal Dynastic Period (6 10-910) marked by a persistent and pervasive interest in

articulating a primordial non dual mode of knowing and establishing it as the conditio sine

qua non of Buddhist theory and praxis . This trend is reflected in the widespread use, from

the earliest stratum of rDzogs chen literature onward, of terms describing an unconditioned

and naturally luminous mode of awareness that include (in varying combinations)

primordial knowing (ve shes), open awareness (rig pa) , self-awareness (rang rig) , awakened

mind (byang chub kyi sems) , and Mind as such (sems nyid) . The main lines of the rDzogs

chen gnoseological trend can be traced to the *Guhyagarbhatantra and other works

belonging to the Miiyiijiila cycle (sGyu 'phrul dra ba skor) and affiliated Mahayoga tantric

corpus , and through a variety of texts assigned to the Mind and Space Genres (sems sde and

klong sde) of Atiyoga that are ascribed to a group of early (8th - 9th c . ) figures that includes

dGa' rab rdo rje, Maiijusrlmitra, Srlsiqlha, Vimalamitra, and their Tibetan colleagues ,

Vairocana being the most important. This same circle of early masters are traditionally

identified as the earliest human proponents of the rDzogs chen sNying thig (Great

Perfection Heart Essence) system which (re )emerges as a relatively minor Central Tibetan

religious tradition in the eleventh century but steadily eclipses other rDzogs chen traditions

in the centuries to follow. Within this system, the persistent rDzogs chen emphasis on the

primacy of a primordial, nondual mode of being (variously termed gzhi, chos sku, gnas lugs)

and awareness (ye shes, rig pa, byang chub kyi sems) is set in sharp contrast to those

diremptive and obscurational modes of being (kun gzhi, 'khrul lugs) and awareness (ma rig

pa, sems, yid, mam shes) that are seen as deriving and deviating from it . lO

1 0 An cursory survey of the relevant rNying ma rgyud 'bum and Bai ro rgyud 'bum literature attests the centrality of the mind/primordial knowing distinction in works associated with the sNying thig lineage holders (whether as authors, translators or rediscoverers) and reveals nascent attempts to distinguish an impure karma-based kun gzhi, classified in various ways, from a pure primordial knowing-oriented kun gzhi or, in some cases, from the ground (gzhi), ground of al l (kun gyi gzhi) or primordial ground (gdod ma 'i gzhi). Also worth noting is the importance given to the sems/ye shes distinction in 1 4th century rNying rna gTer rna collections dGongs pa zang thaI (as noted above) and the Bla ma dgongs 'dus whose rediscoverers, rGod kyi Idem 'phru can ( 1 337- 1 408) and Sangs rgyas gling pa ( 1 340- 1 3 96) respectively, were contemporaries of Klong chen pa. rGod Idem traces the mind/primordial knowing distinction to the hearing lineage transmitted in Tibet by Vairocana (bai ro snyan brgyud) that goes back to SrTsil1)ha and dGa' rab rdo rje. The sems/ye shes distinction is also presented in the Bon rDzogs chen collection Zhang zhung snyan brgyud.

16

The varying ways of characterizing the relationship between primary and derivative

modes of being and awareness revolve around the basic difference between the worlds of a

buddha and sentient being. This distinction itself was of course nothing new. But its clear

formulation enabled rDzogs chen thinkers to accentuate in original ways a living tension, as

old as Buddhism itself, between conditioned and unconditioned ways of being, between

what we might call karmic and gnostic modalities of human experience . Their dimensional

account of consciousness, suggesting as it did an ever-elusive but nonetheless personally

accessible prerepresentational stream of experiencing 'beneath' the concurrent flow of

reflective representational thought, had far-reaching doctrinal and soteriological

repercussions. At the heart of their instructions and expositions was the issue of how to

recover an invariant nondual condition of experience from the reifying appropriations of

dualistic mentation. It is in their illuminating and often radical responses to this problem and

the subsequent elaborations and explanations of their insights by successive generations of

rNying rna scholars that we find the defining elements of the emerging doctrinal and

contemplative systems of classical rDzogs chen.

From the fourteenth century onward, the two principal distinctions are systematically

elucidated, with a level of phenomenological rigor perhaps unparalleled in the history of

Buddhist thought, by luminaries such as Klong chen rab 'byams pa ( 1 308-1 364) , rTse Ie

sna tshogs rang grol (b. 1 608), 'Jigs med gling pa ( 1730-98) , Yon tan rgya mtsho ( 1 9th

century) and more recently by 'Jigs med bsTan pa'i nyi rna ( 1 865 - 1926) and Tshul khrims

bzang po ( 1 884- 1957) . Above all, it is Klong chen pa's articulations of these distinctions as

cornerstones of sNying thig doctrine and contemplation and his creative appropriation of the

sems/ye shes distinction in formulating an inclusivist schematization of the Buddhist path in

terms of the progressive disclosure of primordial knowing - a clearing process (sbyong

byed) that seamlessly integrates elements of Mahayana, Vajrayana and rDzogs chen - that

laid the doctrinal and hermeneutical foundation for all the subsequent rNying rna treatments .

An assessment of Klong chen pa's extant corpus l l reveals the mind/primordial knowing

distinction to be a central and unifying theme in the author ' s rDzogs chen writings, one that

1 1 In 2009, the author's extant writings were for the first time organized and published as a gSung 'bum in 26 volumes. See Bibliography Klang chen gsung 'bum.

17

he would return to again and again during his lifetime and that he repeatedly characterized

as "extremely important" (shin tu gal po che) but also as "very difficult to understand" (rab

tu rtogs dka ' ) . It is no exaggeration to propose that the mind/primordial knowing distinction

is as important to understanding Klong chen pa 's rDzogs chen exegesis as the two truths

distinction is to understanding Nagarjuna' s Madhyamaka exegesis . The scholar must

nonetheless be alert to the quite different contexts within which Klong chen pa framed this

distinction . Following the Klong chen pa' s own classification of his works 12 , it is possible to

broadly distinguish two textual-doctrinal contexts within which the distinction is described

and explained13 :

( 1 ) Exoteric : elucidations of the sems/ye shes distinction in the early Sems nyid ngal gso 'grel and Sems dang ye shes kyi dris Zan (hereafter Sems ye dris Zan) draw on a wide range of Mahayana siitras with emphasis on texts ascribed to the third turning (dharmacakra) , especially the Ratnagotravibhiiga, but also on Madhyamaka works such as the Madhyamakiivatiira and epistemological (pramii1}aviida) treatises such as the Pramii1}avarttikakiirikii and Pramii1}aviniscaya . Although Klong chen pa, in these early works , cites a number of Indian Buddhist tantras in support of the distinction, the only rNying rna tantras he cites are the *Guhyagarbhatantra and other tantras from the MiiyiijiiZa cycle and certain tantras of the Mind Genre (sems sde), most importantly the Kun byed rgyaZ po. What interests us in the author ' s early 'bridging ' works 14 is his systematic reading and reframing of traditional Mahayana doctrine in light of a sharply drawn distinction between unconditioned and conditioned modes of consciousness . In so doing, he not only illuminates a distinction which he considered implicit, though often to the point of ambiguity, within the broad range of Mahayana

12 This catalogue of works containing 270 titles with additional songs and prayers is appended to a biography of Klong chen pa by Chos grags bzang po entitled Kun mkhyen dri med 'od zer gyi mam thar mthong ba don ldan (included in Kun mkhyen klong chen rab 'byams kyi mam thar, Chengdu 1 994 : 208-226; See also Bi ma snying thig vol. 4, 499-5 89). A slightly different rescension of the work known as the dKar chag rin po che 'i mdzod khang, which is ascribed by tradition to the author himself, is translated in sMyo shul mkhan po ' s Chos 'byung (See Barron 2005 : 1 32 f.) For preliminary attempts to reconstruct a relative chronology of Klong chen pa' s writings see Arguilleres 2007: 1 40 f. and Wangchuk 2008.

13 The difference between these two textual-doctrinal contexts is not mirrored by a corresponding chronological sequence in the author's corpus. The relative chronology of Klong chen pa's works so far suggests that the author not only continued periodically writing texts from a more general Buddhist doctrinal standpoint after being introduced to the sNying thig system but consecrated considerable attention to clarifYing how rDzogs chen marks the culmination of and supercedes antecedent developments in the Indo-Tibetan Buddhist soteriological systems.

14 What I am calling "bridging works" are those (viz. Sems nyid ngal gso 'grel, Yid bzhin mdzod 'grel, Grub mtha ' mdzod and Sems ye dris Ian) which attempt to situate rNying rna thought and praxis within the wider context of Buddhist (and in some cases non-Buddhist) discourses and which seek to clarifY the essential unity and continuity between Mahayana, Vajrayana and rDzogs chen discourses within an inclusivist framework.

18

and Vajrayana sources he draws upon. He also adumbrates a series of related arguments for the indispensability of the mind/primordial knowing distinction for the proper understanding and application of Buddhist doctrine .

(2) Esoteric : the scope of Klong chen pa ' s handling of the sems/ye shes distinction broadens dramatically from the time of his introduction by his root guru Ku rna ra dza/tsa (Skt. Kumararaja, Tib . gZhon nu rgyal po, 1266-1 343)15 , who he met in his twenty-seventh year (i .e . 1 334), to the teachings of the Heart Essence (snying thig) or Esoteric Guidance Genre (man ngag gi sde) of rDzogs chen teachings , particularly as systematized in the seventeen tantras . Henceforth, the author ' s rigorous elucidation of the distinction in a great variety of systematic treatises 1 6, poetic works and commentaries will centre around the very detailed elaborations of the sems/ye shes and kun gzhi/chos sku distinctions presented in these and a number of related tantras . The mind/primordial knowing distinction in particular forms the doctrinal nucleus of a wide range of distinctive rDzogs chen teachings that include: ( 1 ) onto-cosmogenic theories concerning the ground of being (gzhi) and its phenomenal manifestation (gzhi snang) ; (2) contemplative practices aimed at direct recognition of Mind ' s nature , particularly as presented in the Breakthrough (khregs chod) teachings 17 ; (3) theories and practices concerned with the elicitation of 'embodied ye shes, ' viz . ye shes as residing within and animating the subtle structure of gnostic lamps (sgron ma) , energy channels , currents, and potencies (rtsa , rlung, thig le) that make up the energy body (rdo rje ' i lus) and which figure importantly in the Thod rgal teachings ; (4) death and

15 rNying rna sources generally refer this to influential rDzogs chen master by the Tibetanized Sanskrit epithet Ku ma ra dza or its variants Ku ma ra dzalKu ma ra tsa, all based on the Sanskrit Kumararaja. Occasionally, he is referred to using the Tibetan translation of Kumararaja, gZhon nu rgyal po. The Tibetan shortening of the Sanskrit kumara to ku mar probably reflects the tendency in Indian vernaculars to drop the final a, as evident in the contemporary Indian use of Kumar rather than Kumara as a proper name. See comments by Arguilleres 2007: 88 n. 1 87 . Wangchuk 2008 sees it as a possible instance of the more general linguistic phenomenon of haplology (or ' haplogy' as some cheeky linguist has called it), i .e . , the elimination of a syllable when two consecutive identical or similar syllables occur. As well as being the root teacher of Klong chen pa, Kumaradza was also a teacher of the third Karmapa Rang byung rdo rj e ( 1 284- 1 3 39). Kumaradza is credited in the Chos 'byung of Dudjom Rinpoche with establishing a philosophical language to communicate the rDzogs chen sNying thig teachings. In this regard, mention should again be made of the recently discovered rDzogs pa chen po Tshig don bcu gcig pa of mKhas pa Nyi rna 'bum ( 1 1 58- 1 2 1 3) , a philosophical synopsis of the seventeen tantras.

16 In particular, see Theg mchog mdzod vol. I : 1 037.2 f. and Tshig don mdzod: 1 03 8 . 1 f..

17 This is one of the two main contemplative teachings of the rDzogs chen sNying thig system, the other being the Leap-over (thod rgal) teachings. Khregs chod teachings share many similarities with non-gradual Mahamudra teachings and similarily aim at directly introducing the practitioner to the abiding, empty nature of Mind or primordial knowing. The Leap-over teachings employ a highly sophisticated repetoire of distinctive tantric­physiological practices to draw forth embodied primordial knowing and encounter it directly in four luminous visions (snang ba bzhi) . In short, Breakthrough teachings are said to introduce practitioners to open awareness in its empty, originally pure essence (ngo bo ka dag stong pa), whereas Leap-over teachings enable them to elicit open awareness in its radiant, spontaneously present nature (rang bzhin lhun grub gsal ba). The most detailed available treatments of these systems are found in Klong chen pa's Theg mchog mdzod and Tshig don mdzod.

19

dying traditions concerned with realizing primordial knowing in the intermediate state (bar do) ; and (5) non-gradual conceptions of the path and goal-realization.

Klong chen pa lived during a period of unprecedented doctrinal synthesis, a time

when emerging Tibetan schools sought to define themselves by consolidating their

distinctive ideas and practice, composing systematic and practical doctrinal summaries , and

legitimizing their traditional identities by establishing continuous lines of transmission back

to Indian texts and teachers. Against this background, the mind/primordial knowing

distinction provided him with a dialectical framework for (a) understanding and articulating

the conditions for the possibility of nondual primordial knowing, regarded as the

indispensable basis and goal of rNying rna soteriology and for (b) schematizing the

relationship between the exoteric and esoteric vehicles of Indian Buddhism within a unified

path conception that was at once theoretically comprehensive and practically viable . 1 8 In

short, the distinction helped him define the guiding ideas, ideals and practices of classical

rDzogs chen while disclosing their continuity with antecedent Buddhist doctrines;

specifically, tathagatagarbha theories, certain Yogacara-Cittamatra models of mind (viz . the

alayavijiiana and trisvbhava doctrines), *Prasailgika Madhyamaka views on the "cessation

of mind," and Mantrayana doctrines concerning the transformation of perceptual

consciousness (vijiiana) into primordial knowing (jiiana) . 19 Throughout his writings , and in

keeping with his ongoing hermeneutic of reconciliation, Klong chen pa continues to situate

his exegesis and interpretation of the principal rDzogs chen distinctions within the broader

currents of Buddhist doctrine and praxis .

§2 . The Place of the Distinctions in Classical rNying rna Soteriology

Post-eleventh century expositions of the two principal distinctions open a window on

a crucial period of rDzogs chen intellectual and religious history . This period of rDzogs

chen scholarship marks an unprecedented, yet still poorly understood, phase of doctrinal

synthesis and innovation inspired, in part, by the growing demand for the assimlation of a

18 This was the principal exegetical and hermeneutical challenge confronting Tibetan Lam rim authors of the 1 0th to 1 4th centuries. I examine the rNying rna response to this challenge and the soteriological implications of the sems/ye shes distinction in chapter 6 .

19 These topics are treated in the course of this thesis . The reader is referred to the Index for page references.

20

complex diversity of early rDzogs chen traditions under the new rubric rNying ma or

"Ancient Ones" . The self-definition and institutionalization of the rNying rna school and its

amalgamation of rDzogs chen traditions under a single sectarian identity must be seen as

part of the broader pattern of monastic hegemony that defines this most fruitful period of

Tibetan cultural and religious history. If the formation and ascendancy of new Tibetan

schools gave a powerful impetus to codify and further develop traditional doctrines and

practices, it also brought to light growing intersectarian pressures as certain bKa ' brgyud

and rNying rna traditions deemed to be of questionable provenance were called upon to

verify the authenticity of their texts , teachings and practices by verifying their Indian

Buddhist pedigree.

Not only did the principal rDzogs chen distinctions play an important part in the

twofold task of highlighting central insights of rDzogs chen teachings while disclosing their

continuity with earlier Buddhist doctrines , they were also seen as the culmination of a

number of central Buddhist soteriological trends including certain theories of cessation and

transformation that will be treated below. In the spirit of inclusivism20, antecedent doctrines

were encompassed as lower stages leading toward a more fundamental and encompassing

vision. This is mirrored in the doxography of nine vehicles that is found already in early

rDzogs chen works such as the dGongs 'dus pa ' i mdo and Man ngag phreng ba . To this

nine-fold scheme, the rDzogs chen sNying thig tradition introduces a further

subclassification of the final vehicle Atiyoga into a Mind Genre (sems sde) , Space Genre

(klong sde) and Esoteric Guidance Genre (man ngag gi sde) , with further subdivisions

amongst these. Thus, the ascending doxography of vehicles is considered to find its

culmination in the Esoteric Guidance Genre (man ngag gi sde) or Heart Quintessence

(sNying thig) rDzogs chen teachings that claim to offer a path distinct from its predecessors,

an effortless (rtsol med) , spontaneous (lhun grub) path grounded in primordial knowing in

contrast to the deliberative and toilsome paths grounded in dualistic mind. According to

sNying thig doxography, all vehicles from Sravakayana up to and including the Mind and

20 On inclusivism, see Schmithausen 1 98 1 : 223 f. The term, coined by Paul Hacker, is defined by Schmithausen as the method by which "a competing doctrines, or essential elements of it, are admitted but relegated to a subordinate position, or given a suitable reinterpretation, and which aims not so much at reconciliation but at prevailing over the other doctrine or its propounders" (ibid. : 223 ) .

2 1

Space Genres (sems sde and klong sde) ofAtiyoga are described as paths of dualistic mind

(sems kyi lam) .

How are we to assess such a claim? It would be remiss to regard the rDzogs chen

hierarchy of spiritual vehicles and their numerous doxographical subclasses as a grand

intellectual synthesis, an overarching summa philosophica . We must reconcile the obvious

trend toward doctrinal inclusivism in rDzogs chen with the tradition ' s equally conspicuous

critique of the Buddhist proclivity for intellectual system-building which was seen as

symptomatic of the intransigent ego-mind and its dualistic fixations .2 1 One recurrent element

in rDzogs chen explanations of the key distinctions is their critique of claims that one can

realize buddhahood by way of mentation, that one can in effect reason one ' s way to

enlightenment. This downgrading of reason-guided gradualism is justified on the basis of

the distinctions themselves , presupposing as they do a structural asymmetry and even

radical discontinuity between Mind as such (sems nyid) and the representational activities of

dualistic mind (sems) . This is a point on which much more will be said later . What bears

emphasizing here is that at the basis of claims that rDzogs chen marks the culmination of all

paths was a conviction that all spiritual pursuits (even the so-called lower rDzogs chen

pursuits) remain bound up with dualistic (subjectivizing and objectifying) mind until

primordial knowing is fully disclosed . 22 It is noteworthy that the prominent thirteenth

century critic of rDzogs chen, Sa skya Pm:l(;lita argued that rDzogs chen should not be

considered a vehicle (vana) at all as it simply refers to the goal , primordial knowing, and not

the steps leading to it . Sa pal) ' s penetrating observation touches on a delicate problem that

concerns the very foundations of rDzogs chen soteriology and therefore warrants close

attention. His argument and rNying rna responses to it are examined in chapter seven below.

2 1 As a typical instance, consider stanza 23 from Klong chen pa' s dPe don nges don rdo rje 'i mgur, Klang chen gsung 'bum vol. 24: 223 . 1 f. : "Philosophical systems are like the spittle of silk worms: 1 [By them] you imprison your own existence. I From now on it would be good if there were no clinging to philosophical positions, I The true nature of phenomena being free of limitations. I " grub mtha ' srin gyi kha chu 'dral rang rgyud rang gis 'ching ba lal da res mtha ' bral chos nyid doni khas len 'dzin pa med na legsl l 22 See, for example, Klong chen pa's Chos dbyings mdzod 'grel: 229.2 f. : "Although within the natural condition of open awareness there are no spiritual vehicles whatsoever, they have manifested individually simply as avenues to its realization . . . " de 'ang rig pa 'i rang ngo la theg pa gang du 'ang med kyangl de rtogs par byed pa 'i sgo tsam du so sor shar . . .

22

§ 3 . The Disc10sive Paradigm

The importance and far-reaching implications of the rDzogs chen disclosive

paradigm of goal-realization cannot be emphasized too strongly . It is typically invoked to

distinguish the rDzogs chen way from Hlnayana stratagems of renouncing or eliminating

(spong ba) the cognitive and affective obscurations , Mahayana stratagems of counteracting

(gnyen po) them, and Y ogacara and Vajrayana stratagems of transforming (bsgyur ba) them .

The critique of transformation that is developed in classical rDzogs chen can be traced to the

tradition' s earliest sources .23 In the Khyung chen lding ba (Flight of the Garuda) , for

instance, we read that "since [self-occuring primordial knowing] is unchanging and

23 This early generalized critique of transformation is extended, during the classical sNying thig phase of rDzogs chen exegesis, to target certain Buddhist models of fundamental transformation, literally "transformation of basis" (gnas 'gyur : iisraya-pariivrtti, o-parivrtti), that assumed goal-realization to consist in an altered state of cognition. For discussions of a broad spectrum of transformation models in light of their historical and doctrinal backgrounds, see Davidson 1 985 , Sakuma 1 990, Schmithausen 1 969, and Mathes 2008. Some models relevant to this thesis will be examined in chapter four. Although the basic idea that goal-realization depends on a radical transformation, metamorphsis, or purification of the fundamental structures of human reality was developed most fully by the Yogacara philosophers in line with their complex psychological and ontological theories, it is found already in Vaibha�ika and Sautrantika sources (on which see Davidson 1 985 : 1 60- 1 7 1 and Sakuma 1 990 : 45 f.) and was later adopted by virtually all Buddhist schools and adapted to their specific viewpoints regarding the nature of mind, reality and the path. It should here be emphasized that rDzogs chen thinkers did not reject all models of transformation. Classical thinkers like Klong chen pa, Mi pham and'Jigs med gling pa were in fact partial to late hybridized Yogacara-Tathagatagargha models of transformation (such as those elaborated in the Ratnagotravibhiiga, Mahayiinasaf!lgraha) that were based on a disclosive paradigm of awakening and that defined primordial knowing (ye shes) or suchness (de bzhin nyid) as the basis (iisraya : gnas) and goal of the transformation process as well as the means by which it occurs. In other words, 'transformation' (pariivrtti : gyur) in these sources is interpreted as the complete purification or elimination of the iilayavijfiiina which obscures the fundamental basis (variously identified as buddha nature, suchness, thatness, primordial knowing), rather than as the replacement of an old basis afflicted by badness/hindrance (dau$tulya) by a new basis pervaded by ease (prasrabdhi), as the transformation was interpreted in earlier Yogacara. On these contrasting models as elaborated in the Bodhisattvabhumi and Sriivakabhumi respectively, see Schmithausen 1 969: 96 f. and Sakuma 1 990: 1 04- 1 08 , 125 - 1 3 5 . The late Yogacara ' elimination'/'purification' model of transformation, as will be shown in chapters 4 and 6, neatly coincided with the rDzogs chen disclosive soteriological paradigm. As an example of this transformation-cum-disclosure model, consider the following passage from Klong chen pa' s Sems nyid ngal gso 'gre! (vol. 1 : 2 1 9.5 f.) where dualistic mind (sems) and its mistaken appearances are said to be " fundamentally transformed or purified away" (gnas gyur pa 'am dag) upon realizing luminous Mind as such (sems nyid) which is identified as the unchanging aspect of the absolute ( 'gyur ba med pa 'i yongs grub) as presented in the Yogacara trisvabhiiva doctrine: "To summarize, once we have fathomed the unchanging reality as it is, luminous Mind as such, and realized all phenomena as empty to the extent that they are merely imagined, and if we proceed to cultivate the path so that the impure mistaken appearances together with the mind that hypostatizes them are fundamentally transformed or purified away, we have then reached the primordial state, thereby gaining complete mastery over the pure buddha realms of the inexhaustible ornament-wheel of authentic body, speech and mind. [This] description is a synthesis of the authentic doctrines." mdor bsdu nal sems nyid 'od gsal 'gyur ba med pa 'i de kho na nyid khong du chud cingl chos thams cad kun brtags pa tsam du stong par rtogs nasi lam bsgom na ma dag pa 'i 'khrul snang kun brtags pa 'i blo dang bcas pa gnas gyur pa 'am dag nasi gdod ma 'i ngang du ph yin te sku gsung thugs mi zad pa rgyan gyi 'khor fo 'i zhing khams dag pa fa mnga ' dbang rdzogs par 'gyur pa ni bstan pa dam pa 'i chos rnams gcig tu dril ba yin l l

23

changeless , it is without any basis for evolution (chags pa) . , ,24 A commentary on this text

from the bKa ' ma shin tu rgyas pa reads this line as a negative response to the question of

whether a human being can be said to ' change into ' a buddha.25 This model is rejected on

the grounds that buddhahood cannot be understood as something that has matured (smin zin

pa) : since in it there is no succession of moments, buddhahood is not claimed to be the

production of an essence. "Since there is therefore no fundamental transformation (gnas

gyur pa med pa), the quintessence [of buddhahood] is devoid of waxing or waning. Since it

defies expectation and is not found as some self-existent foundation of goal-realization,

primordial knowing is nothing that can be grasped as an individuating principle (bdag) ., ,26

This early repudiation of soteriological models based on development (smin, skyed) and

transformation ( 'gyur, gnas 'gyur) feeds into the growing emphasis on disclosure as the

paradigm that best accounts for how spiritual awakening (bodhi) occurs . It makes little

sense, as Klong chen pa argues at length in his Theg mchog mdzo�7, to say that afflictive

states (e .g . nyon mongs) are transformed into enlightened ones (e .g . ye shes) , especially

given the adventitious and obscuring character of the former and abiding, unfabricated

character of the latter . It is more accurate to say that afflictive states must be eliminated in

order for enlightened ones to manifest.

In view of such a critique, it can be seen that the distinction between ordinary and

originary awareness (mam shes/ye shes) as it is developed in certain SlUras such as the

24 Tk vol. 1 : 420 . 1 f.: mi 'gyur 'gyur ba med pas chags pa 'i gnas med de l l While the term chags pa can mean either ' attachment' or ' evolution/development ' , the commentary leaves no doubt that the latter sense is intended here.

25 Khyung chen ldings pa 'i 'grel pa, NyKs vol. 1 03 : 24.6 : '0 na sems can mi las sangs rgyas su 'gyur ro zhe nal

26 Ibid. 24.4 f.: smin zin pa bshad pa Ita bu'i phyir dangl skad cig ma 'i rgyun med pas ngo bo 'i skyed mi 'dod pa 'i phyirl gnas gyur pa med pas snying po 'phel 'grib med de l re ba dang bral bas 'bras bu 'i rten gzhi rang rgyud par ma grub pas ye shes la bdag tu 'dzin pa med dol l

27 Theg mchog mdzod vol. 2 : 1 604.3 f. : nyon mongs las nges par 'byin pa 'i lam rgyal a ti rdo rje snying po 'dirl nyon mongs ma spangs gnas su dag pasl nyan rang ltar spong ba dangl sems dpa ' ltar spong bal sngags 'og ma bskyed rim ltar bsgyura ba dangl rdzogs rim ltar rang zhir gtong ba dangl theg pa thun mongs spyi ltar gnyen pos gdul ba dangl sems sde ltar rang lugs su 'jog pa dangl klong sde ltar de nyid chos nyid du byed pas dag pa Ita bu ma yin nol ci 'i phyir zhe nal nyon mongs pa de yi ji bzhin yod ma myong du ma shes nal spangs pas mi spong stel nyon mongs de sems kyis spong nal spang bya spong byed gnyis rdzas gcig pas dag par mi rung lal ye shes kyis spong na sems kyis ye shes ma mthongl ye shes kyis sems ma mthong bas lhan cig mi gnas pa 'i dngos 'gal la spang bya spong byed kyi tha snyad mi rung lal snga ma phyi mas spangs pa med de 'das ma 'ongs rdzas 'gal basi gcig yod dus gcig 'gags lal dus mnyam na phan tshun 'chol bas spang bya gnyen por thaI lal gnyen po spang byar thaI te l sems rgyun gcig la dus mnyam pa 'i phyir rol l atext has bskyur

24

Mahayanasutralarrtkara as well as Yoganiruttara tantras such as the Kalaeakra, is only

typologically similar to the rDzogs chen sems/ye shes distinction. Closer analysis reveals

that the two distinctions reflect quite different interpetations that are based on different

textual sources, different models of consciousness and different accounts of how awakening

actually occurs . The idea that goal-realization comes about due to a fundamental

transformation of ordinary consciousness into primordial knowing is central to the Yogacara

model of consciousness and is developed in the higher yoga tantras . This model exerted a

powerful influence on the Tibetan bKa' brgyud traditions . The sixth chapter of Rang byung

rdo rje ' s Zab mo nang gi don, a detailed exposition on body, mind and cosmos according to

the Y oganiruttara tantras (bla na med pa 'i mal ' byor gyi rgyud) , is devoted to clarifying the

complex relationship between mam shes and ye shes and the transition between them.28 The

distinction is further clarified his above-mentioned treatise rNam shes ye shes 'byed pa ' i

bstan beos (which elaborates the distinction as presented in Mahayanasutralarrtkara IX) .29

rDzogs chen sources at times specify transformation as a doctrine having only

provisional meaning (drang don, i .e . in need of further interpretation) , one that is employed

with the implicit intention (idem dgongs) of guiding beings in accordance with their varying

interests and degrees of understanding. The Nam mkha ' klong yangs kyi rgyud puts it this

way : "While transformation is taught as a doctrine with regard to the gradation of intellect

of individuals [and] due to the varying interests of sentient beings, it is [here] shown to be

merely of provisional meaning with the implicit intention [indicated] . , ,30 This tantra later

28 See Rang byung rdo rje gsung 'bum vol . 7: 3 55 f. .

29 Ibid. vol. 7 : 269 f. .

30 Tk vol. 7 : 1 40 .3 f. (8g vol . 8 : 22 .6 0: sems can mos pa tha dad pas I gang zag blo ' i rim pa lal gnas 'gyur chos su bstan pa yangl bkri drang ldem dgongs tsam du bstan l l See also the rDzogs pa chen po 'khor ba rtsod nas gcod pa Chos sku skye med pa 'i pa 'i rgyud Tk vol. 7, 395 .3 f.: de phyir rnam shes tshogs brgyad dagl yang dag ma yin 'khor ba 'i chosl gnas 'gyur chos su bstan pa yangl dkri dang ldema dgongs bstan pa zaa1 de phyir kun gzhis gzhi byas te l gnyen po bzhi yis 'jigs pa dangl bag chags chags pa 'i rten byed pal yang dag ma yin 'khor ba 'byungl l atext has ldim. This text reflects the sNying thig position that the all-ground with its eightfold cognitive ensemble is one ' s own mind and not dharmakaya (Ibid. 395.3 f. : kun gzhi ' i rnam shes tshogs brgyad kyangl rang sems yin te chos sku min/). Since the eightfold ensemble is an indeterminate cognition that gives way to dualistic constructs on account of conditions of error associated with ignorance, it is oblivious to self-occuring awareness (rang 'byung rig pa) like a blind person. In this way, these conditioned modes of consciousness preserve the belief in discursive categories and solidify the latent tendencies leading to sarps&a (Ibid. : 395 .7 f. : rtoga pa bye brag 'dzin skyongs bzhinl 'khor ba 'i bag chags rtas par byea1 atext has rtogs) . On the history and significance of the sNying thig distinction between kun gzhi and chos sku, see chapters 4 and 5 below.

25

contrasts the so-called transformed modes of primordial knowing (i .e . the five jiiiina) from

self-occuring primordial knowing (rang byung ye shes) : because the former involve

modification due to conditions (rkyen 'gyur) , they cannot be considered self-occuring. To do

so would be like taking brass for gold. 3 l The Nam mkha ' mnyam pa ' i rgyud similarily

proclaims that "the primordial knowing that is not self-occuring refers to the five modes of

primordial knowing that are fundamental transformations of the eightfold ensemble [of

cognitions] . Because they arise due to conditions of production, they are not the self­

occuring [primordial knowing] that abides primordially . , ,32 Thus, in articulating the recovery

of primordial awareness, rDzogs chen sources typically opt for a language of disclosure

rather than transformation. In doing so, they avoid the unwarranted claim that realizing

awakening consists in the modification of something (x) from one state (Xl) into another (x2) .

Within the disclosive paradigm, there can be no such modification since realization depends

on the dissolution of all that is derivative and fabricated into its abiding source.

§4. On the Obscure Origins of the sNying thig System

Because a good deal of this thesis is taken up with the exposition and philosophical

interpretation of rDzogs chen sNying thig exegesis on the principal distinctions , it is a good

idea to briefly review our current state of knowledge about the historical roots of this

tradition and point out some areas requiring further investigation. Despite our still dim and

fragmentary knowledge of its history and major figures , it is likely that the (re)emergence of

this tradition owes much to the efforts of ICe btsun Seng ge dbang phyug33 ( 1 1 th c . ) who is

credited with 'reorganizing ' the sNying thig teachings of Vimalamitra that are said to have

been discovered by his teacher lDang rna lhun rgyal in the Temple of the Hat (zhwa ' i lha

3 1 Tk vol. 7: 1 5 1 .7 f. ; Bg vol. 8: 34.4 f. : rang byung min pa 'i ye shes de] gnas 'gyur ye shes Ingar 'dod pal rkyen 'gyur phyir yang rang byung min] ra gana gser du 'dzin pa 'dra] ye shes rang byung ma yin pal l a Bg ra gan : Tk ra gnas

32 Tk vol. 8 : 2 87. 1 f.: rang byung min pa 'i ye shes de ] tshogs brgyad gnas gyur ye shes Inga] bskyed pa 'i rkyen las byung ba 'i phyir] ye nas gnas pa 'i rang byung min] ] See also Nam mkha ' klong yangs kyi rgyud, Tk vol . 7 : 1 5 1 .7 f.: rang byung min pa 'i ye shes de] gnas 'gyur ye shes Ingar 'dod pal rkyen 'gyur phyir yang rang byung min ] ]

33 On ICe btsun Seng ge dbang phyug, See Dudjom 2002 : 557 f., sMyo shul mkhan po ' s Chos 'byung, translated in Barron 2005 : 85 f., 'Gos 10 tsa ba' s Deb ther sngon po, in Roerich 1 976: 1 92 f. and Karmay 1 988 : 2 1 0 f..

26

khang)34 in dBu ru35 • Over the next two centuries , the tradition gained a prominent place

within the emerging Tibetan rNying rna order in Central Tibet as successive generations of

scholar-adepts further codified and explained these teachings , while keeping the flame of

oral transmission alive. If few writings survive from this period, mKhas pa Nyi rna 'bum ' s

aforementioned 12th century summary of the sNying system entitled Tshig don bcu gcig pa

serves as an isolated example of what was in all likelihood a broader trend. Klong chen pa ' s

own root guru Kumaradza, who is said to have developed rDzogs chen as a philosophical

system employing a specific technical language and not mixing it with the rDzogs rim

system36, must have also played a critical role, though unfortunately little of his work

survives .37 It is in any case with the prodigious systematizing efforts of Klong chen pa that

the sNying thig emerges from relative obscurity in the 14th century to become the most

important and influential tradition of the rNying rna school .

34 The Zhwa' i lha khang is a small temple located about 80 km north-east of Lhasa '"in a sheltered valley near the mouth of a stream that flows into the sKyid chu from the direction of Nu rna ri in the east." Richardson 1 985 : 43 . The temple entrance is flanked by two tall stone pillars bearing inscriptions that record certain privileges granted Myang by the emperor Khri lde 'u srong btsan (b. 776). Myang is said to have been instrumental in establishing Khri sde 'u srong btsan on the throne. Tradition relates that Myang Ting nge 'dzin hid the seventeen tantras in a pillar in this temple in the early 9th century after receiving the complete sNying thig transmission and texts (the tantras and Bi rna snying thig) from his teacher Vimalamitra but not before teaching them to 'Brom Rin chen 'bar ba, thus ensuring the continuity of oral transmission. The texts are said to have been found in the 1 1 th century by IDang rna Ihun rgyal who was caretaker of this temple and later passed on to Seng ge dbang phyug. These events are summarized in the colophon of the Rig pa rang shar, in Ati vol. 1 : 852-55; a more detailed account is found in the rDzogs pa chen po snying tig gi 10 rgyus chen rna, in Klong chen pa' s Bi rna snying fig part 3 , sNyig thig ya bzhi vol . 9 : 1 63 -9. Later critics of the rNying rna tradition have denied the veracity of this account, on which see below note 5 1 . Further information on this temple is found in H. E. Richardson, "Tibetan inscriptions at Zhwa' i Lha Khang," JRAS, 1 952 : 1 33 -54 and 1 953 : 1 - 12 ; Karmay 1 988 : 2 1 0 f.. Klong chen pa is said to have restored Zhwa' i Iha khang in the 1 4th

century and he composed two works about the temple that are contained in his Miscellaneous Writings (gSung thor bu) : Zhwa padma dbang chen gyi bstod pa rol rna 'i sprin phung and Zhwa padma dbang chen gyi dkar chag gtsigs kyi yi ge zhib rna, in Klang chen gsung 'bum vol. 24: 20-29 and 3 8-63 respectively. The former work includes inter alia the geomantic layout of the temple, its importance as a kind of symbolic bulwark (chu rags) against the flooding of IHa sa and bSam yas (which would foretoken the ruin of Tibet), its national importance as an Imperial Period temple, as well as its artistic inventory and major renovations. See S0rensen and Hazod 2007: 457 n. 1 0 1 .

3 5 dBu ru was the Westernmost part of the two parts into which Central Tibet (dB us) was traditionally divided, the other being g. Yon ru. See Ferrari 1 958 : 46 and 1 1 7 n. 1 60.

36 According to Dudjom 2002 : 57 1 -2 : " Kumaradza was able to explain the instructions of the Innermost Spirituality [sNying thig] without mixing them with other systems of the stage of perfection [rDzogs rim] ; and thus he created a philosophical system in the technical language [of the Great Perfection itself.]" This interesting observation which goes back to 'Gos 10 tsa ba, Deb ther sngon po: 44b. l f. bears further investigation.

37 I am aware only of the bKa ' brgyad kyi bskyed rim gyi man ngag gnad bsdus that is listed in a collection of texts recovered from the Potala (see Potala Collection 0 1 22 1 - 1 on the TBRC website www.thrc .on,) but is so far not in circulation.

27

None of these details about the 1 1 th to 14th century ascendancy of the sNying thig

tradition rule out the possibility that its historical origins lie in the Royal Dynastic Period, as

indeed the tradition maintains, and that it continued through the ensuing Period of

Fragmentation, mostly in the form of closely guarded oral teachings , at times as ' treasures '

(gter ma) concealed for future generations , finally re-emerging as a major Central Tibetan

rDzogs chen movement in the classical period.38 If there is as yet no conclusive evidence for

this hypothesis there are a number of intriguing indications . These include: ( 1 ) the existence

of an extensive body of sNying thig tantras , commentaries , treatises and instructions that are

ascribed to Vimalamitra (the figure most closely associated with sNying thig transmissions)

and found scattered amongs the Bai ro rgyud 'bum, Bi rna snying thig, gSang ba snying

thil9, and bKa ' ma and rNying rgyud collections; (2) a reference in the Mun pa 'i go cha by

gNubs chen Sangs rgyas ye shes (b . 844) to certain esoteric instructions (man ngag) that he

attributes to a prominent person (rab gang zag) of his day emphasizing the need to have

perceptions (dmigs) in Atiyoga practice, an imperative the author criticizes as counter­

productive to his more quietistic Chan and Sems sde influenced Atiyoga system of

contemplating the mind based on principles of non-interference (byar med) and spontaneity

(lhun grub)40; (3) Rog Bande shes rab ' od ' s ( 1 1 66- 1244) identification of Esoteric Guidance

Atiyoga (man ngag a ti yo ga) as the summit of spiritual vehicles and his use of terms such

as rtsal in ways reminiscent of usages specific to the sNying thig system4I ; (4) unbroken

3 8 Unfortunately, the proliferation of rediscovered treasures (gter ma) attributed to early rDzogs chen masters from the fourteenth century onwards has served more to conceal than reveal the existence of genuine works that may have survived from the Royal Dynastic Period. See Germano 2005 .

39 On the dates of this cycle and its rediscovery, see Achard 1 999: 81 f.. The cycle consisted of the seventeen tantras (rgyud bcu bdun) and a collection of precepts related to these (bi ma snying thig).

40 Mun pa 'i go cha vol. 1 , NyKs vol. 93 : 5 1 3 .4 f.: "One prominent person today is [considered to be] the foundation of the Dharma. But this person thinks that in Atiyoga there is a need to [have] perceptions. He claims one is liberated by way of these esoteric instructions (man ngag) based on stratagems involving perceptions. It is clear that he has not found confidence in the meaning of thus ness [that is rDzogs chen] . That blindman is like one who wants to open the lock to a treasury by means of a yak-hom key." dus deng sang gi gang zag rab gcig de ni chos kyi gzhi yin nol gang zag gi bsam pas a ti yo ga la dmigs dgos pasl thabs dmigs pa can gyi man ngag gis 'grol zhes smra ba nil de nyid kyi don gyi gding ma rnyed par gsal te l mdongs pa de ni dper na dong rwa 'i Ide 'u mig gis bang mdzod tha rama 'byed par 'dod pa dang 'dra '01 1 atha ram is an archaic Tibetan term that appears to have the sense of , lock' in certain Bon passages but is also preserved in Darma language as tarum meaning 'key' . See Dan Martin ' s entry s .v. tha ram in the THDL online Tibetan dictionary. Another possibility is tha rams meaning ' ful l ' or ' filled up ' (gang ba, gtengs pa). The above comment concludes a lengthy passage on Atiyoga, on which see Dalton 2002 : 3 1 4 .

41 I examine some ofRog's rDzogs chen views in Chapter Four.

28

lines of oral transmission (an important source of legitimacy of Tibetan traditions) of

masters associated with the sNying thig tradition found in two Bai ro rgyud 'bum texts, the

PalJ sgrub mams kyi thugs bcud snying gi nyi ma42 and 'Dra 'bag chen mo43 ; (5) Accounts

widely attributed to a now lost history of Buddhism in Tibet by Rong zorn pa ( 1 1 th C .)44 that

credit Vimalamitra not only with initiating the last of seven transmissions (babs bdun) of

tantric teachings from India to Tibet bit also with instigating a later wave of translation

activity in Tibet known as the "cycle of complete perfection" (yongs su rdzogs pa 'i skor) or

"cycle of complete exfoliation" (yongs su rgyas pa 'i skor)45; (6) Later syncretistic Sems sde

texts such as the Kun byed rgyal po (a text not yet mentioned by gNubs chen and only

separate chapters of which are to be found in the Bai ro rgyud 'bum) that closely resemble

the sNying thig Khregs chod teachings in style and content; (7) Finally, we can mention the

Northern Treasure (byang gter) teachings revealed by Rig 'dzin rGod Idem ( 1 337- 1 409) , a

contemporary of Klong chen pa, and contained in the dGongs pa zang thal which not only

quote extensively from the seventeen Atiyoga tantras46, but also present many of the

doctrines of the sNying thig tradition as deriving from rDzogs chen masters of the Royal

Dynastic Period by way of oral transmission lineages . Of particular interest in rGod Idem ' s

collection are teachings on (a) distinguishing sems and ye shes that are alleged to derive

from oral transmissions of dGa' rab rdo rje (dga ' rab rdo rje ' i snyan brgyud)47 and

Vairocana48, (b) distinguishing kun gzhi and chos sku said to derive from Vairocana (bai ro

42 On this work, see Kapstein 2008. Most of these figures are mentioned by gNubs chen in his bSam gtan mig sgron.

43 On this work, see Karmay 1 988 : 19 f.. 44 The famous account of seven transmissions (babs bdun) and four processes (tshul bzhi) is traditionally attributed to a lost chos 'byung of Rong zorn pa. Germano (2002 : 226 f.) mentions that this work survives only as cited in certain rNying rna histories such as the IDe 'u chos 'byung of mKhas pa lde 'u ( 1 3 th c.), the Klong chen chos 'byung ofrGyal sras Thugs mchog rtsal ( 1 4th c.), the Nor bu 'i phreng ba of Mkhyen rab rgya mtsho ( 1 6th c.) and the Pad ma dkar po 'i rdzing bu of Zhe chen rgyal tshab pad rna mam rgyal (20th c.).

45 See Germano 2002 : 227.

46 See especially the author ' s Bi ma la 'i snyan brgyud 'gre! tig chen mo vol. 4 : 1 83 -40 1 in which the seventeen tantras are extensively quoted and commented upon.

47 See for example dGongs pa zang thaI vol. 2: 472 f.. 48 See dGongs pa zang thaI vol. 4: 1 83 f..

29

tsa na ' i snyan brgyud)49 and (c) the seven grounds (gzhi bdun) said to derive from

Vimalamitra (bi ma la 'i snyan brgyud) .50

Despite these intriguing suggestions of unbroken continuity of the sNying thig

tradition from the Royal Dynastic Period onward, it is evident that a good deal of what one

encounters in the classical presentations is unprecedented and suggest at least a reworking

of older materials . Many of the characteristic terms and concepts are not found in the works

of important earlier figures such as gNubs chen (b . 844) and Rong zorn pa (b . 1 1 th c . ) ,

though both quote and cite the influence of many of the well-known Royal Dynastic rDzogs

chen figures and texts . Whatever their provenance, the Man ngag sde tantras and supporting

exegesis appear to come to light in the 12th century as a set of interlocking texts (replete with

intertextual references) presenting a coherent, thematically integrated system of doctrine

and practice . It is a system that presupposes earlier rDzogs chen developments (especially

Sems sde tantras such as the Kun byed rgyal po) as well as the broader currents of Indian

Buddhist Y ogacara, Madhyamaka and tantrism but claims (following an intepretive strategy

common to Indo-Tibetan Buddhist doxographie works) to transcend them and mark their

culimination. The result is a fundamentally sNying thig framework of teachings based on

the primacy of open awareness (rig pa) or self-oceuring primordial knowing (rang byung ye

shes) into which antecedent teachings are assimilated within the lower eight vehicles and

presented as partial perspectives based on dualistic mind (sems) .

If later critics of the rNying rna tradition raised suspicions that these tantras and

supporting literature were of Tibetan not Indian origin and posed legitimate questions about

their authorship5 1 , this should only reinforce the imperative to evalute them on their own

terms, as original works reflecting a distinctively Tibetan penchant for both synthes izing

and reframing inherited doctrines and ideas . It is here, perhaps, that modern Western

approaches to literature which are inclined to value originality over confirmation and

49 See dGongs pa zang thaI vol. 2: 488 .3 f . .

50 See dGongs pa zang thaI vol. 4 : 1 83 f . S l One such critic, 'Bri gung dPal 'dzin (b. 1 4th c) in a circular letter (circa 1 400) criticizing the rNying ma tradition claimed that the Bi ma snying thig and related seventeen tantras were composed by Senge dbang phyug rather than reorganized by him as the rNying ma histories maintain. dPal 'dzin 's allegation is recorded in Sog bzlog pa gsung 'bum vol. 1 , sNgags rnying ma 'i rtsod spong 'Bri khung dpal 'dzin gyi brtsod Ian: 280. 1 : lee btsun seng ge dbang

phyug gisl bi ma la 'i snying thig dangl de yi rgyud chen bcu bdun byas l l See Karmay 1 988 : 2 1 0 f .

30

individual expression over received wisdom may offer a new basis for appreciating works

that did not easily find a place in a sectarian, Indocentric intellectual climate that was

generally averse to innovation (rang bzo) . Judged on their own merits , the sNying thig

tantras and the commentarial and exigetical works associated with them collectively

represent an enormous contribution to the development of Buddhist philosophy and

soteriology, one that we have only begun to explore .

§5 . The Lives and Works of Four Major rDzogs chen Figures

Before embarking on a detailed investigation of the principal rDzogs chen

distinctions, it may be useful to briefly survey the lives and works of some of the more

important figures whose work will be taken up in the course of this thesis : Vimalamitra (8 th

- 9th c . ) , gNyags JiUlnakumara (8th - 9th c . ) , gNubs Sangs rgyas ye shes (9th - 1 0th c . ) and

Klong chen pa ( 14th c . ) . Of these, Vimalamitra and Klong chen pa are traditionally regarded

as the two most influential proponents of the sNying thig tradition while gNyags and gNubs

are portrayed as leading advocates of the early Mind Genre (sems sde or sems phyogs as it

was sometimes called52) teachings associated with Vairocana and g,Yu sgra snying po .

1 . Vimalamitra

Through the lens of rNying rna historical and hagiographical literature ,

Vimalamitra ' s larger than life role in promulgating rDzogs chen teachings in Tibet seems

inversely proportionate to the availability of reliable information concerning his life . 53 He is

portrayed as a famous Indian scholar-yogin who at a ripe old age (200 according to bDud

'joms rin po che) is invited to Tibet by king Khri srong lde 'u btsan whereupon he proceeds

"to induce faith in the sceptical Tibetans by his amazing miraculous powers . , ,54 In a

52 See Kapstein 2008 : 283 . The author notes that this classification of the three ' genres ' (sde) of rDzogs chen is not attested before the l 2th century (283 . n. 25) : "The threefold classification of the sde-gsum�sems-sde, klong-sde, mang-ngag-gi sde�appears to originate in the tantras of the latter category and is unknown to the other systems of Rdzogs-chen. A single reference to the threefold classification in the rnam-thar of Khyung-po rnal- 'byor (written c. 1 1 40) may be the earliest reference outside the tantras themselves, and perhaps reflects later editorial intervention."

53 Information regarding Vimalamitra's life and works is based on 'Gos 10 tsa ba's Deb ther sngon po, in Roerich 1 976: 1 9 1 £, bDud 'joms rin po che ' s rNying ma 'i chos 'byung, in Dudjom 1 99 1 : 555 £, Karmay 1 988 : 24 £ and Germano 2002 : 24 1 f. .

5 4 Dudjom 1 99 1 : 555 .

3 1

somewhat less fabulous vem, Vimalamitra is credited with establishing the Esoteric

Guidance Genre (man ngag gi sde) of rDzogs chen in Tibet during the reign of Khri srong

lde 'u btsan (late 8th century) and also with instigating a second wave of Mind Genre (sems

sde) teachings there during the reign of Ral pa can (early 9th century) . This dual role has led

certain Tibetan historians including 'Gos 10 tsa ba gZhon nu dpal to propose that there were

in fact two Vimalamitras , an earlier sNying thig yogi and a later monk.55 Other historians

have been content to accept two historically distinct waves of propogation by the esteemed

master, as we have seen in Rong zorn pa' s account of Vimalamitra ' s earlier and later

transmissions .56 It is interesting that gNubs chen, writing closer to the master ' s lifetime (late

9th to early 1 0th century), identifies Vimalamitra, along with Padmasambhava and

Buddhagupta, as an adept of the Mahayoga system, though elsewhere in his bSam gtan mig

sgron (Lamp for Eyes of Contemplation) he also names him as an exponent of one of the

nine principal rDzogs chen views, i .e . "the view that is free from any frame of reference"

(gza ' gtad bral ba ' i ita ba) .57 It would appear that Vimalamitra was , like many of the early

Indian figures associated with the rise of rDzogs chen, a proponent of both Mahayoga and

Sems sde teachings . In any case, Vimalamitra ' s role in the diffusion of Sems sde lineages is

attributed to his collaboration with Vairocana and his subsequent translation of thirteen texts

(phyi 'gyur bcu gsum) belonging to the corpus of eighteen Sems sde works, the earlier five

translations (snga 'gyur lnga) having been made by Vairocana himself.58

Like Padmasambhava, Vimalamitra ' s widespread popularity in Tibet derives in part

from his alleged role in establishing the sNying thig tradition and in part from the large

volume of sNying thig writings and translations ascribed to him. None of these attributions

can be verified at present and one is led to suspect, for reasons indicated above, a strong

indigenous element at work in the formation of the sNying thig system. At any event, it was

Vimalamitra ' s main disciple, a well-attested Tibetan monk from the powerful Myang clan

known as Myang Ting nge 'dzin bzang po (760-8 15) , who reportedly preserved the

55 Roerich 1 976, I : 1 9 1 .

56 See above 2 9 and Germano 2002 : 226 f.. 57 See Karmay 1 988 : 6 1 .

58 Karmay 1 98 8 : 24.

32

seventeen tantras for posterity by concealing them in the Temple of the Hat (zhwa 'i lha

khang)59, after first teaching them to 'Brom Rin chen 'bar. Myang appears to have been

unpopular with King Khri srong lde 'u btsan and his brother, perhaps on account of his and

Vimala ' s alleged sympathies with the Chinese Chan system of Heshang Mohoyen at the

time of the so-called bSam yas debate60 which likely occurred in Central Tibet during the

reign of King Khri srong lde 'u btsan (d. 790) . He nonetheless served as a tutor or guardian

to the prince Khri lde 'u srong btsan (b . 776) . 6 1 It was on account of his affectionate and

loyal service that the prince, when he later acceded to the throne, made Myang a minister

and granted him the land on which the Temple of the Hat was established. Questions of

provenance and authorial identifications notwithstanding, the corpus of sNying thig texts

attributed to Vimalamitra - in particular the seventeen tantras and supporting commentaries

and instructions - is remarkable for its consistency, erudition, philosophical acuity, clarity of

expression and originality.

2 . gNyags Jnanakumara

gNyags JfHinakumara (Tib gnyags dznya na ku ma ra) is said to have been born in the

Yar klungs (Yarlung) valley early in the eighth century . 62 Tradition relates that he was

ordained by Santaraksita and received rDzogs chen oral transmissions from

Padmasambhava, Vimalamitra, Vairocana and g.Yu sgra snying po. According to ' Gos 10

tsa ba gZhon nu dpal, gNyags studied the Sems sde teachings under Vairocana and g .Yu

59 On this temple, see above note 34 .

60 Sources on the debate and its participants include Demieville 1 952, Seyfort Ruegg 1 989 : 1 92 f, Jackson 1 994a. van der Kuijp 1 984, Broido 1 987, and Gomez 1 987: 96 f. A succinct account of the bSam yas debate according to the early sBa bzhed is given by Faber 1 986. Relevant materials on the debate from the later (Zhabs btags rna) version are found in Houston 1 980. On the probable history of the earlier and later versions, see Seytort Ruegg 1 989: 67 f .

6 1 As a prominent aristocrat in the powerful Myang clan, Myang ting nge 'dzin played a decisive role in having dBa' Ye shes dbang po (d. around 797), first abbot of bSam yas, removed from his office and replaced by gNyan dPal dbyangs. On these figures see Karmay 1 988 . Two factors may have influenced this decision. One was his perception that Ye shes dbang po had over-extended his reach by according the oftice of abbot of bSam yas, and theretore the religious community itself, more power than the ministers and aristocracy. The other was Myang' s alleged affiliation with Chinese Chan proponents who were coming under increasing pressure from pro-Indian factions led by Ye shes dbang po, as both sides vied for royal patronage. See Tucci 1 980: 5 f .

62 InfOlwation regarding gNyag's life and works is based on 'Gos 10 tsa ba' s Deb ther sngon po, in Roerich 1 976: 1 70 f , bDud 'joms rin po che ' s rNying rna 'i chos 'byung, in Dudjom 1 99 1 : 601 f. and Garson 2004: 204 f .

33

sgra and the later Sems sde translations under Vimalamitra. This last association, if true,

would suggest that gNyag ' s life straddled the 8th and 9th centuries . In transmitting the Sems

sde teachings , gNyags played a vital part in the consolidation and widespread dissemination

of the different Sems sde lineages in Tibet . Considered one of Vimilamitra ' s two major

disciples , he also said to have collaborated in the earliest extant translation of the

*Guhyagarbhatantra . He is also credited with assisting in the translation and transmission of

a number of esoteric teachings belonging to Mahayoga, rDzogs chen Atiyoga (i .e . Sems

sde) , and Vajrakila. ' Gos 10 lists a number of gNyag ' s disciples . Among these, rDza dPal

sprul rin po che ( 1 808- 1 8 87) singles out Khu Byang chub 'od and Sog po (Sogdian/Manchu­

Mongolian) dPal gyi ye shes as gNyag ' s two main successors . It is through Sog po that the

rDzogs chen teachings passed down to gNubs Sangs rgyas ye shes .

The only works of gNyags that are extant are three commentaries that are included in

the recently discovered 1 20 volume bKa ' ma shin tu rgyas pa , namely, the 'Phrul gyi me

long dgu skor gyi 'grel pa (Commentary on the Nine-fold Cycle: Mirror of Manifestation),

Spyi gsang sngags lung gi 'grel pa (Commentary on the General Mantra Scripture) , and

gSang ba bde ba ' i 'grel pa (Commentary on the Secret Bliss) .63 Nothing is known about the

texts on which these commentaries are based though they clearly merit study for their lucid

and succinct distillations of early rDzogs chen thought . As for gNyag ' s commentaries, the

last two are included in a corpus of Mind Genre commentaries (sems sde ' i dgongs 'grel

skor) . In these works , the author clarifies many of the distinctive, and at times contrarian,

themes introduced by this tradition such as the path that is spontaneously present (lhun grub

pa 'i lam) and therefore devoid of progression (bgrod du med pa 'i lam)64, effortless mastery

(brtsol du med pa) , the supreme sphere of being (thig Ie chen pO)65 , the rDzogs chen

unconditioned all-ground (kun gzhi)66, self-occuring primordial knowing (rang byung gi ye

63 These are in NyKs vol. 82: 963 f. and vol. 1 03 : 439 f. and 355 f. respectively.

64 gSang ba bde ba 'i 'grel pa: 355 . 3 ; Spyi gsang sngags lung gi 'grel pa: 440 .4.

65 gSang ba bde ba 'i 'grel pa: 3 56.3 ; Spyi gsang sngags lung gi 'grel pa: 471 .2.

66 Spyi gsang sngags lung gi 'grel pa: 44 1 . 1 .

34

shes)67 , and the way of Great Perfection (rdzogs chen) itself which is said to be beyond

acceptance and rejection.6s

gNyag ' s commentary on the Mirror of Manifestation, which is incorporated in a

collection of sixty instructions on Miiyiijiila scriptures (sgyu 'phrul rgya gzhung man ngag

phra mo drug bcu 'i skor) , is of considerable philosophical interest as a defence of early

Mahayoga and rDzogs chen principles . It also reveals a side of gNyags JiHlnakumara quite

different from his fantastic portrayal in later hagiographical accounts as a wild shaman-like

VajrakIlaya practitioner who, under the spiritual guidance of Vimalamitra, sublimates his

impulse to wreak vengeance on various parties who wronged him, including his own

brother.69 The Mirror instead shows gNyags to be an astute Buddhist philosopher well­

versed in the Tibetan Buddhist philosophical schools prevalent in 8th century Tibet and

capable of critically appraising and clarifying leading Mahayoga/rDzogs chen ideas such as

spontaneity (lhun gyis grub pa) , primordial buddhahood (ye sangs rgyas), the ground (gzhi)

and errancy ( ,khrul pa) using an impressive repetoire of traditional tools of analysis and

argumentation, with a particular predilection for the reductio ad absurdum (prasmiga : thaI

'gyur) .

Of particular interest within this commentary is the author ' s doxography of the broad

range of views available to Tibetans during his lifetime. These views are classified as ( 1 )

very unwise , (2) unwise, (3) wise and (4) very wise. ( 1 ) The 'very unwise ' (shin tu m i mkhas

pa) rubric includes non-Buddhist heretics (mu stegs pa : tfrthika) as well as commoners

(skye bo dag) who hold extreme views. (2) The designation 'unwise ' (mi mkhas pa) is

specified later in the text as characterizing three modes of thought of Buddhist philosophers

who are deemed unwise in perspective (ltas pa 'i mi mkhas pa dag) : (A) Pramfu).avadins who

dispute about the existence of instruments (tshul) of valid cognition, (B) Cittamatra

followers who dispute about the existence or non-existence of sense-data [i .e . , Nikaravadins/

AlIkakaravadins and Sakaravadins/Satyakaravadins] , and (C) Madhyamikas who dispute

67 gSang ba bde ba 'i 'grel pa: 3 56.4; Spyi gsang sngags lung gi 'grel pa: 480.3 . 68 gSang ba bde ba 'i 'gre! pa: 3 56.6; Spyi gsang sngags lung gi 'gre! pa: 45 1 .5 . 6 9 See Dudj om 1 99 1 : 60 1 -6.

35

about the existence or non-existence of appearances (snang ba) . Since they all intentionally

negate epistemological objects that are [deemed] ' irrational ' and actively affirm

epistemological objects that are [deemed] ' rational ' , they develop mental attachments to

objects of affirmation and antipathy toward objects of refutation. Because they consequently

fail to see that which is without acceptance or rejection, they are considered 'unwise . 70 (3)

The moniker 'wise ' (mkhas pa) is used with reference to MMhyamikas and followers of

Cittamatra who pursue the Mahayana path but remain confused in their view of the Mantra

[approach] and consequently remain cut off from the path that does not err due to the

influence of object-oriented and subject-oriented deliberations . Because they entertain ideas

that definitively postulate factors that they intentionally deny or affirm, they are cut off from

the Mantra view. (4) The highest category, the very wise, consists of Mantra[yana] (i .e . ,

Mahayoga) followers who directly realize the self-manifesting self-awareness (rang rig rang

snang) in which all phenomena bound up with acceptance and rejection are transcended.71

3 . gNubs chen Sangs rgyas ye shes

gNubs chen Sangs rgyas ye shes emerged as a brilliant rDzogs chen scholar and

systematizer of the dominant currents of Buddhist thought and praxis that existed in Tibet

during the so-called Period of Fragmentation (9 10- 1 249) following the collapse of the

central empire .72 As few works of other Tibetan scholars survived this tumultuous period,

the tradition is probably right to honour gNubs chen with preserving existing rNying rna

traditions for posterity through this difficult time of transition and with initiating a second

wave of bKa ' rna exegesis . gNubs chen ' s works likely had limited circulation during his

lifetime and fell into relative obscurity thereafter . Fortunately, the recent global distribution

70 'Phrul gyi me long dgu skor kyi 'grel pa, NyKs vol. 82: 986.2 f : ltos pa 'i mi mkhas pa dag nil tshad ma tshul yod la rtsodr sems tsam pa rnam pa yod med la rtsodl dbu ma snang ba yod med la rtsod pa byed pa cingl rigs pa ma yin pa 'i shes pa 'i yul ched du 'gegsl rigs pa 'i shes pa 'i yul sgrub par byed pa de nil sgrub pa 'i don la blo chagsl dgag bya la zhe sdang bskyed pasl blang dor med pa 'i don ma mthong ba 'i phyir mi mkhas pa 'o l l

71 As gNyag states, "Since all phenomena of denying and affirming, existing or non-existing, are simply this [prereflective] self-awareness, one shouldn't take some specially singled out reality which is devoid of denial and affirmation as an intentional object." Ibid. : 987.5 f : . . . dgag sgrub yod med kyi chos thams cad rang rig pa yin pasl dgag sgrub med pa 'i don ched du dmigs pa yul du mi byed dol l

72 Information regarding gNub chen' s life and works is based on 'Gos 10 tsa ba' s Deb ther sngon po, in Roerich 1 976 : 1 04 f, bDud 'joms rin po che 's rNying ma 'i chos 'byung, in Dudjom Rinpoche 1 99 1 : 607 f. , Karmay 1 98 8 : 99 f and Germano 2002 : 252 f..

36

of once rare Tibetan texts 73 has made it possible for the first time to give this remarkable

figure the attention he deserves .

There is considerable confusion about when gNubs chen lived. According to bDud

'joms rin po che, he was born in the uplands of Grwa (Dra) in Central Tibet in 832 where he

lived to the age of 1 1 1 .74 Some traditional sources claim he was born in 772 in order to

make him a direct disciple of Padmasambhava, while others place his birth date in the late

1 0th century .75 It is now widely accepted, on the basis of early records of family and

religious lineages as well as historical references in his bSam gtan mig sgron, that gNubs

chen lived sometime between the mid-ninth and mid-tenth centuries .76 Nyang ral Nyi rna ' od

zer ( 1 1 36- 1 204) portrays gNubs chen as a figure in whom all transmissions of the nine

disciples of gNyags Jminakumara converged.77 His principal teacher is generally identified

as Sog po (Sogdian) dPal gyi ye shes, one of gNyag ' s two main disciples . gNubs chen

claims in the colophon of his bSam gtan mig sgron to have studied in the presence of various

scholars in India and Nepal and to have also studied with the translator ( io tsa ba) Che btsan

skyes of Bru sha (Gilgit-Baltistan region of Northern Pakistan) .78 According to the mKhas

pa lde 'u, these trans-Himalayan journeys were motivated by gNubs chen ' s dissatisfaction

with the lineages existing in Tibet during this period of turmoi1 .79 Karmay has noted that the

translation colophon of the dGongs 'dus pa ' i mdo names Che btsan skyes as translator of the

work from the language of Bru sha (a language today known as Burushaski80 which is used

73 Contemporary scholars who work with Tibetan primary sources are much indebted to Gene Smith ( 1 936-20 1 0) and his team at the Tibetan Buddhist Resource Centre for their tireless efforts in collecting, codifYing and preserving a vast number and variety of Tibetan texts and making them available in digital format.

74 Dudjom 1 99 1 : 607, 6 1 4.

75 Karmay 1 988 : 1 00.

76 Germano 2002 : 253 .

77 See Germano 2002 : 253 .

78 See Karmay 1988 : 99. See also Dalton 2002 : 278 f. for an account of the teachers gNubs chen is said to have studied with during his cross-Himalayan journeys.

79 Germano 2002: 254.

80 Burushaski (also known as Brugaski, Kanjut, Verchikwar, Boorishki, and Brushas) is a language isolate (having no proven genetic relationship with any language of the world) which is today spoken by some 87,000 Burusho people (as of 2000) residing mostly in the Hunza, Nagar, Yasin, and Ishkoman valleys, and some parts of the Gilgit valley in the Gilgit-Baltistan region of NOlihern Pakistan. Despite the introduction of many loan words from neighbouring languages, the grammar and vocabulary of the language remain largely intact. On the Burushaski

37

in Gilgit and the Hunza valley) . 8 1 This tantra is the subject of gNubs chen ' s most extensive

extant work, the Mun pa ' i go cha (Armour Against Darkness), a massive commentary that

fills two volumes of the recently discovered bKa ' ma shin tu rgyas pa .82 The dGongs 'dus is

also the source most frequently cited in the author ' s bSam gtan mig sgron where it goes by

the title rNal 'byor grub pa 'i lung.83 Possibly on account of its unusual provenance and

distinctive character, the tantra was eventually classified as one of the so-called five (or later

four) tantras of the Anuyoga corpus (though nowhere does gNubs chen himself make such

an identification) . It is more specifically identified as the explanatory tantra (bshad rgyud)

to the root tantra (rtsa rgyud) entitled Kun 'dus rig pa 'i mdo84, another of the four so-called

Anuyoga tantras that is also very often quoted by gNubs chen. 85 According to ' Gos 10 tsa ba,

gNubs chen received and propagated teachings on the Miiyiijiila (sGyu 'phrul drwa ba) that

carne down to him in an unbroken lineage from Vimalamitra to gNyags Jfianakumara and

thence to gNub ' s own teacher Sog po dPal gyi ye shes .

In addition to consolidating and disseminating Miiyiijiila, Anuyoga and Sems sde

transmissions, gNubs chen has gained renown amongst contemporary scholars of Tibetan

Buddhism for his synoptic and critical assessment of the major religio-philosophical

traditions prevalent in Tibet during his lifetime. These included Indian Mahayana and

Mahayoga systems, Chinese and Tibetan Chan-based traditions and rDzogs chen itself. Such

language, see Hermann Berger, Die Burushaski-Sprache von Hunza und Nager. vol. 13 of Neuindische Studien (ed. by Hermann Berger, Heidrun BrUckner and Lothar Lutze), Wiesbaden: Otto Harassowitz, 1 998 .

8 1 Karmay 1 988 : 99 f . 82 NyKs vols. 93 and 94.

83 See Karmay 1 988 : 1 00. 84 See Roerich 1 976: 1 58 . 85 I n the 1 1 th century, the authenticity of both these works, along with the other Anuyoga texts (which are included in the bs Tan 'gyur as well as in rNying rna collections), were called into question by mGos khug pa Iha btsas (b. I I th c.) . Interestingly, he claims that "the dGongs 'dus and Kun 'dus and the five imperial dharmas (rgyal po 'i chos lnga) are corrupt because they were written by Dar rje dPal gyi grags pa." See Dalton 2002 : 288 . This Dar rj e is identified by 'Gos 10 tsa ba (Roerich 1 976 : 1 08) as a famous 9th century teacher of the Mayajala-Guhyagarbha system who taught both in Central and Eastern Tibet and whose followers were thus divided into the two schools of dBu (dbu lugs pa) and Khams (khams lugs pa) . As Germano (2002 : 254) has noted, Dar rje dPal gyi grags pa is identified by Nyang ral Nyi rna 'od zer as a teacher of gNubs chen, raising the possibility that gNubs chen' s journey to Bru sha (Gilgit-Baltistan region) to receive the dGongs 'dus was an elaborate fiction devised to legitimize inauthentic tantras, in which case gNubs chen's Mun pa 'i go cha would have served as a vehicle for promoting his guru' s own teachings. However, among the evidence supporting the veracity of gNubs chen' s j ourney to Bru sha, Dalton mentions the existence of passages in the dGongs 'dus of un translated Burushaski (bru sha skad).

38

was the scope of his masterpiece the bSam gtan mig sgron (Lamp for the Eyes of

Contemplation), which remains a singular source .for understanding the vibrant religious and

intellectual lanscape of Tibet during this so-called ' dark period' of Tibetan religious history .

Among gNubs chen ' s other extant works is the above-mentioned Mun pa 'i go cha which

contains among much else detailed investigations of a number of central rDzogs chen

themes such as self-occuring primordial knowing (rang byung gi ye shes), rDzogs chen

versus siitric all-grounds (kun gzhi) , and prec1assical buddha nature (*bodhigarbha) theories .

Also noteworthy i s the author ' s commentary on the rTse mo byung rgyal, one of the thirteen

later Sems sde translations , which contains further elucidations of these and other salient

themes .86

4. Klong chen rab 'byams pa

Turning to the main author discussed in this thesis, Kun mkhyen ("All knowing")

Klong chen rab 'byams pa ( 1 308- 1 364) is regarded not only as the principal systematizer of

the rNying rna tradition but as its greatest scholar, philosopher and poet. 87 He was born in

the Grwa (Dra) valley in g.Yo[n] m (Yom), the eastern part of Central Tibet . 88 This region

was the site of two famous monasteries that would figure importantly in Klong chen pa' s

academic and spiritual career. One was bSam yas, Tibet ' s first monastery and spiritual

home of the rNying rna tradition, having been consecrated by Padmasambhava in the 8 th

century . The other was gSang phu Ne 'u thog89, a bKa' gdams monastery established in 1 073

86 NyKs vol. 1 0 3 : 1 79-230.

87 Information regarding Klong chen pa' s life and works is based on 'Gos 10 tsii ba's Deb ther sngon po, in Roerich 1 976, I : 200 £, bDud 'joms rin po che ' s rNying ma 'i chos 'byung, in Dudjom Rinpoche 1 99 1 : 575 £, sMyo shul mkhan po' s rDzogs pa chen po 'i chos 'byung, in Barron 2005 : 98 £, Klong chen pa' s Byang chub lam bzang, in Klang chen pa gsung 'bum, vol . 2 1 : 48 1 f. , Chos grags bzang po 's Kun mkhyen dri med 'ad zer gyi rnam thar mthang ba don ldan, Arguil leres 2007 : 9 £, Guenther 1 975 : Introduction, Karmay 1 98 8 : 2 1 1 £ and Germano and Hillis 2005 .

88 rDzags pa chen po 'i chas 'byung, vol. 1 74aA. The rNam thar mthang ba don ldan of K10ng chen pa's student Chos grags bzang po gives the name of his birthplace as sTod grong (Todrong) which simply means upper village. g.Yon ru was the easternmost of the two parts into which Central Tibet (dBus) was traditionally divided, the other being dBu ru. See Ferrari 1 95 8 : 46 and 1 1 7 n. 1 60.

89 gSang phu was the most important and influential of six seminaries (chos grva chen po drug) established between the 1 1 th and 1 3th centuries in the dBus province, the others being sKyor mo lung, Zul phu, dGa' ba gdong, bDe ba can and Gung thang (Le. Chos 'khor gling). gSang phu was under the authority of the rNgog clan and started operations with 500 students. Serensen and Hazod (2007: 685) note that the six learning centres played a vital role in the establishment of the major dGe lugs pa key monasteries in the 1 5th century, being incorporated into their

39

by rNgog Legs pa ' i shes rab ( 1 1 th c . ) , a disciple of the renowned Bengali master Atisa alias

Dlparp.karasrijiUina (982- 1054) who founded the bKa ' gdams order . gSang phu remained a

vital centre for all areas of Tibetan scholasticism, particularly epistemology and logic , well

into the fourteenth century. Klong chen pa received ordination at bSam yas in 1 3 1 9 at which

time he was given the monastic name Tshul khrims blo gros . His affiliation with this

monastery can be traced to his paternal ancestor rGyal ba mchog dbyangs who belonged to

Padmasambhava's original circle of disciples ordained there in the eighth century . Despite

Klong chen pa ' s frequent poetic lamentations about the climate of moral turpitude that had

befallen this once illustrious seat of learning 90, he would maintain a lifelong association with

bSam yas , as student and teacher (of poetics among other subjects) , and later as a hermit­

practioner in the nearby grottoes of mChims phu, long frequented by rDzogs chen pilgrims

and retreatants . Klong chen pa' s studies at bSam yas were wide ranging, reflecting the still

vibrant ecumenical spirit of the early fourteenth century . Among teachings received were

the Lam 'bras (Path and Goal) teachings of the Sa skya tradition, rGod tshang pa ' s path

teachings of the Upper 'Brug (stod 'brug) tradition, the Zhi byed and gCod systems , and a

number of gSar rna tantras such as the Kalacakra . The young scholar also frequented

academies (bshad grwa) in the region to further his knowledge in all areas of scripture and

network. On formative developments in Buddhist epistemolgy at gSang phu, see Van del' Kuijp 1 983 : chapters I and 2. On the traditions of debate and logic at gSang phu, see Onoda 1 992 : chapter 2. On abbatial succession at gSang phu, see Van del' Kuijp 1 987, Onoda 1 988, and Sorensen and Hazod 2007 : 686 f.. 90 This is movingly expressed in a number of poems of renunciation that are found in the author's Miscellaneous Writings. The Po ta la kun tu dga ' ba 'i gtam (Joyful Tale of Potala) in Klang chen gsung 'bum, vol. 24: 1 46- 1 80, tells of a spiritual journey in which the protagonist, the gander king (personifYing Klong chen pa himself), leaves the spiritually bankrupt atmosphere of the once illustrious bSam yas in search of Mount Potala, a mythical haven of peace and liberation. This theme of leaving bSam yas for more spiritually uplifting regions is repeated in the Ngang pa 'i dris Ian sprin gyi snying po (Quintessence of Clouds: The Gander 's Questions and Answers), ibid. : 3 70-3 87. The deplorable situation that prompted these poetic flights of fancy was apparently even worse at gSang phu. Biographical sources relate that the patiisan behaviour and misconduct of some Khampa scholars who took up residence at gSang phu - one group of whom evicted Klong chen pa fi'om his room seven times - drove him into a life of solitary practice. The incident also inspired some fine poetry. sMyo shul mkhan po notes that "Klong chen pa wrote enough tracts on the faults of these eastern Tibetans to fill a basket." Three poems are specifically devoted to the source of his discontent: the rGyu la khams 'dus pa me tog gi phreng ldan (Garland of Flowers: Disheartened by Causes), ibid. : 3 1 2-3 1 5 ; the acrostic rKyen la khams 'dus pa ka kha sum cu (Thirty Letters of the A lphabet: Disheartened by Circumstances), ibid. : 3 1 6- 1 8; and the no longer extant gNyis ka fa khams 'dus pa dran pa 'i me long (Mirror of Memory: Disheartened by Both [Causes and Conditions]) . These titles contain a double entendre where the expression khams 'dus pa means both " disheartened" and "a throng ofKhams pas".

40

reasoning. The breadth of his learning is reflected in one of his many noms de plume9 1

"bSam yas Lung mang pa", "recipient of extensive scriptural transmissions from bSam yas" .

At age nineteen, Klong chen pa took up residence at gSang phu monastery where he

spent the next seven years expanding his studies in virtually all areas of Buddhist

scholasticism available at the time. His teachers during this period included such luminaries

as the third Karmapa Rang byung rdo rje ( 1284- 1339) , from whom he received teachings on

the Six Doctrines of Naropa and many New Tantra (gsar ma rgyud) instructions, and the

renowned Sa skya master Bla rna dam pa bSod nams rgyal mtshan ( 1 3 12 - 1 375)92 with

whom he studied both bKa' gdams and Sa skya doctrines . In the fertile intellectual climate

of gSang phu, Klong chen pa' s studies ranged from Mahayana to Vajrayana and rDzogs

chen. In his Byang chub lam bzang (The Auspicious Path to Awakening) , Klong chen pa

outlines the nature and subject matter of these three categories of teachings and his principal

teachers in each: ( 1 ) The Mahayana doctrines he received are characterized as outer (phyi)

preliminary (thog rna) instructions belonging to the Cause-oriented Vehicle of

Characteristics (rgyu mtshan nyid kyi theg pa) that constitute an ordinary basis93 . Foremost

among his Mahayana teachers was Bla brang pa Chos dpal rgyal mtshan94, an abbot of

9 ] Klong chen rab 'byams pa employed an unusual variety of epithets in his writings which reflected important milestones in his life and also corresponded to the subject matter of the works to which they were appended . Karmay 1 98 8 : 2 1 2 n. 27 mentions eleven names apart from Klong chen [rab 'byams] pa: Klong gsal dri med, rDo rj e gzi brj id, rDo rj e sems dpa' , Dri med 'od zer, Blo gros mchog Idan, Tshul khrims blo gros, Ngag gi dbang po, Padma las grol, sNa tshogs rang grol, and bSam yas pa. Arguil leres (2007: 9) adds to these the epithets Padma las 'brei rtsal and Byar med klong yangs and also mentions additional titles such as " All -knowing" (kun mkhyen), a title generally reserved for the most learned figure in a Tibetan Buddhist tradition, and "yogi of the supreme vehicle" (theg pa mchog gi rnal 'byor pa), an epithet frequently used in the author's sNying thig works.

92 On this important Sa skya hierarch who assumed office as 1 4th chief abbot of Sa skya from 1 343/44 until 1 3 47, see Petech 1 990 : 1 00 and 1 44, and S0fensen 1 994 (especially biographical sketch on 29). The latter work provides a translation of Bla rna dam pa' s famous chronicle of Tibet entitled rOyal rabs gsal ba 'i me long. In addition to his status as the greatest Sa skya scholar of the 1 4th century, Bla rna dam pa was also teacher to some of the most prominent figures of his day including Klong chen pa, Tsong kha pa and Ta' i situ Byang chub rgyal mtshan ( 1 302-1 364). In fact, i t was through this last-noted connection that Bla rna dam pa was able to secure peace between his order and the Phag mo gru subsect of the bKa' brgyud order that was at this time usurping power fi'om the Sa skya in the struggle over Central Tibet under Ta' i situ's ambitious aggenda of expansion and political control . See S0fensen 1 994: 3 1 f . 9 3 Byang chub lam bzang, in Klong chen pa gsung 'bum, vol. 2 1 : 4 8 1 .7 : phyi thun mong gi gzhi rgyu mtshan nyid kyi theg pa thog mar dge ba 'i khridl

94 Chos dpal rgyal mtshan was the 1 1 th throne-holder of Gling stod ("Upper Monastery"), one the two principal abbatial lineage seats (the other being Gling sman or "Lower Monastery") into which gSang phu divided early in the I th century. Gling stod came to be associated with rNogs Legs pa' i shes rab and the Sa skya tradition, whereas

4 1

gSang phu, who introduced him to the tradition of gradual training in Buddhist doctrine

(bstan pa la rim gyis bslab pa) as passed down from the Indian scholars Santideva,

Dharmaklrti and Atisa through a lineage of Tibetan scholars among which are counted two

bKa ' gdams pa masters at gSang phu, the renowned translator and Sanskritist rNgog Lo tsa

ba Blo ldan shes rab ( 1059-1 109)95 and the influential epistemologist Phya pa Chos kyi seng

ge ( 1 1 09- 1 1 69) . 96 Klong chen pa would later adopt the thematic structure of these bKa'

gdams Stages of the Path (lam rim) and Stages of the Doctrine (bstan rim) teachings as

paradigms for his own path summaries (Sems nyid ngal gso and Yid bzhin mdzod) but

broaden their primarily Mahayana scope to encompass Vajrayana and rDzogs chen subject

matter . From Bla brang pa and two other teachers who served as abbots at gSang phu97,

bTsan dgon pa gZhon nu bsam gtan and Chos grags pa gnyis pa ("Second Dharmaklrti")

gZhon nu rin chen, Klong chen pa received teachings on experiencing the contemplations

(samadhi) of the paths and levels as delineated in the works of Maitreya-Asanga and

Vasubandhu . From gZhon nu rdo rje ( 1 207-1263)98, Klong chen pa received teachings on

the profound view that reveals one ' s authentic abiding condition, the nature of things (chos

nyid don gyi gnas lugs) as passed down through Nagarjuna, Candraklrti, Atisa and Gro lung

pa Blo gros 'byung gnas (born 1 1 th c . ) , a disciple of rNgog Blo ldan shes rab whose bsTan

rim chen m099 strongly influenced classical Tibetan Stages of the Path (lam rim) literature,

the most famous example being Tsong kha pa' s Lam rim chen mo . Klong chen pa was

among a growing number of Tibetan scholars in the Period of Monastic Hegemony to

Gling sman came to be associated with Phya pa Chos kyi senge ge and the bKa' gdams tradition. See Onoda 1 989 : 2 1 1 f and Sorensen and Hazod 2007 : 686 f .. See also Roerich 1 976: 201 fand 330 f. .

9 5 On rNogs Bl0 Idan shes rab ' s life and works, see Jackson 1 994b.

96 On Phya pa' s life and works, see Van der Kuijp 1 979 : 1 983 , chapter 2, and Hugon 2008 : 35 -52 .

97 'Gos 10 tsa ba notes that bTsan dgon pa was abbot for twenty years, Chos dpal rgyal mtshan for s ix years and gZhon nu rin chen for twelve years. See Roerich 1 976 I : 330 and Sorensen and Hazod 2007 : 686. Arguilleres (2007: 33) proposes as approximate dates of their tenures 1 302- 1 3 1 4 (note twelve not twenty years), 1 3 14 - 1 320, and 1 320-1 3 32 respectively on the basis of information given in biographies ofKlong chen pa.

98 Little is known about this teacher. gZhon nu rdo rj e 's own teacher, referred to as Byang chub grub in the Byang chub lam bzang, was probably the same as Byang chub dngos grub, a disciple of sGam po pa who studied Prajfiaparamita doctrine passed down from Atisa through Gro lung pa. See Roerich 1 976 : 470. This corresponds nicely with the l ine of transmission given in the Byang chub lam bzang which includes Nagarjuna, CandrakTrti, Atisa, and Gro lung pa.

99 On its content and importance, see Jackson 1 996.

42

recognize the so-called *PrasaIigika-Madhyamaka tradition of Nagarjuna and Candraklrti as

the highest expression of Indian Buddhist philosophy. In his estimation, the *Prasangika

approach with its uncompromising stance of global antirealism was the only of these

philosophies to dispense with every trace of reification (realist as well as idealist) and

thereby provide the necessary preparation for an undistortive understanding of one ' s abiding

condition (gnas lugs), the principal focus of the Vajrayana and rDzogs chen systems .

(2) The Vajrayana teachings Klong chen pa received are characterized as mner

(nang) intermediate (bar du) instructions belonging to the Goal-oriented Guhyamantra­

Vajrayana that constitute a special approach. loo His principal Vajrayana teacher was gZhon

nu don grub10l of Dan 'bag monastery102 with whom Klong chen pa claims to have studied

works belonging to all four classes of New Tantras : Kriya, Carya, Yoga and Yoganiruttara.

' Gos 10 tsa ba specifies that the teachings Klong chen pa received from this teacher at Dan

'bag included the mDo (i .e . the dGongs 'dus pa 'i mdo), the MayaUala] , the Sems sde corpus ,

as well as a *Guhyagarbha commentarial tradition of Rog Bande Shes rab ' od which Klong

chen pa allegedly considered less satisfactory than that of Rong zorn Chos kyi bzang pO . 103

sMyo shul mkhan po relates that Klong chen pa also studied rNying rna works with this

teacher including tantras from the rNying ma rgyud 'bum. Most important among these was

the *Guhyagarbhatantra on which Klong chen pa composed three commentaries . It was

Klong chen pa 's studies at gSang phu that gave him the mastery of the content, styles and

methods of Tibetan Buddhist scholasticism as well as the conventions of Tibetan poetics and

prosody that would together become hallmarks of his literary corpus .

(3) The rDzogs chen teachings Klong chen pa received are described as arcane

(gsang ba) final (tha ma) instructions belonging to the Unsurpassed rDzogs chen Vehicle

] 00 Byang chub lam bzang, in Klang chen pa gsung 'bum, vol. 2 1 : 48 1 . 8 : nang khyad par gyi 'bras bu gsang sngags rda rje 'i theg pa bar du dge ba 'i khridl l ] 0 ] Little information is available about this teacher apart from what is said about him in connection with Klong chen pa's studies at Dan 'bag, on which see Arguilleres 2007: 43 .

] 02 Text has dan bag which is a variant of dan 'bag (occasionally dar 'bag or dan phag bag). This is a famous locale of great antiquity on the Western outskirts of Lha sa along the sKyid chu river where 'Bras spungs and gNas chung monasteries are located. The monastery referred to may be Dan 'bag gling stod mentioned in S0fensen and Hazod 2007 : 2 1 7 n. 574. 1 03 See Roerich 1 976 : 202 and 1 57.

43

and representing the quintessential goal that is of definitive meaning . 104 Klong chen pa' s

principal teacher in this tradition was of course his root guru Kumararaja who he first

encountered after leaving gSang phu and from whom he received instructions in all three

genres of rDzogs chen (sems sde, klong sde, man ngag sde), the most important being the

Man ngag gi sde or sNying thig teachings said to originate with Vimalamitra.

By the time Klong chen pa met his root teacher Kumararaja, he had become

increasingly devoted to a life of solitary practice fueled in part by an acute sense of

disenchantment with the corruption and hypocrisy he witnessed in the monasteries he had

frequented. This period of renunciation, reflected in the sombre tone and renunciate content

of various poetic works composed during his twenties , coincided with an increasing interest

and immersion in rDzogs chen teachings . Though Klong chen pa seems to have lived much

of his life in voluntary poverty, and typically refused to accept money in return for his

teachings , he did not hesitate to use what little resources he had in founding or restoring

monasteries and hermitages, especially those associated with the rDzogs chen tradition.

These included Lha ring brag, the 0 rgyan rdzong grotto at Gangs ri thod dkar ("White

Capped Mountain") where Klong chen pa spent many of his adult years in retreat, and

Zhwa' i lha khang where, we may recall , the seventeen tantras and other sNying thig

teachings of Vimalamitra are said to have been concealed by the latter ' s student Myang

Ting nge ' dzin and later rediscovered by lDan rna lhun rgyal in the eleventh century.

It was at the age of twenty-nine, after spending eight months meditating in the dark

recesses of a cave, that Klong chen pa first met Kumararaja. Five months into this dark

retreat, he had a vision in which a lovely young woman foretold his meeting with

Kumararaja . Soon after the retreat, Klong chen pa journeyed to meet the master, who

immediately recognized the younger yogi as his principal successor in the sNying thig

lineage based on his own prophetic dream of the preceding night. Klong chen pa joined the

itinerant teacher ' s ever-mobile community which is said to have moved camp nine times

during spring and summer, resettling in one uninhabited valley after another. This constant

relocation is portrayed in rNying rna histories as a deliberate stratagem on the part of the

1 04 Byang chub lam bzang, in Klong chen pa gsung 'bum, vol. 2 1 : 48 1 .9 f. : gsang ba nges don snying po 'i 'bras bu rdzogs pa chen po bla na med pa 'i theg pa tha mar dge ba 'i khrid . . . 1

44

· teacher to instill an acute sense of impermanence and desire for renunciation in his disciples .

This was a time of extreme privation and dejection for Klong chen pa and he was on the

verge of leaving the community out of shame at having no tribute to offer in return for

Kumararaja ' s teachings when the teacher appealed for him to remain. The following year,

the two of them journeyed to Shampo Glacier where Kumararaja bestowed on his student

the complete sNying thig empowerments and instructions including the Bi rna snying thig,

the seventeen tantras , and sadhana cycles .

Some time shortly after his stay with Kumararaja, Klong chen pa experienced a

vision of Padmasambhava and his consort Ye shes mtsho rgyal who together conferred upon

him the epithets Dri med 'od zer and rDo rje gzi brjid respectively . This vision instilled in

him a special connection with the rnKha ' 'gro snying tig teachings associated with

Padmasambhava which he later elaborated on in his rnKha ' 'gro yang tig . 1 05 In the

meantime, the sNying thig teachings passed down from Vimalamitra that Klong chen pa had

received from his root guru were collected in the Bi rna snying thig and further developed in

the author ' s own BIa rna yang tig. The principal doctrines of the rnKha ' 'gro yang tig and

Bla rna yang tig were later synthesized in his Zab rno yang tig which also draws extensively

on two important explanatory tantras (bshad rgyud) from the Yang ti class of rDzogs chen,

the Spros bral don gsal and its daughter tantra the Thig le kun gsal. All these texts were

assembled in the sNying thig ya bzhi which not only synthesized the rDzogs chen

transmissions of Vimalamitra and Padmasambhava but provided a comprehensive and

systematic framework for their understanding and practice.

Whether by choice or circumstance, Klong chen pa was continually on the move for

much of his adult life . This peripatetic lifestyle, long espoused by scholar-yogins of India

and Tibet, seems to have enhanced rather than hindered Klong chen pa ' s altruistic activities,

and much of his time in ever-changing habitations was spent teaching, giving

empowerments, performing rituals , founding or restoring monastic settlements, and

1 05 Klong chen pa came to be recognized as an authority ofthis system when a disciple, while channeling a series of , female c;lakinI, recognized him as the reincarnation of the mKha ' 'gro snying thig ' s discoverer, Tshul khrims rdo rje ( 1 29 1-1 3 1 5/ 1 7) who also went by the name Padma las 'brei rtsal. See Germano and Gyatso 2000.

45

composing a large quantity of poems , commentaries and treatises on an impressive range of

subjects .

What has survived of Klong chen pa's corpus reflects a prolific writer with wide­

ranging sympathies and a prodigious talent for synthesizing and systematizing diverse

currents of Buddhist thought, exoteric and esoteric , in works of striking originality and

stylistic beauty. His most famous and influential works, which number some two hundred

and seventy titles in the author ' s catalogue (many of which are no longer extant) , are

gathered into several collections . Foremost among these are the seven treasuries (mdzod

bdun) which elucidate the essentials of rDzogs chen theory and practice as these relate to

other systems of Buddhist (and non-Buddhist) soteriology. 106 Of these, the Yid bzhin mdzod

(The Wish-Fulfilling Treasury) and auto-commentary provide a comprehensive treatise on

Mahayana Buddhism which begins with the origins of the universe (cosmology) and human

existence (ontology) and then delineates the stages of the path, sUtric and tantric , that lead

the aspirant from worldly existence to spiritual awakening (soteriology) . The Man ngag

mdzod (Treasury of Esoteric Guidance) consists in a structured compendium of six-fold

precepts encompassing all aspects of Buddhist doctrine and praxis , Mahayana through

rDzogs chen. The Grub mtha ' mdzod (Treasury of Philosophical Systems) contains the

author ' s most extensive summary of Buddhist and non-Buddhist philosophical systems

(siddhiinta) culminating in the adamantine quintessence of luminosity ( 'od gsal rdo rje

snying po) , i .e . the rDzogs chen sNying thig system. Two treatises are specifically dedicated

to systematic exegesis and interpretation of this system: the encyclopedic Theg mchog

mdzod (Treasury of the Supreme Vehicle) which covers every conceivable aspect of sNying

thig theory and practice in twenty-five chapters , and the Tshig don mdzod (Treasury of

Topics) , a more succinct presentation that focuses on the traditional eleven adamantine

topics (rdo rje ' i gnas) of this system. Last but not least are two poetic masterpieces , the

Chos dbyings mdzod (Treasury of the Expanse of Phenomena) and gNas lugs mdzod

(Treasury of the Abiding Condition) and their auto-commentaries , which represent the

author ' s most mature reflections on rDzogs chen and are widely regarded as two of his most

1 06 See Guenther 1 975 : xvi f. for a concise overview of their subject matter.

46

profound and inspiring works . The former provides a seamless integration of all the key

points for understanding and practicing the three . genres of rDzogs chen Atiyoga, the Mind

Genre (sems sde), Space Genre (klong sde) and Esoteric Guidance genre (man ngag gi sde)

with special attention to the seventeen tantras . The latter work provides a similar synthesis

but is structured according to the four sNying thig vows (dam tshig) : non-being (med pa) ,

intensity (phyal pa) , spontaneity (lhun grub) , and uniqueness (gcig pU) . 107

Many of the author ' s other collections were styled as trilogies (skor gsum) that

synthesized central elements of the rNying rna tradition. The Ngal gso skor gsum (Trilogy

of Resting in Ease) consists in a systematic and practical path summary entitled Sems nyid

ngal gso (Resting in Mind as Such) and covers the essentials of Mahayana, Vajrayana and

rDzogs chen, a practical guide to meditation (bSam gtan ngal gso), and a practical guide to

contemplating the illusory character of phenomenal existence (sGyu ma ngal gso) . Each of

these poetic root texts is accompanied by an extensive auto-commentary and summary of

essential points . This cycle is complemented by the author ' s Rang grol skor gsum (Triology

of Natural Freedom) , a condensation of the Mind Genre of rDzogs chen consisting in the

Sems nyid rang grol (Natural Freedom of the Nature of Mind) , the Chos nyid rang grol

(Natural Freedom of the Nature of Reality) and mNyam nyid rang grol (Natural Freedom of

Basic Equality) . These works are again accompanied by autocommentaries . The Mun sel

107 These four vows (dam tshig : samaya), which articulate the existential foundations of rDzogs chen ethics, are widely discussed in rDzogs chen scripture and are frequently contrasted with the more prescriptive samayas of the Mahayana and Vajrayfma systems. See, for example, Klong chen pa's Dam tshig gsum bkod, in 2ab mo yang tig part I : 1 6 1 .2 f where the he discusses 25 ordinary samayas (thun mong gi dam tshig) pertaining to Mahayana ( 1 6 1 .3 f.) : 27 special samayas (khyad par gyi dam tshig) pertaining to Vajrayana ( 1 62.3 f) and the 4 unsurpassed commitments (bla na med pa 'i dam tshig chen po) that are specific to the rDzogs chen sNying thig system ( 1 79.2 f) . In the 2ab don gnad kyi me long, 2ab mo yang tig part 2: 355 .3 f, he summarizes the four as they relate to the four yogas of vision, meditation, conduct and goal-realization (355 .2 f.) : "The four great [vows] are non-being, intensity, spontaneity and uniqueness. S ince self-occuring primordial knowing is not found as anything at all , it goes beyond [all] bounds [like] space. [ 1 ] Since it transcends the parochialism of ethical constraints, it is a vision ( Ita ba) of great unrestricted no-thingness (dngos med). [2] As its effulgent nature is unimpeded openness [or intensity] , it is pure meditation (sgom pa) as uninhibited auto-illumination. [3] As whatever manifests is self-liberated in self-occuring primordial knowing, it is pure conduct (spyod pa) in this unique state. [4] As self-awareness is luminous and spontaneous, it is pure goal-realization of naturally reposing in dharmakCiya. One should abide by the commitments that do not transgress realizing [things in this way] ." chen po bzhi nil med pa phyal pa gcig pu lhun grub ste l rang byung gi ye shes la gang du 'ang ma grub pas nam mkha ' la 'da ' mnyaml bsrungs mtshams kyi ris las 'das pas dngos med zang thaI chen po 'i Ita bal ngang gdangs phyal pa bar me� rang gsal rgya yan dag pa 'i sgom pa dangl gang shar rang byung ye shes rang grol gcig pur dag pa 'i spyod pa dangl rang rig 'od gsal lhun grub chos sku rang mal dag pa 'i 'bras bur rtogs pa lasl mi 'da ' ba 'i dam tshig gnas par bya 'ol l The gNas lugs mdzod, considered one of his last works, offers a lengthy philosophical and poetic elaboration of the four unsurpassed commitments.

47

skor gsum (Trilogy which Dispels Darkness) consists in a cycle of commentaries on the

*Guhyagarbhatantra . The Yang tig skor gsum (Trilogy of the Ultra Pith) comprises the

author ' s above-mentioned Bla ma yang tig, mKha ' 'gro yang fig and Zab mo yang tig

collections . The majority of the Klong chen pa ' s writings were either composed or redacted

at Gangs ri thod dkar ("White Capped Mountain"), setting of the cave hermitage 0 rgyan

rdzong (on the mountainside above Shugs seb monastery overlooking the sKyid chu river

valley near Lha sa) where the author spent extended periods in solitary retreat .

In 1 359, Klong chen pa was forced into exile in Bhutan due to an alleged affiliation

with opponents of the ascendant ruling power . Klong chen pa was regarded as a master of

the 'Bri gung sect which had become a political rival of Ta' i si tu (Chinese da[i]situ =

"Grand [Instructor] , ,) Byang chub rgyal mtshan ( 1 302-1 364) , head of the Phag mo gru sect

(phag gru khri dpon) that was then rising to dominance in Central Tibet, having usurped

power from the Sa skya. 108 When a 'Bri gung revolt broke out, Klong chen pa ' s attempt to

mediate the hostile factions led Byang chub rgyal mtshan to surmise that the rNying rna

master had sided with the enemy. So convinced was he of Klong chen pa' s complicity that

he reportedly ordered his execution. The biographies recount Klong chen pa' s narrow and

miraculous escape from a throng of murderous solidiers sent from Yarlung by the ruler

when they surrounded his compound in Lhasa.

During his period of exile in the hinterland of Bhutan, Klong chen pa taught the

sNying thig system to thousands of students and established a number of hermitages known

as the "eight centres" (gling brgyad) , the most important of which was Thar pa gling in Bum

thang where he resided during his sojourn. 109 These activities established a solid footing for

the rNying rna tradition to flourish in Bhutan, as it still does today . Klong chen pa ' s

laudatory poem extolling the beauty of Bum thang entitled Bum thang lha 'i sbas yul gyi

bkod pa la bsngags pa me tog skyed tshal (A Flower Grove: A Tribute to the Layout of

Bumthang, Valley of the Gods) depicts a mountainous landscape and climate comparable to

1 08 On the history of Phag rno gru pa sect and Byang chub rgyal rntshan's role in its ascendency, see Petech 1 990 : chapter 5. Details of Byang chub rgyal rntshan's life are discussed in Van der Kuiip 1 99 1 and 1 994. See also Smensen and Hazod 2007: 680 n. 33 .

1 09 Penjore 2005 has drawn attention to the rich oral traditions concerning Klong chen pa's activities during his exile in the Burnthang region that continue down to the present day.

48

Central Tibet but with a political climate much more temperate than his divided homeland

and therefore more conducive to solitary practice. Klong chen pa was eventually reconciled

with Ta'i si tu Byang chub rgyal mtshan thanks to the mediation of Sangs rgyas dpal rin, a

disciple and friend of the ruler, and he returned to Tibet in about 1 360. 1 1o The history of

sMyo shul mkhan po adds that the ruler henceforth became an ardent disciple and patron of

Klong chen pa and received numerous rDzogs chen teachings from him. I I I According to a

biography of the master (dated 1725) by Lha lung Kun bzang 'gyur med mchog grub, it was

from Ta ' i si tu that the rNying rna master received the epithet Klong chen rab 'byams pa1 l 2 ,

the title rab 'byams pa ("vast in scope") being reserved for one who has attained mastery in

all available fields of learning. 1 13

In 1 363 , at the age of fifty-six, Klong chen pa fell ill and began to prepare for his

death by giving final empowerments and teachings at important centres such as Zhwa lha ' i

khang and bSam yas . During this final year of his life, he also composed a remarkable final

trilogy of elegaic poems (zhal chems gsum) 1 l4 of increasing depth and subtlety in which the

author celebrated a life well lived ("My greatest achievement is the joy I feel in dying") and

offered heartfelt advice to his students and successors to make the most of their own lives in

accordance with Buddhist and rDzogs chen principles . Klong chen pa died later that year at

mChims phu.

§6 . Previous Studies and Scope of Present Work

Given the magnitude of the key distinctions for understanding rDzogs chen, it is

somewhat suprising how little notice they have received in contemporary rNying rna

scholarship . Much recent work in the field has been devoted to the difficult task of historical

1 1 0 Karmay 1 988 : 2 1 3 . I I I See Barron 2005 : 1 1 7 .

1 12 See Van der Kuijp 2003 : 394. As the author notes, however, a later biography by Glag bla Bsod nams chos ' grub mchog ( 1 862-1 944) composed in 1 938 maintains that Klong chen pa received the epithet from his root guru Kumararaj a ( 1 266-1 343) during his studies with him.

1 1 3 rab 'byams pa is defined as "a wise person who has reached the highest degree of learning with regard to the entire spectrum of doctrinal systems" (gzhung lugs mtha ' dag la sbyangs pa mthar son pa'i mkhas pa). 1 1 4 These works entitled Zhal chems dri ma med pa 'i 'ad, Zhal chems gnad kyi me long, and Zhal chems mthar thug gcig ma are contained in the mKha ' 'gro yang tig part 3, sNying thig ya bzhi vol. 9: 266-285 .

49

reconstruction of rDzogs chen traditions based on relative chronologies of the texts and their

doxographical classes and revisionist accounts of historical events and leading figures .

Samten Karmay 1 988 has contributed much t o our understanding of the earlier, pre - 1 2th

century, historical development of rDzogs chen in Tibet . l l5 More recent research on

Dunhuang rDzogs chen documents by Dalton 2005 and Van Schaik 2004 have also shed

light on the development of early rDzogs chen doxographical systems. Germano has made

significant progress in the much-needed task of reconstructing the developmental history of

rDzogs chen Tantras and their doxographical classes from eighth to fourteenth centuries 1 1 6

and has advanced our knowledge of some of the tradition ' s leading figures . l l7 Arguillere

2007 has provided the first detailed study of the life and writings of Klong chen rab 'byams

pa. Achard 1 999 contains a discussion and translation of rDzogs chen sNying thig materials .

Among other noteable contributions to the understanding of rDzogs chen literature, history

and doctrine, mention must be made of the works of Matthew Kapstein (2000, 2008 and

201 0) , Franz-Karl Erhard ( 1990 and 1992) , and Dorji Wangchuk (2005 and 2008) . Klaus­

Dieter Mathes has examined Klong chen pa' s view on buddha nature according to the Grub

mtha ' mdzod and shown its relationship with other Tathagatagarbha trends in Tibet . 1 1 8

Thus, while the historical and biographical contexts of the distinctions are now

somewhat clearer than they were two decades ago, our understanding of their intellectual

background - the principal doctrinal developments in the pre-classical period that we must

understand in order to make sense of the distinctions - has progressed little since Samten

Karmay ' s pioneering work published in 1 988 . 1 1 9 Two exceptions are the works of

Guentherl 20 ( 1 975 and 1989) and Germano 1 992 which provide translations and

1 1 6 See Germano 2005 .

1 1 7 See particularly Germano 2002.

1 1 8 See Mathes 2007: 98- 1 1 3 . See also Arguillere 2008, 1 95-492 .

1 1 9 A few exceptions are Wangchuk 2005, a paper on rNying rna tathagatagarbha views, and Wangchuk 2007 on the concept of bodhicitta which includes a good deal of rNying rna material, Germano ' s above-mentioned PhD thesis, and Achard 1 999 which contains some discussion and translation of rDzogs chen sNying thig materials .

1 20 See in particular Guenther 1 975-77 and 1 989.

50

interpretations of some important materials on the principal rDzogs chen distinctions . We

are much indebted to the pioneering efforts of Guenther in interpreting some of the principal

doctrinal innovations of rDzogs chen as they relate to Indo-Tibetan Buddhism in general .

Germano ' s doctoral dissertation ( 1 992) presents an annotated translation of the first five

chapters of Klong chen pa's Tshig don mdzod (Treasury of Topics) , the fourth chapter of

which contains a discussion of the two key distinctions . 12 1 Apart from these references and

brief treatments in works by Tulku Thondupl22 and the late Dudjom Rinpoche J23, the

development and significance of the distinctions remain a terrra incognita to modern

Buddhist scholarship that this thesis sets out to explore in some detail .

In contrast to the paucity of published secondary sources dealing with the two

principal rDzogs chen distinctions and their doctrinal contexts , there is a wealth of primary

sources on this subject. I have thus been faced with the happy predicament of choosing from

amongst a wide range of relevant materials . In view of this veritable sea of discourse, it has

been necessary to confine my research primarily to rNying ma rDzogs chen texts of the 8th

to 14th centuries that deal specifically with the distinctions and that are distinguished by their

originality, clarity and influence. I have drawn extensively on supporting materials but only

where these helped clarify the conceptual histories of the rDzogs chen distinctions .

Observing these constraints has meant leaving aside or giving only passing notice to

important and interesting treatments of the distinctions found in the Bon tradition and in

rNying ma gTer ma collections. I have also not addressed post- 14th century rNying ma

treatments in any detail, partly due to my impression that these were strongly indebted to

antecedent works , especially the summaries of Klong chen pa. This in no way diminishes

the importance of these later works as vital expressions of the traditional themes . The

magnificent songs, poems, treatises and commentaries of scholar-yogins like rTse Ie sNa

tshogs rang grol (b . 1 608), Zhabs dkar pa sNa tshogs rang grol ( 1 78 1 - 1 85 1 ) , ' Jigs med gling

pa ( 1729- 1 798) and dPal sprul 0 rgyan 'Jigs med chos kyi dbang po ( 1 808 - 1 887) all testify

to the profound stimulus the classical treatments continued to exert on successive

1 2 1 Germano 1 992.

1 22 Thondup 1 989. 1 23 Dudjom Rinpoche 1 99 1 .

5 1

generations of rNying rna scholars and practitioners after the fourteeth century. The many

areas I have neglected, as well as the more detailed and esoteric treatments of the

distinctions in the sNying thig sources themselves, remain desiderata for future research.

52

Part II The Problem of Knowledge: The Sems/Ye shes Distinction

2 I The Nature and Scope of the Sems/Ye shes Distinction

§ 1 . The Scope of the Distinction

Now, since all phenomena of sarpsara depend upon [dualistic] mind, when the workings of mind124 are purified away, then sarpsara is purified away . Since the phenomena of transcendence [nirval).a] depend upon primordial knowing of open awareness (rig pa 'i ye shes), they remain just as they are in open awareness . Thus all the essential points for naturally emergent buddhahood are subsumed under these two [categories of mind and primordial knowing] . Here, I shall explain a little about the difference between these two .

Mind in essence125 is ignorance . Open awareness in essence is primordial knowing. Mind in essence is based on karma and latent tendencies . Open awareness in essence is not based on karma and latent tendencies . Mind in essence is of the nature of the error [of believing in the reality of] subjects and objects . Open awareness in essence is of the nature of non -error since it is free from subject and object. Mind in essence is subject to the extremes of discursive thought. Open awareness in essence is free from all discursive elaborations . Mind in essence is the all-ground and the eightfold ensemble [of cognitions] . Open awareness in essence transcends the all-ground and its eightfold ensemble . Mind in essence is sarpsara with its dualism. Open awareness in essence is nirval).a without duality . Mind in essence is the outward effulgence of open awareness riding on the [karmic] energy currents 126 . Open awareness in essence is self-lucency without [karmic] energy currents ([las] rlung) . Mind in essence is constructed and conditioned. Open awareness in essence is unconstructed and free from conditions .

Mind in essence depends on open awareness . Open awareness in essence does not depend on mind. Mind in essence is what seems to arise and cease. Open awareness in essence is without transition and transformation. Mind in essence consists in

1 24 sems kyi ngo boo See following note.

125 In this passage I have not translated sems kyi ngo bo as the "essence of mind" because this would wrongly imply that it is the essence of mind and not mind itself that is the subject of predication. What Klong chen pa intends to emphasize is that mind is essentially ignorance, and so forth.To avoid this confusion, I have instead adopted the rendering "in essence" throughout the passage with the exception of the first instance where I use the expression "workings of mind" (which has the sense of the German "Eigenschaft des Geistes") to convey the intended meaning.

1 26 An interlinear note specifies that rlung is here to be understood as las rlung (karmavCtyu) [and not ye shes [kyi] rlung (jilCtnav4J!u)] '

53

obscurations to be eliminated. Open awareness in essence consists in primordial knowing to be attained. Mind in essence is adventitious erroneous conceptualizing. Open awareness in essence is primordially present dharmakaya . These are mere indications . Although an extensive [explanation] would be limitless , they should be understood in terms of the following six [categories] : their ( 1 ) loci, (2) pathways, (3) gateways (4) expressive capacities , (5) process of uniting 127, and (6) process of separatingl28 . 129

This passage occurs in a structured presentation of rDzogs chen 'Breakthrough'

(khregs chod) teachings 130 from Klong chen rab 'byams pa's dNgos gzhi 'Od gsal snying po ' i

don khrid (Essential Guidance on the Main Practice: Quintessential Luminosity) , an

integrated series of twelve texts summarizing the essentials of the sNying thig contemplative

system based on the oral teachings of Vimalamitra and other early rDzogs chen masters . At

several points in this collection, Klong chen pa draws attention to the indispensability of the

sems/rig pa or sems/ye shes distinction for understanding these teachings and making them a

way of life . A case in point is a passage a few lines after the above one where the author

concludes his discussion with these remarks :

It is crucial to distinguish between mind and primordial knowing for the following reasons . It is implicit in all types of meditation. It is implicit in all the ways of purifying pra�a-based cognition (rlung rig) . And finally, when one is liberated, [ 1 ] the open awareness in which obscurations have been purified due t o mind having been purified away and [2] the enlightened intent (dgongs pa) which is present as the

1 27 This ' uniting' is explained in Bla ma yang tig vol. I : 440.4 f. which is summarized on Table A.

1 28 This ' separating' is explained in Bla ma yang tig vol . 1 : 441 . 1 f. which is summarized on Table A.

1 29 Bla ma yang tig vol . 1 : 4 1 4.4 f. : de 'ang 'khor ba 'i chos thams cad nil sems la brten pas sems kyi ngo bo dag dus 'khor ba dag pa '0 1 'das pa 'i chos rnams rig pa 'i ye shes la brten pas rig pa yin thog tu bzhag pas sangs rgyas rang chas su 'char ba 'i gnad tham cad de gnyis su 'dus pa yin nol 'dir de gnyis kyi khyad par cung zad bshad nal sems kyi ngo bo ni ma rig pal rig pa 'i ngo bo ni ye shesl sems kyi ngo bo ni las dang bag chags kyi rten can I rig pa 'i ngo bo ni las dang bag chags gyi rten ma yin pal sems kyi ngo bo ni gzung 'dzin 'khrul pa 'i rang bzhinl rig pa 'i ngo bo ni gzung 'dzin dang bral bas ma 'khrul pa ' i rang bzhinl sems kyi ngo bo ni spros pa 'i mtha 'dang bcas pa l rig pa 'i ngo bo ni spros pa thams cad dang bral bal sems kyi ngo bo ni kun gzhi dang tshogs brgyado, rig pa 'i ngo bo ni kun gzhi tshogs brgyad las 'das pal sems kyi ngo bo ni gnyis 'dzin 'khor bal rig pa 'i ngo bo ni gnyis med myang 'dasl sems kyi ngo bo ni rlung" zhon rig dgangsl rig pa 'i ngo bo ni rlung med rang gsall sems kyi ngo bo ni 'dus byas rkyen dbangl rig pa 'i ngo bo ni 'dus ma byas rkyen brall sems kyi ngo bo ni rig pa la Itos pal rig pa 'i ngo bo ni sems la mi ltos pal sems kyi ngo bo ni skye 'gags Itar snang bal rig pa 'i ngo bo ni 'pho 'gyur med pal sems kyi ngo bo spang bya 'i sgrib pal rig pa 'i ngo bo thob bya 'i ye shes I sems kyi ngo bo glo bur 'khrul rtogl rig pa 'i ngo bo ye gnas chos sku '0 1 'di dag kyang mtshon pa tsam stel rgyas par mtha ' yas kyangl gnas dangl lam dangl sgo dangl rtsal dangl 'phrad tshul dangl rgyab gyes tshul dangl drug gis shes par bya ste l l " Interlinear note glosss rlung as las rlung (karmaviiyu) . 1 3 0 The title is Khregs chod kyi rgyab yig nam mkha ' dri med. It is found in the author' s Bla ma yang tig vol. 1 : 3 7 l . l - 42 1 .5 .

54

kiiyas and jiiiinas, and all the [other] essential points, come down to this [very distinction] .

Since these two are not clearly distinguished in the ordinary vehicles, spiritual awakening is not attained [by means of these vehicles] for aeons or life-times . According to the extra-ordinary [vehicles] , however, inconceivable dharmakiiya is directly recognized in a single instant, and thus the prii�a-based cognition is purified away in this very lifetime. This, then, is the key point of awakening to buddhahood. This secret vital point - not known by fools who boast about their erudition or the benighted who cast about in the darkness of delusion - constitutes the profound distinctive teaching that has reached the summit of Vajrayana. It is therefore the official seal13 1 for [access to] the sublime treasury. One should internalize this [vital point] by striving to simply relax in this state . 1 32

Klong chen pa here commends the distinction not only as a unique hermeneutical key for

unlocking the import of Buddhist scripture but also, and more fundamentally, as a crucial

point of entry into understanding the complex and heterogenous structure of consciousness ,

one that best accounts for the range of phenomena involved in realizing the Buddhist goal of

spiritual awakening (bodhi) .

The opening passage (as I will refer to it henceforth) highlights the wide-ranging

scope of the distinction as it pertains to several important dimensions of Buddhist

soteriology. It therefore makes an ideal entry point for our own investigation. As it is my

philosophical aim in this chapter to investigate the nature and scope of the mind/primordial

knowing distinction in classical rNying rna soteriology, it may be useful at the outset to

schematize Klong chen pa' s points of contrast between the two in the following table :

1 3 1 The sense of the term a tham is not clear, though the context would suggest a key. The term may be a derivation of bka ' tham which refers to an official seal. 1 3 2 Bla ma yang tig vol. 1 : 4 1 6 .5 f. : de ltar na sems dang ye shes phyed pa gal che ste l de ltar sgom pa thams cad kyang de yin lal rlung rig gi dag tshul thams cad kyang de yin lal tha ma grol dus kyang sems dag pas sgrib pa dag pa 'i rig pal sku dang ye shes su gnas pa 'i dgongs pa dangl gnad thams cad der thug pa 'i phyir rol theg pa thun mong las de gnyis ma phyed pas byang chub bskal pa 'am tshe rabs su mi thob pa dangl thun mong ma yin pas yid las 'das pa 'i chos sku skad cig gis rang ngo shes pas tshe gcig gis rlung rig dag nas sangs rgya ba 'i gnad kyang de yin nol blun po mkhas pa 'i nga rgyal can rnams dangl rmongs pa gti mug gi mun rdo 'phen pa rnams kyis mi shes pa 'i gnad gsang ba nil rda rje theg pa 'i rtse mor phyin pa 'i khyad par gyi chos zab mo yin pasl yang mdzod du a tham mol de Ita bu 'i ngang du bzhag pa la brtson pas nyams su blang ngal l

55

Table A: Summary of Characteristics of Mind and Primordial Knowing According to Klong chen pa' s dNgos gzhi 'od gsal snying po 'i don khrid

Characteristics Associated Characteristics Associated with with Dualistic Mind (sems) Primordial Knowing (ye shes)

L phenomena of sarrsara ( 'khor ba 'i chos) phenomena of nirvalfa ( 'das pa 'i chos)

2. ignorance (ma rig pa) open awareness (rig pa)

3. karma (las) and vasanas (bag chags) absence of karma and vasanas

4. error ( 'khrul pa) and dualism (gzung 'dzin) absence of error and dualism

5 . discursive elaborations (spros bcas) absence of discursive elaborations (spros bral)

6. alI-ground and its eighfold ensemble [of cognitions] absence of alI-ground and eightfold ensemble (kun f{zhi tshogs brgyad)

7 . karmic energy currents [linked with movement of absence of karmic energy currents [and presence of breath] (karmaviiyu : las kyi rlung) gnostic energy currents (jfiiinaviiyu : ye shes kyi rlung)]

8. constructed and conditioned unconstructed and free from conditions ( 'du byas rkyen dbang) ( 'du ma byas rkyen bral)

9. dependent on open awareness not dependent on dualistic mind (rig pa la ltos pa) (sems la mi ltos pa)

10 . what seems to arise and cease without transition or transformation (skye 'gags ltar snang ba) ( 'pho 'gyur med pa)

1 1 . obscurations to be eliminated primordial knowing to be attained (spang bya 'i sgrib pa) (thob bya 'i ye shes)

1 2. adventitious mistaken concepts primordialIy abiding dharmakaya (glo bur 'khrul rtog) (ye gnas chos sku)

13 . locus (gnas): lungs; energy channel connecting heart locus : centre of heart and lungs ; conduit of mind energy current

14. pathway (lam) : life energy channels from lungs, pathway: tubular crystalIine Kati energy channel conduit of vital currents that carry thoughts running from the heart to the eyes

15 . gateways (sgo) : mouth and nose (for breathing) gateways: eyes (portals of primordial knowing)

16. expressive energy (rtsal) : divisive thoughts such as expressive energy: ye shes abiding as mal)<;lala of acceptance and rejection based on subject and object wrathful [deities] in cranium (skulI mansion)

17 . process of meeting: mind unites with awareness (a) outwardly by way of the intermediary energy channel when the efflugence of awareness from the heart mingles with energy currents at the time of thought proliferations , and (b) inwardly when the awareness effulgence aspect of mind dissolves back into the heart at the time when one is free from discursive elaborations.

1 8 . process of parting: mind diverges from awareness (a) conditionally in preconceptual states when the flickering of the prii�1G-awareness known as 'mind' naturalIy subsides at time of being free from elaborations through yogic gazes etc . so that effulgence dissolves into awareness and currents come to rest; this is synonymous with "mind directly encountering awa�eness" (b) finally if the dawning of non-discursive luminosity occurs at time of death when the energy currents dissipate; this occurs when the effulgence of awareness dissolves in itself.

The table encapsulates many of the salient points of divergence between mind and

open awareness or primordial knowing that will be taken up in the course of this thesis . The

first thing to note about this analysis is that it combines two quite different treatments of the

distinctions : (A) an exoteric account that largely follows traditional Buddhist views on the

respective characteristics of mind and primordial knowing ( 1 -6, 8- 1 2) and (B) an esoteric ,

specifically sNying thig account (7, 1 3- 1 7) emphasizing embodied and embedded

dimensions of mind and primordial knowing that draws on complex tantric physiological

models presented in the seventeen tantras and supporting literature . The fifth Dalai Lama

Ngag dbang BIo bzang rgya mtsho ( 16 17-82) noted that this esoteric sNying thig treatment

of the distinction which is based on "directly seeing mind and open awareness without

confusing them" was a special quality (khyad chos) of rDzogs chen absent in the Middle

Way traditions of Other Emptiness (gzhan stong) and Own Emptiness (rang stong) , in the

Mahamudra of the Abiding Condition (gnas lugs phyag chen) 133 or in any other Tibetan

systems . He does add, however, that these essential points are not different from the implicit

intent of the gSar rna Mantra system if one realizes its true import . 1 34 While the bulk of this

complex and minutely detailed subject matter does not fall within the purview of the present

work, it is sufficiently integral to the rDzogs chen understanding of the distinction to

warrant a brief overview . To this end, I will simply clarify the relevant points alluded to in

the opening passage with particular attention to the genesis and interaction of mind and open

awareness .

The locations (gnas) of dualistic mind are the lungs and specifically the narrow

tubular channel (likened to a hollow grass stalk) connecting the lungs and heart . This serves

as the conduit through which the effulgence (gdangs) or expressive energy (rtsal) of open

awareness issuing from the heart mixes with the energy currents (of breathing originating

133 gNas lugs phyag chen refers to a special and distinctively Tibetan non-gradual Mabamudra teaching introduced in the so-called Upper '8rug pa bKa' brgyud tradition by rOyal ba Yang dgon pa mOon po rdo rje ( 1 2 1 3 -5 8) and made famous by the I th century '8rug pa master Padma dkar po. At several points in his celebrated Ri chos skor gsum, Yang dgon pa draws a distinction between Mabamudra in its mode of abiding (gnas lugs phyag chen) and Mahamudra in the mode of errancy ( 'khrul lugs phyag chen) .

134 rDzogs pa chen po 'i 'khrid yig Rigs 'dzin zhal lung, in Thams cad mkhyen pa rgyal ba lnga pa chen po Ngag dbang blo bzang rgya mtsho 'i gsung 'bum vol. 24: 94. 1 f. : rang stong gzhan stong gi dbu ma pa dang gnas lugs phyag rgya pa sogs la ma grags pa'i khyad chos sems rig ma 'dres par cer mthong du dbye ba 'i gsang tshig 'di ni ,rdzogs chen pa rnams kyi zab gnad yin lal zab gnad du ma zad sngags gsar ma 'i dgongs pa 'ang dbyis byin pa rtogs na 'di las gzhan du med de l l

from the lungs) , producing a profusion of fleeting thoughts . 135 The pathway (lam) of Mind

refers to the so-called vitality channel (srog rtsa) 136 through which discursive mind is borne

along on the vitality energy current (from the lungs) . 137 The gateways (sgo) of mind are the

mouth and nose because they are the gateways from which the energy currents are expelled

(as breath) . 1 38 The expressive energy (rtsal) of mind refers to the divisive thoughts such as

acceptance and rejection based on subject and object, the grasping of objects and attachment

13 5 Bla ma yang tig vol. 1 : 434. 1 f. : gnas ni glo ba na rtsa gro sag gi sbu gu tsam rlung gis gang ba las I dbugs thams cad mched pa 'i rten byed pa snying ga dang 'breI ba gnas te l . . . ngo bo ni snying ga 'i rig gdangs rlung dang 'dres pas rnam par rtog pa 'ol l In clarifYing the locus of mind in his Theg mchog mdzod (vol . I : 1 066. 1 f.) , Klong chen pa provides a cogent summary of how conceptual mind originates when the expressive energy of open awareness mixes with the energy currents : "Concerning the locus [of mind] , it is located where the effulgent glow of open awareness rides on the ' wind-horse' [energy cunent] via the narrow interior of the tubular channel connecting the heart and lungs. The energy current is similar to a blind horse with legs whereas the effulgence of open awareness is l ike a cripple with eyesight. When these two do not mix together, wildly proliferating thoughts do not arise. Since this open awareness in its effulgence resides naturally in oneself, although objects appear, they are not conceptualized therein. Hence one can differentiate between the clear and dissipative [aspects] of cognition. Such is the reason, therefore, why we distinguish between energy currents and open awareness by way of the key points concerning these energy currents. When these two are mixed, then the resulting movement aspect ( 'gyu cha) which consists in the veritable profusion of fleeting thoughts is the energy currents, whereas the awareness aspect (rig cha) is the effulgence of open awareness. Moreover, the fundamental open awareness within one ' s heart is analogous to water whereas the mind which mixes with the energy currents because the effulgent expressive energy [which derives] from that [open awareness] has passed into the tubular channel, is analogous to bubbles in water. Mind is in this sense the effulgence or expressive energy of open awareness. In this regard, mind conforms to the existence or non­existence of open awareness whereas open awareness does not have positive and negative concomitance [with the respective existence and non-existence] of mind. So in essence, open awareness is not under the power of mind whereas mind insofar as it is the expressive energy [of awareness] is under the power of open awareness. Conceptual mind is not possible when awareness does not stir in the same way that the arising of waves is not possible when water does not stir." gnas ni snying nas glo bar 'brei pa 'i bar na rtsa sag ma 'i sbu gu tsam nas rlung gi rta la rig pa 'i gdangs zhon nas gnas te l rlung ni rta long ba rkang can 'dra lal rig gdangs ni mi 'phye bo mig can 'dra '0 1 de gnyis gcig tu ma 'dres na mi 'gyu dgu 'gyu 'i rtog pa mi 'byung barl gdangs rig pa rang la rang chas su gnas pas yul snang yang de la mi rtog par shes pa dangs sangs phyed pa 'byung basi rlung gnad yisl rlung dang rig pa 'byed pa 'i rgyu mtshan de yin nol de gnyis 'dres pas rtog pa mi bkra dgu bkrar byung ba 'il 'gyu cha rlung yin lal rig cha rig gdangs yin nol de 'ang snying nang gi rig pa dngos chu dang 'dra lal de las rtsal gdangs rtsa spubs su song bas rlung dang 'dres pa 'i sems de chu 'i sbu ba dang 'dra ste l sems de rig pa 'i rtsal lam gdangs yin nol de 'ang sems ni rig pa yod med kyi rjes su byed lal rig pa ni sems yod med kyi rjes su 'gro ldog mi byed pasl ngo bo la sems kyi dbang du rig pa ma gyur lal rtsal yin pas rig pa 'i dbang du sems gyur pa yin te l rig pa mi g.yo na sems rtog mi srid del chu mi g.yo rba rlabs 'byung mi srid pa bzhin nol l

136 Physiologically, this may correspond to the aorta. Germano ( 1 996 : 254 and notes) discusses this identification but also points out some of the problems in identifYing (as the texts sometimes do) subtle energy body (rdo rje 'i Ius) systems with physiological systems.

137 Theg mchog mdzod vol. 1 : 1 067.3 f. : lam ni srog rtsa nas 'gyu ste l de nas sems kyi rta srog rlung 'gyu ba 'i phyir rol l See also Bla ma yang tig vol. I : 434.3 and especially 462.3 where the inner currents from the lungs are said to pass (as breath) to the mouth and nose but also to the five sensory faculties. The main idea here is that thought and perceptual activity are influenced by breathing.

13 8 Theg mchog mdzod vol. I : 1 067.4: kha sna gnyis te rlung de nas 'thon pa 'i sgo yin pa 'i phyir ro l l See also Bla ma yang tig vol. 1 : 434.4 which adds that 'gateways' also refers to each of the [five] sense gates as portals for mental activity. This is corroborated by the account in Zab mo yang fig vol. 2: 287.6.

58

to ' I ' or ' self' . 139 The locus of primordial knowing is the heart (snying ga) . The Theg mchog

mdzod and Bla ma yang tig specify that "open awareness resides as mustard seed-sized

peaceful deities (sku) in the centre of a pentad of lights within the luster of the light channels

in the centre of the octagonal precious heart ." I40 The pathway of primordial knowing is the

"tubular crystalline Kati energy channel (rtsa ka ti shel gyi sbu gu can) running from the

heart to the eyes . , , 141 Its gateways are the two eyes since these are "the portals through which

primordial knowing shines . , , 142 The expressive energy of primordial knowing refers to its

presence as "the mal,l<;lala of wrathful deities in the skull mansion (i .e . cranium) . , , 143

The meeting and parting of mind and open awareness alluded to in the opening

passage are presented in the Bla ma yang tig as pith instructions pertaining to certain

soteriological ramifications of the embodied dimensions of mind and primordial knowing.

The meeting of mind and awareness is said to occur both (a) outwardly and (b) inwardly . (a)

The outward meeting occurs during the time of thought proliferations when the effulgence

of open awareness in the heart merges with with energy currents (from the lungs) . When

these unite by way of the intermediary energy channel (connecting the heart and lungs) , this

is called the "meeting of mind with open awareness ." (b) Inward meeting occurs at the time

when one is free from discursive thoughts . Since the awareness-effulgence (rig gdangs)

aspect of mind dissolves back into the heart, this is called the "mind directly meeting open

awareness inwardly ." 144 The separation of mind and awareness occurs both (a) conditionally

139 Bla ma yang tig vol. 1 : 434.5 f: rtsal ni gzung 'dzin dgag sgrub la sogs pa 'i rnam rtog rnams soi l According to Theg mchog mdzod vol. 1 : 1 067.4 f : rtsal ni yul la 'dzin zhing nga bdag tu zhen pa '0 1 1 140 Theg mchog mdzod vol. 1 : 1 098. 1 f : gnas ni snying rin po che zur brgyadpa 'i dbus 'od rtsa 'i dangs la 'od Inga 'i dbus zhi ba 'i sku yungs 'bru tsam la rig pa gnas so i l See Bla ma yang tig vol. 1 : 434.6 f.. 141 Bla ma yang tig vol. 1 : 435 .5 f. : lam ni snying nas mig tu 'brei ba 'i rtsa ka ti she! gyi sbu gu canl l The Theg mchog mdzod (vol . 1 : 1 098.2 f) states its pathways refers to movements through the four channels, namely, the three traditional channels lalana (rkyang ma), rGsana (ro ma), and avadhuti (kun 'dar ma) plus the crystall ine Kati channel . This follows Rigpa rang shar, Ati vol. 1 : 537 . 1 f.. 142 Theg mchog mdzod vol. 1 : 1 098.2 f. : sgo ni mig gnyis sol On the eyes as gates of primordial knowing, see Bla ma yang tig vol. I : 436.5 f.. The Zab mo yang tig identifies four gateways: the two eyes as conspicuous gateways (mngon du gyur pa 'i sgo gnyis) and the two ears as hidden gateways (lkog tu gyur ba 'i sgo gnyis).

143 Bla ma yang tig vol. I 435 .3 : de 'i rtsal dung khang na khro bo 'i dkyil 'khor du gnas pa nil . . . Like the peaceful deities, these are specified as being the size of mustard seeds.

144 Bla ma yang tig vol. I : 440.4 f. : sems dang ye shes 'phrad pa 'i dus ni gnyis te l phyi 'phrad dangl nang 'phrad dol phyi 'phrad nil rnam rtog du mar 'phro dus snying gi rig gdangs rlung dang 'dres pasl bar gyi rtsa lam nas 'brei ba 'i dus su sems la rig pa 'phrad pa zhes bya '0 1 nang 'phrad nil blo spros pa dang bral ba 'i tshel sems kyi cha 'i rig gdangs snying gar thim pasl nang rig thog tu sems 'phrad pa zhes bya ' 0 1 1 As a point of clarification, Klong

59

and (b) ultimately . (a) Conditional separation occurs when the flickering of the priil}a-·

awareness known as 'mind ' naturally subsides at time of being free from discursive

elaborations through implementing yogic gazes and the like . Since the effulgence thereby

dissolves into awareness and the energy currents come to rest, there is a separation (or

lacuna) in which the next thought has not yet arisen. This is synonymous with "mind

directly encountering awareness" (b) The ultimate process of separation may occur at the

time of dying when the effulgence of awareness has dissolved back into itself due to the

self-subsiding of the energy currents . Separation occurs if luminosity that is free from

discursive elaborations dawns . 145

In view of the complexity of the exoteric and esoteric characteristics associated with

mind and primordial knowing presented in the opening passage, it is appropriate to give

some idea of the inquiry standpoint from which the distinction emerged and developed. The

treatments of the distinction one finds in classical sources can perhaps best be viewed in

light of certain motivating questions that were already posed in the earliest stratum of

rDzogs chen literature . How do people become enlightened? Stated otherwise, what are the

conditions necessary for a human being to become what is known as an ' awakened one '

(buddha : sangs rgyas) , a being in whom cognitive and affective obscurations have cleared

(sangs) so that inherent capacities for caring and knowing (mkhyen brtse nus ldan) are able

to fully manifest (rgyas)? Seen in this light, the problem can be viewed as an attempt to

discover and articulate the existential sources of ethics - what are the constitutive conditions

of human existence that enable human beings to live most appropriately with and for others?

The history of attempts to clarify the distinction can profitably be seen as an ongoing

response to these ancient Indian Buddhist questions . From these follow more specific

questions : What distinguishes the modes of being and awareness of a buddha from those of

an ordinary human being? How are primordial knowing (ye shes) and dualistic mind (sems)

chen pa adds that there are no actual meetings of mind with an awareness different from it, but they are so described from the perspective ofthe awareness-effulgence mingling with energy currents outwardly and gathering inwardly.

145 Bla ma yang tig vol. I : 44 l . 1 f: gyes tshul la gnyis lasl gnas skabs Ita stangs la bzhag pas spros pa dang bral dus sems zhes btags pa 'i rlung rig gi gya gyu de rang zhi ste l gdangs rig par thim nas rlung rang sor gnas pasl rnam rtog phyi ma ma lang gi bar la gyes sol de nyid sems rig thog tu 'phrad pa dang don gcig gal bu ma thog tu grol bas ye shes dbyings su thim pa 'i 'ad gsal lam bu 'dres pa zhes bshad sol mthar thug gyes tshul nil shi dus rlung rang zhi la song bas rig gdangs rang thim la song ba 'i tshel spros pa dang bral ba 'i 'ad gsal shar ba na gyes sol 'di nyid da ltar gyes pa ngos zin pa de ka bar do 'i 'ad gsal yin pas ngo shes pa gal che 'a l l An abridgement of this passage is given under point 1 8 on Table A.

60

co-present within the psychic and corporeal dimensions of lived experience and how is their

relationship best characterized? From a soteriological standpoint, how can a practitioner

reclaim unconditioned primordial knowing (ye shes) from the subjective appropriations and

reifications of conceptually and emotionally distorted mind (sems)?

Such questions preoccupied rDzogs chen scholar-adepts from as early as the 8th

century and led them increasingly to differentiate between conditioned and unconditioned

modes of being and awareness . If earliest rDzogs chen sources tend to emphasize the

underlying unity of the 'minds ' of buddhas and sentient beings, classical sNying thig

exegetes underscored the need to establish clear priority relations between them. Their aim

in doing so was to provide a framework for investigating consciousness that would allow

practitioners to directly recognize (ngo shes) and familiarize themselves with primordial

knowing (ye shes), the abiding condition of Mind, without confusing it with any of its

derivative and distortive by-products . To encounter primordial knowing in this way was

considered tantamount to realizing buddhahood itself, an abiding invariant condition devoid

of distorting reifications but replete with altruistic capabilities .

In short, by clarifying the mind/primordial knowing distinction, rDzogs chen sNying

thig scholars were in effect articulating the preconditions for the kind of knowing said to be

constitutive of being a buddha (buddhajfiiina) . At the same time they were delimiting the

entire range of factors that are considered obscurations and even obstacles to illumination.

These so-called factors to be abandoned (spang bya) , culled largely from Abhidharma and

Yogacara psychologies , were collectively termed 'mind' (sems) . They are specified as what

must be stopped ( 'gags bya) , removed (bral bya) or cleared away (sbyangs bya) in the

process known as spiritual awakening. The practical value of drawing such a distinction,

then, was to illuminate how mind ' s self-reifying activities lead us to overlook the simple

taking place of presence - open awareness or primordial knowing - in favour of the myriad

perceptual and epistemic objects that claim our attention . Klong chen pa summarizes the

matter in this way:

Mind is always a sarpsaric phenomenon: when open awareness i s associated with this flawed state (skvon) wherein the natures of karma and latent tendencies arise as defilement, we use the term 'minded being ' (sems can) and it is this mind which causes the six life forms to go astray each in its own way. When open awareness is free from mind, we speak of "buddha[hood] which is free from adventitious

6 1

defilement". Primordial knowing is always a nirva1)ic phenomenon: it is like a fire because it burns away the karma and latent tendencies and it is of the nature of clear and empty sky, being free from all discursive notions . 146

From the foregoing, it is evident that the rDzogs chen sNying thig analysis of

consciousness reflects an innatist strain of Buddhist soteriology that draws on

Tathagatagarbha and tantric currents of thought, but introduces much that is original as well .

On this syncretistic account, the conditions for spiritual awakening and delusion are both

located within the heterogenous structure of human experience itself. From the viewpoint

of classical rNying rna exegetes , the nature of Mind (sems nyid, ye shes) which they

explicitly identify with buddha nature (tathiigatagarbha, *sugatagarbha) refers to the

undifferentiated and invariant structure of the experiential continuum, whereas 'mind '

(sems) serves as a cover term for the adventitious reflective and thematic differentiations

that arise within this continuum. Soteriology is seen as a task of recovery or retrieval , a

clearing process (sbyong byed) that brings to light what is already present though

temporarily and adventitiously obscured. It is an approach that emphasizes , in the words of

Paul Ricoeur, "mind ' s attempt to recover its power of thinking, acting and feeling - a power

that has , so to speak, been buried or lost - in the knowledge, practices, and feelings that

exteriorize it in relation to itself. , , 147 In summarizing classical sNying thig views on the

nature of Mind and primordial knowing and the difference between them, my philosophical

aim is to provide a framework for understanding this tradition ' s distinctive approach to

Buddhist soteriology.

§2. The rDzogs chen sNying thig Analysis of Mind (sems)

It will be observed that the opening passage explicitly identifies mind (sems) with a

complex variety of phenomena that Buddhism has traditionally held to be causes of error,

suffering and sarpsara itself. 'Mind ' is here associated with ignorance (ma rig pa) , actions

146 Tshig don mdzod: 93 8 .3 f.: sems gang yin 'khor ba 'i chos te las dang bag chags kyi rang bzhin dri mar skyes pa 'i skyon de rig pa la ldan dus sems can zhes btags shingl sems des 'gro drug so sor 'khrul par byed lal rig pa de sems dang bral dus glo bur dri bral gyi sangs rgyas zhes bya 'ol ye shes gang yin my a ngan las 'das pa 'i chos te las dang bag chags bsregs pas me dang 'dra zhing kun tu rtog pa thams cad dang bral ba stong gsal nam mkha 'i rang bzhin can te l l

147 Ricoeur and Changeux 2000: 4 . Ricoeur is here defining reflexive/reflective philosophy, a branch of French existential philosophy associated with Jean Nabert that is concerned with the subject ' s attempt, through interpretation, to recapture itselfthrough the expressions of life (signs) that obj ectifY it.

62

(las) and their conditioning imprints (bag chags) , error Ckhrul pa) , subject/object dualism

(gzung 'dzin), discursive elaborations (spros pa), adventitious mistaken concepts (glo bur

'khful rtog) , delusive perceptions, the Yogacara substratum consciousness (lilayavijfiana)

with its eightfold ensemble of cognitions, and the karmic energy currents (karmavayu) and

their energetic pathways as these are detailed in rDzogs chen tantric physiology . In short,

mind comprises all that is constructed and conditioned C dus byas rkyen dbang) and

constitutes the sum total of obscurations to be eliminated (spang bya 'i sgrib pa) as all these

were codified in the various Indian Buddhist doctrinal systems . While a detailed analysis of

these points in light of their historical-doctrinal contexts would far exceed my abilities and

the scope of this thesis , it may be worthwhile to briefly summarize how rDzogs chen

scholars have defined and characterized mind in relation to some of the more important

aspects , before turning our attention to the gnoseological current of thought that is more

distinctive of this tradition. Specifically I will consider how mind is viewed in relation to

three interrelated factors that Buddhist tradition has regarded as primary sources of

obscuration: dualism, ignorance and reifying conceptuality .

2 . 1 Dualism

According to Klong chen pa, "mind constitutes adventitious defilement. It functions

as the fundamental cause of saqIsara. It depends on latent tendencies of the three realms . As

it creates the conditions of worldly life, it is that from which we should be emancipated. , , 148

These elements are all deemed to be consequences of the complex dual structure that is said

to be constitutive of mind. Basing himself on accounts of mind presented in the seventeen

tantras , Klong chen pa states :

[ 1 ] As for the essence [of mind] : i t i s any cognition arising as object and subject, the apprehended and apprehending, such that ignorance is present as the pervader. [2] As for its etymology, it is called 'mind' because it thinks (sems pa) in terms of object (yul) and object-possessor (yul can) given that it arises as both the apprehended and apprehending. Mind belonging to the two higher [realms] also consists in the apprehending and apprehended [aspects] to which one is attached in the one-pointed

1 48 Zab don gnad kyi me long, in Zab rna yang tig vol. 2 : 28 (3 £ : sems ni glo bur gyi dri mar gyur bal 'khor ba 'i rtsa ba 'i rgyu byed pal khams gsum pa 'i bag chags brten pal gson pa 'du byed pa bral bya yin pa stel l

63

meditative absorptions . In the desire [realm, mind] consists of coarse conceptualiz -· ations . 149

This portrayal of mind is clearly indebted to the Cittamatra view that mind (dtta) , under the

influence of defiled ego-mind (kli�tamanas) , has both intentional (object-intending) and

reflexive ( , I-intending ' ) operations that structure experience in terms of an ' I ' (subject) and

' mine ' (object) . Mind ' s activities in the three realms are shot through with dualism, the only

difference being whether the reifications are coarse (as in the desires realm) or subtle (as in

the formless realm) . Elsewhere, Klong chen pa characterizes mind as encompassing act,

object and agent in a manner reminiscent of Nagarjuna' s analysis of mind in MMK 23 . 1 5 . 150

The author proceeds , however, to claim that the source of this tripartite intentional structure

is the efflugence of primordial knowing (ye shes kyi gdangs) as it is explained in sNying thig

tantric physiology : "The source of [dualistic] mind is the effulgence of primordial knowing:

the cognition of objects resulting from the stirring by the energy currents is the expressive

energy of primordial knowing, while the wild proliferation of thoughts is the aspect of the

energy currents . They [viz . the energy current and effulgence of primordial knowing] are

similar to a blind horse with legs and a crippled rider with eyesight [respectively] . , , 1 5 1 From

the foregoing, it is clear that the rDzogs chen understanding of dualistic mind is syncretistic ,

combining analyses of its act-object structure that are known from traditional Cittamatra and

1 49 Theg mchog mdzod vol. 1 : 1 050.4 f. : . . . ngo bo nil yul yul can gzung 'dzin du skyes pa 'i shes pa gang zhig ma rig pa khyab byed du yod pal nges tshig nil gzung 'dzin du skyes pas yul dang yul can du sems pas sems zhes bya 'ol gong ma gnyis kyi sems kyang ting nge 'dzin rtse gcig la chags pa 'i gzung 'dzin nol 'dod pa na kun rtog rags pa '0 1 1 In his Chos dbyings mdzod 'gre! (495.3 f.) , Klong chen pa specifies the role these two aspects of mind play in initiating and perpetuating the illusion of dualism : "From object-oriented mind, apprehended objects, non-existent but clearly apparent, manifest as the five aspects of forms, sounds, smells, tastes and tactile sensations. From subj ect-oriented mind, actions, their maturation, and afflictive emotions manifest in limitless ways. SaJTlsara which consists in grasping an object where there is no object and grasping a mind where there is no mind, appears before sentient beings like a dream, having arisen from the manifesting of aspects of subject- and obj ect-oriented mind." de 'ang gzung ba 'i sems las gzung yul med pa gsal snang gzugs sgra dri ro reg Ingar snang lal l 'dzin pa 'i sems las las dang rnam smin nyon mongs pa dpag tu med par snang ste l yul med yul du 'dzin pa dangl sems med sems su 'dzin pa 'i 'khor ba sems can la rmi lam ltar snang ba sems gzung 'dzin gyi rnam par shar ba las byung ba '0 1 1

1 50 Zab don snying po, in Zab mo yang tig vol. 1 : 452 . 1 f. : " Concerning the reason for using the term [ 'mind'] : Because of the three factors of what is 'minded' , by what means it is minded, and what does the minding, we speak of 'mind ' , " sgra 'jug pa 'i rgyu mtshan nil gang la semsl gang gis semsl gang sems par byed pa gsum gyi phyir na sems soi l This analysis resembles the phenomenological analysis of intentional experience in terms of an intentional act (noesis), intentional object (noemata) and what Merleau-Ponty called the intentional arc (l 'arc intentione!) . 1 5 1 Zab don snying po, in Zab mo yang tig vol. 1 : 452. 1 £ : de 'ang sems kyi rtsa ba ye shes kyi gdangs tel rlung gis bskyod pa las yul rig pa ye shes kyi rtsall mi 'gyu dgu 'gyu rlung gi cha ste l rta long ba rkang can dangl mi 'phye bo mig can bzhin nol l

64

Madhyamaka sources with accounts of the psychophysical genesis of this dual structure that

are specific to sNying thig tantric physiology.

2 .2 Ignorance

But these accounts leave unclear how and why dualistic mentation arises? The short

answer to this question is ' ignorance ' . Ignorance is understood in rDzogs chen thought to

be the necessary condition of dualistic experience. According to the rnKha J J gro yang tig:

"Mind is ignorance; it serves as the basis of the latent tendencies for bright and dark deeds

(karrnan) . It it is therefore the cause or essence of sarpsara that is like a [spinning] wheel .

Primordial knowing transcends all [these] obscurations . , , 152 Mind is elsewhere said to be

closely associated with fundamental ignorance and analogous to clouds that obscure the sun

that is primordial knowing. 153 According to the commentary on the sGra thal Jgyur,

ignorance is what obscures authentic reality . It is called ' ignorance ' because it does not

recognize this abiding mode of the actual ground as naturally occuring, naturally free and

naturally pure . , , 154

If ignorance is construed as an event of fundamental obscuration that is identified as

the source of dualism, the starting point of sarpsara Ckhor ba 'i thog rna) and the cause of

error Ckhrul pa J i rgyu)J55, it remains to be explained precisely how this occurs . The rDzogs

chen sNying thig account of ignorance builds on the Indo-Tibetan Buddhist analysis of

avidya (rna rig pa) as co-emergent ignorance (lhan cig skyes pa Ji rna rig pa) and

conceptually elaborated ignorance (kun tu brtags pa J i rna rig pa) . 156 Tibetan thinkers of the

1 52 mKha ' 'gro yang tig vol. 2 : 233 .2 £ : sems ni ma rig pa dkar nag gi las bag chags ki rten byed pas 'khor 10 ltar 'khor ba 'i rgyu 'am ngo bo yin lal ye shes ni sgrib pa thams cad las 'das te l l . . .

1 53 Theg mchog mdzod vol. 1 : 1 027.6 f.. See under "Texts and Translations": 303 .

1 54 sGra thaI 'gyur ' grel p a vol. 2 , in NyKs, vol. I l l : 1 79. 1 f : ngo b o n i yang dag p a ' i don n i sgrib par byed pa ' 0 1 nges tshig ni ma gzhi yin te l de ltar gzhi dngos pa 'i 'dug tshul del rang byung rang groll rang dag tu ma rig pas ma rig pa zhes bya '0 1 1

1 5 5 See mKhas pa nyi 'bum's rDzogs pa chen po Tshig don bcu gcig pa: 32 .8 f.. Klang chen pa identities a number of synonyms of this ignorance which include delusion (gti mug), not knowing (mi shes), not realizing (ma rtogs), not seeing (ma mthong), error ( 'khrul pa) and erroneousness (ph yin ci log). Zab mo yang tig vol. 2: 24 1 . 1 : ming gi rnam grangs ma rigl gti mugl mi shesl ma rtogsl ma mthongl 'khrul pal phyin ci log ces pa ste l

1 56 These two types of ignorance may have developed from the two kinds of personali stic false views (satkayadr$til °dadana) - viz. sahajasatkayadr$ti and parikalpitasatkayadr$ti - or false views of self (atmadr$tir-dadana) that are distinguished in Yogacarabhumi and Abhidharmakosabha$ya. See Eltschinger (2009 : 67) where this typology is discussed in the context of examining Dharmakltii ' s identification of ignorance with personalistic false views. For

65

dGe lugs tradition view co-emergent ignorance as an innate or congenital tendency to reify

phenomena that is present in all sentient beings, whereas conceptually elaborated ignorance

is a language-dependent formulation of a realist view . Klong chen pa, however, interprets

this two-fold schema as consisting in two kinds of misapprehension: [han cig skyes pa ' i ma

rig pa carries a sense of not seeing things as they are, whereas kun tu brtags pa 'i ma rig pa

connotes seeing things as other than they are . He explains that ignorance is classified as (a)

co-emergent ignorance on account of not recognizing the factor of open awareness to be

primordial knowing in and as oneself and (b) conceptually elaborated ignorance that grasps

what comes from oneself as ' other ' . 157 In short, ignorance comprises not only an innate type

of non-recognition but also an acquired type of mis-recognition, viz . , an active, distorted

intelligence (kli�taprajiia) that reifies persons and entities , thus creating the conditions for

the arising of attachments , aversions and delusions that perpetuate cyclical existence .

rDzogs chen sNying thig sources introduce a third and more fundamental kind of

ignorance termed ' ignorance of single identity that is the cause ' (rgyu bdag nyid gcig pa ' i

ma rig pa) 158 that is regarded as the foundation of all error . 159 According to the 1 2th century

DharmakIrti, ignorance is equated primarily with the innate personalistic false view, and not the reifYing personalistic false view which was used to characterize non-Buddhist (Brahmanical, Jain) doctrines ofthe self

157 Zab mo yang tig vol. 2: 240 .5 f. : dbye na rig pa 'i eha la rang nyid ye shes su mi shes pa 'i ehas lhan eig skyes pa dangl rang las gzhan du 'dzin pa kun tu brtags pa 'i ma rig pa gnyis sol

158 The locus classicus for the three types of error is a cryptic passage in the sGra thai 'gyur, Ati vol . 1 : 1 4 1 .6 f; Tk vol. 1 0 : 483 . 1 f ; Tb vol. 1 2 : 1 1 8 .4 f : "Ignorance is of three kinds : 1 [Ignorance of] the single identity lays the foundation for error. I Co-emergent [ignorance] consists in dualistic concepts. I Conceptually elaborated [ignorance] engenders obj ects. I " ma rig pa ni rnam pa gSUlnl bdag nyid geiga pas 'khrul rtsab byasl lhan cig skyes pas rtog pa gnyisl kun tu brtags pas yul du gyurl l aAti,Tb geig : Tk cig bAti,Tb rtsa : Tk brtsa.

159 The three modes of ignorance are sometimes presented as deviations within the three ye shes that are aspects of the ground-manifestation (gzhi snang) : essence, nature and responsiveness. See for example Thod rgal gyi rgyab yig nyi zla gza ' skar, in Bla ma yang tig vol. 1 : 422.3 f. : " [Ignorance] serves as the first cause of errancy: [ 1 ] Ignorance of single identity [comes about] by failing to directly recognize the essence (ngo bo), i .e . the nonconceptual aspect [of experience] . [2] Co-emergent ignorance [comes about] by failing to recognize the nature (rang bzhin), i .e . its own nature as the radiant clarity of the [five coloured] rays of light ( 'od du gsal ba) . [3] Conceptually elaborated ignorance comes about by failing to recognize responsiveness (thugs rje) as one ' s [prereflective] self-awareness." ngo bo mi rtog pa 'i eha ngo ma shes pas bdag nyid gcig pa 'i ma rig'pal rang bzhin 'ad du gsal ba rang bzhin du ma shes pas lhan cig skyes pa 'i ma rig pal thugs rje rang rig tu ma shes pas kun tu brtags pa 'i ma rig pas 'khrul pa 'i dang po 'i rgyu byasl On the term gzhi gnas ma rig pa or 'ground-based ignorance ' , see Tk vol. 8: 203 . 1 f.. These three types of ignorance are transcended in open awareness itself In the gZhi snang ye shes sgron ma, Bla ma yang tig vol. 2 ( 1 58 . 1 f), Klong chen pa states : de 'i tshe rang snang du rig pas rig par skyes pa 'i ehas lhan cig skyes pa 'i ma rig pa beoml rig par shar bas ma rig pa med de bdag nyid gcig pa 'i ma rig pa beoml rang snang du rang rig pas gzhan zhes gzung 'dzin med pas kun tu brtags pa 'i ma rig pa beam nas dbyings nas phyir gsal du nyug tsam byung basi gdod ma 'i ngang las eung zad phud tsam snang zhing g.yos kyang de ma thag tu rang rig pas rig mkhan nyid kyang grol nasi 'dzin pa med pas gzung 'dzin gyi blo stong dus phyir snang 'ad kyi snang ba sems po ltar snang ba

66

rDzogs chen sNying thig master mKhas pa Nyi rna 'burn, this primary kind of ignorance

consists in not recognizing the single cause of both awareness and ignorance (rna rig rig

rgyu cig pa) as being in reality nondual (don gyis gnyis rned) , like two sides of the same

coin . 1 60 This ' single identity ' (bdag nyid gcig pa) refers to the common ground (gzhi), i .e .

human reality in its most ontologically primitive condition, which, as open awareness ,

antedates the distinction between error and non-error . The possibility of dualism and error

lies in a fundamental failure to distinguish the ground as it is (gzhi nyid) from the ground as

known (gzhi shes) . 1 6 1 This is another way of saying that ignorance has its inception in

nascent capacities within the process of auto-manifestation (rang snang) or ground­

manifestation (gzhi snang) - i.e . the most rudimentary taking place of self-experience - to

both reflect on itself and not recognize itself as it is (the ground simpliciter) . In the words of

Klong chen pa:

How does the process [of errancy] arise? During the ansmg of the ground­manifestation, the clear and knowing cognition as the expressive energy of compassionate responsiveness (thugs rje) [i.e . the dynamic aspect of the ground] manifests in close affiliation with the three kinds of ignorance because it fails to directly recognize that it itself is what appears as able to discriminate amongst objects . These three aspects are as follows : [A] ignorance of single identity as the cause consists in not recognizing that all cognitions are of the same identical nature; [B] co-emergent ignorance consists in the fact that this non-self-recognition (rang ngo rna shes pa) and cognition (shes pa) arise together; and [C] conceptually elaborated ignorance consists in discriminating self-manifestation as something other [than oneself] . 162

rig pa ye shes kyi dgangs su shes te l rig pa dang rig gdangs shan phyed pa 'i skad cig la rna rig pa sangs nas rtag chad sgro sdur dang bral te l gdod rna 'i ngang du grol ba narn rnkha ' Ita bu '01 1 1 60 The Tshig don bcu gcig pa (3 1 . 1 9) reads '"like the front and back of one ' s hand" : lag pa 'i Ito rgyab ldog pa Ita bur. 1 6 1 Tshig don bcu gcig pa: 30 . 1 7 f. : rang snang ngo rna shes pas 'khrul te l ji ltar 'khrul nal gzhi dang gzhi shes kyi khyad par las 'khrul te l gzhi dang gzhi shes zhes bya ba khyab pa spyir stong pas gang du yang rna phye bas 'khrul rna 'khrul gyi rtsis rned shes pa 'i khyad par 'dod pa rang gzhung du bstan pas rig pa '0 1 1 . . . 1 62 Tshig don rndzod: 829. 1 f. : tshul ji ltar shar na gzhi snang du shar dus thugs rje 'i rtsal shes pa gsal rig yul dpyod nus su rang shar ba de rang ngo rna shes pa la ltos nas rna rig pa gsurn dang rntshungs Idan du shar te l rgyu bdag nyid gcig pa 'i rna rig pa shes par skyes pa de nyid du rna shes pa dangl lhan cig skyes pa 'i rna rig pa rang ngo rna shes pa de dang shes pa de gnyis lhan cig skyes pa dangl kun brtags pa 'i rna rig pa rang snang la gzhan du dpyod pa 'i cha dang gsurn mol l Klong chen explains these three in terms of the onset and development of reifYing cognition in Theg rnchog rndzod vol . 1 : 743 .4 f. : de yang dang po 'khrul pa 'i rgyu rna rig pa gsurn ste l rang ngo rna rig pa 'i cha tsarn las I gzung 'dzin du rna skyes pas don gyis rna 'khrul zhes bya ba der 'khrul par song ste l rning rned rning du song pa Ita bu ni rgyu bdag nyid gcig pa 'i rna rig pa 'ol de nyid ngo rna shes tsarn ldog de lhan cig skyes pa 'i rna rig pa ste 'khor 'das gnyis kyi snang char byung ba 'ol de ltar yul 'od snang la bIos gnyis snang tsarn du phye ba 'i cha nas rning don bdag tu rtogpa 'i char song bas kun brtags pa 'i rna rig pa zhes bya '0 1 1

67

Ignorance thus marks that juncture in the unfoldment of world-experience where an

experiencer first emerges as both the dative and genitive of manifestion. And it is to this

nascent level of reification wherein auto-manifestation gives way to hetero-manifestation

that the genesis of subject/object dualism can be traced.

For Klong chen pa, the three kinds of ignorance consitute progressive phases of

error : "these three types of ignorance are each named from the standpoint of non-self­

recognition (rang ma rig pa) as it occurs [ 1 ] in the phase of primordiality (ye ldan) of the

single identity ignorance, [2] in the phase of simultaneity (dus mnyam) of the co-emergent

ignorance, and [3] in the phase of posteriority (phyis 'byung) of the conceptually elaborated

ignorance . , , 163

The rDzogs chen analysis of ignorance can be schematized as follows :

Table B : Three Kinds of Ignorance in Rdzog chen sNying thig System

Three kinds Ignorance of Single Identity Co-emergent ignorance Conceptual Ignorance of ignorance bdag nyid gcig pa'i rna rig pa than cig skyes pa'i rna rig pa kun tu brtags pa'; rna rig pa Definition Not recognizing single cause Co emergence of non-recogni- Auto-manifestation (mis)taken

of awareness and ignorance tion and cogniton as subject-object ' appearances'

Phases Primordial ity Simultaneity Posteriority (ye ldan) (dus mnyam) (phyis 'byung)

Impl ication Inception of dualism from Development of subj ect/obj ect Hypostatization and symbolic nondual pre-errant condition dualism ascription of self and world

Deviation Non-recognition of empty Non-recognition of radiant Non-recognition of dynamic essence (ngo bo stongpa) nature (rang bzhin gsal ba) responsiveness (thugs rje)

It is worth pausing to consider how the rDzogs chen theory of ignorance both

develops and diverges from earlier Buddhist views. It can be seen that this account differs

from the influential Abhidharma analysis in a number of ways . First, the Abhidharma

account of ignorance interprets the privative a- in avidya in the specific sense of an antonym

or opposite, akin to the opposites friend (mitra) and enemy (amitra) . l64 In the rDzogs chen

1 63 Bla ma yang tig vol. 2 : 1 6 1 .3 f. : ma rig pa gsum nil bdag nyid gcig pa ye ldan gyi tshull lhan cig skyes pa dus mnyam gyi tshull kun tu brtags pa 'i phyis 'byung gi tshul du rang ma rig pa 'i cha las so sor btags soi l 1 64 AK 3 .28c-d (pp. 88-89). "The non-friend or enemy (amitra) is the opposite (vipak$a) of a friend and not ( 1 ) the not-friend, that is to say, anyone other than a friend, or (2) the absence of a friend." In the same way, ignorance is neither ( 1 ) non-knowledge (i.e. different from knowledge) nor (2) the absence of knowledge but rather "the opposite of clear knowledge (vidya), a real, separate factor (dharmantara)." It is further said to be "a cause or condition

68

account, ma rig pa is a derivative quality of rig pa (rig pa 'i cha) that is characterized as the

non-recognition of rig pa that is one ' s basic nature . This relation of structural asymmetry

expressed in the statement "ma rig pa depends on rig pa but rig pa does not depend on ma

rig pa" in our opening passage precludes construing the relation as one of simple opposition,

as is done in the Abhidharmakosa 3 .28 .

This asymmetrical entailment relation also sets the rDzogs chen view apart from

Buddhist Abhidharma and *Pramal)avada interpretations of ignorance as a mental factor

associated with the mind. 165 In rDzogs chen, ignorance is most certainly not a mental factor

alongside other mental factors (caitta) but is the basic precondition of dualistic mind (citta)

itself. Leaving aside the varying interpretations of what is meant by the relation of

' association ' (samprayukta : mtshungs par ldan pa) between something primary (e .g . citta)

and concomitant (e.g. caittas) 166, what deserves notice here is that the rDzogs chen account

reverses this priority relation, making mind subsidiary to ignorance (where ignorance is in

turn subordinate to rig pa) . 1 67 Mind is said to be associated with the fundamental ignorance

(sems ni rtsa ba ma rig pa dang mtshungs par ldan pa) in the sense of having it as a

condition of its possibility . This appears to be supported by rDzogs chen statements to the

effect that mind entails fundamental ignorance : "Ignorance pervades mind", says Klong

chen pa, "but it does not pervade open awareness . , , 1 68 A number of justifications and

implications of this asymmetrical entailment relation are examined in the next chapter .

(pratyaya) of the salJ1skiiras, from which it follows that it is not a mere negation." See Mejor 2002 for a study of the seven interpretations of the privative particle (nan) according to Vasubandhu's Pratftyasamutpiida-vyiikhyii. 1 65According to the Vibhii$ii 42, 1 7, there are 5 defiled permeating mental factors (akusalamahiibhumika) : ( I ) ignorance (avidyii), (2) lethargy (styiina), (3) excitedness (auddhatya), (4) shamelessness (ahrf), (5) disregard (anapatriipya). 1 66 See Eltschinger 2009: 66. See Tillemans 1 990, vol. 2 : 285 and n. 427.

1 67 Klong chen pa was aware that this interpretation ran counter to the Abhidharmic analyis of ignorance as one of the primary six klesas (and therefore as one of the concomitant caitta). In his Theg mchog mdzod, Klong chen pa seeks to resolve this apparent discrepancy by arguing that ignorance is included on the Abhidharmic list of six basic emotions because it is "that which pervades the other five poisons" (dug lnga thams cad fa khyab). It should therefore be explained separately from the delusion (gti mug : moha) which is one of the five emotions." Theg mchog mdzod vol. I : 83 1 . 1 f : nyon mongs pa drug ni ma rig pa dang 'dod chags dang zhe sdang dang gti mug dang nga rgyal dang phra dog gol de 'ang ma rig pa ni dug lnga thams cad fa khyab fa gti mug ni drug lnga 'i ya gyaf yin pas so sor bshad dol l In other words, if ignorance is what gives rise to dualism, it cannot be reduced to a mental factor that is counted among the many derivative expressions ofthis dualism. 1 68 Theg mchog mdzod vol. 1 : 1 042.2 f.. See under "Texts and Translations" : 306.

69

The crucial difference between Abhidharmic and rDzogs chen conceptions of

ignorance comes down to their divergent views on the kind of knowledge that ignorance is

held to counteract or obstruct. In Buddhist epistemology and Abhidharma, it is correct

cognition or discernment (prajfiii/vipasyanii) , a mode of cognition which affords the best

epistemic purchase on things . Ignorance is considered to be the opposite of this clear

knowledge (vidyii) . The principal difference between vidyii and avidyii, then, is that they

grasp contradictory aspects : the former grasps the real aspects , the latter grasps erroneous

ones . 1 69 They are thus distinguished on the basis of how well their respective representations

match up with objects . But on this account, both vidyii and avidyii belong to a

representational epistemology according to which knowledge typically consists in the

grasping of external objects by means of internal representations . From the rDzogs chen

perspective, it is this mediational inner/outer structure itself that needs to be abandoned,

both on the level of theory and contemplative praxis . This adventitious structure, in fact, is

what defines ignorance and mind, while its transcendence characterizes true knowledge

(vid..vii) . It seems to me that it is precisely this rejection of mediational epistemology that

underwrites the rDzogs chen sNying thig emphasis on overcoming subject-object dualism,

on ' transcending mind ' . The distinction provides an interpretive framework for overcoming

epistemology in theory and practice . Stated succinctly, what ignorance primarily obstructs

or overlooks is not better or truer representations but a primordial , nondual mode of

knowing that is prior to and a precondition of all representational thinking.

2 . 3 Reification

We can finally observe that in rDzogs chen thought, dualistic mind is closely linked

with the complex mechanisms of discursive superimposition (samiiropa : sgro 'dogs) and

elaboration (prapafica : spros pa) that shape each agent ' s specific world-interpretation (srid

pa) . In this regard, it is worth mentioning that virtually all Indian philosophical schools in

one way or another accepted a basic distinction between nonconceptual (nirvikalpaka) and

conceptual (savikalpaka, vikalpa) modes of cognition . 170 There was also widespread

agreement that conceptual cognition is based on language use, specifically the ascription of

1 69 See Etschinger 2009: 48. 1 70 See Bronkhorst 20 1 0 and 201 1 .

70

names and universals to experience . The idea of nonconceptual cognition figures both in

epistemological and soteriological contexts of Indian philosophy, the first centering on the

ascertainment of valid epistemic instruments (prama1Ja) , the second on the articulation of

conditions for liberating knowledge. It is the latter construal that is fore grounded in classical

rDzogs chen discussions of the nature and function of conceptualization. According to

Klong chen pa: "Since 'mind ' involves conceptual and analytic factors of mental continua

belonging to the three realms, it is that which grasps erroneous superimposed aspects

together with the all-ground [comprising] the eightfold ensemble [of cognitions] . , , 17 l The

sGra thal 'gyur tantra similarly equates mind with conceptual error and defines it as the

basis of all discursive reflections. 172

All that said, it would be a mistake to conclude, as Sa skya Pm:H;lita ( 1 1 82- 1 25 1 ) and

a great many of his successors did, that rDzogs chen practitioners advocated the kind of

nonconceptual meditation that became associated in Tibet with the Chan system of Heshang

Mohoyen. A more complex picture emerges when we consider the four major approaches to

nonconceptuality that were current in Tibet at the time gNubs chen Sangs rgyas ye shes

wrote his bSam gtan mig sgron (late 9th early 10th centuries) . 173 While all are considered by

gNubs chen to be viable paths to awakening, they are nontheless arranged in sequence from

lowest to highest, following a pattern already well-established in Indian, Chinese and

Tibetan doxographies by this time . According to gNubs chen, this hierarchical classification

reflects the degree to which they represent ' deviations ' (gol sa) in doctrine and praxis from

a higher standard, in this case the rDzogs chen system. 174 Thus, in successive chapters ,

gNubs chen examines : (1) the step-by-step (rim gyis) Indian approach represented by

KamalaSIla which only comprehends the nonconceptuality of appearances (snang ba mi rtog

pa), (2) the ' all at once ' (cig char) Chinese approach represented by Mohoyen emphasizing

the nonconceptuality of non-appearance (mi snang ba mi rtog pa) , (3) the Indian Mahayoga

1 7 1 Sems dangye shes kyi dris Ian : 383 .2 f .. See under "Texts and Translations" : 274.

l 72 Ati vol. 1 : 1 29 .3 . 1 73 For a structural analysis ofthis work, see Meinert 2003 . On the importance of this work see Karmay 1 988 : 86 f. .

1 74 See for example bSam gtan mig sgron : 55.2 f. : stong pa 'i ngo bar snang la mi rtog pa ni l rnal 'byor spyod pa'i yongs su grub pa bsgom pa'ol dbu ma 'i lam sgom pa'i shes pa lhag mthong ste l de la gong gi mi dmigs pa tshang ngol de las khyad du gnyis su med pa'i mi rtog pa ma ha yo ga 'o l lhun gyis grub pa'i mi rtog pa chen po a ti yo ga'ol de dag ni gal sa ngos bzung ba'i phyir rim par bkod pa'o l l

7 1

approach advocating nondual nonconceptuality (gnyis su med pa 'i mi rtog pa) and finally (4)

the rDzogs chen approach of naturally and correctly recognizing spontaneously present

nonconceptuality (lhun gyis grub pa 'i mi rtog pa) . According to gNubs chen, all four

approaches aim at realizing nonconceptual suchness but the first three remain bound up with

willful deliberation (ched du 'tshol) and striving ( 'bad rtsol) and therefore overlook

spontaneity175 , a natural way of being and acting that confounds intellectual appropriation . 176

For gNubs chen, spontaneity is 'nonconceptual ' precisely because it occurs in the absence of

intentions and preconceived plans. For this reason, gNubs chen characterizes spontaneity as

a fundamental mode or dimension (ngang) of human existence. 177 At its most basic level ,

our experience of the world is natural, nonreflective and charged with meaning - we grasp

the world concretely and nonconceptually before we move on to the more sophisticated acts

of conception and belief. We all too easily lose touch with this originary dynamism and

1 75 In his bSam gtan mig sgron, gNubs chen introduces spontaneity as one of the nine key principles of rDzogs chen. See below Table E on p. 1 67 . gNyag Jfifmakumara similarily takes up the question "What is spontaneity?" as the second of nine queries concerning rDzogs chen in his 'Phrul gyi me long, in NyKs vol. 82 : 964.2, 974.6 and 988 .6 . Van Schaik 2008 has noted the importance ofthe concept of lhun grub in Mahayoga Mayajala scriptures such as the Guhyagarbha. It also forms a central theme of an early Dunhuang Mahayoga manuscript IOL J Tib. 454 in which the idea of spontaneity, or effortlessness, is used to characterize the basic nature of one ' s own mind as nothing other than perfect buddhahood replete with al l capacities for altruistic activity by body, speech and mind. A commentary on the ancient Rig pa 'i khu byug from the bKa ' rna shin tu rgyas pa defines "spontaneity" in a section consisting in instructions on the effortless conduct (spyod pa) of a rDzogs chen practitioner: " [In] the instruction on conduct, absence of effort (brtsal ba med pa) is the very essence of conduct [characterized as] spontaneity, great compassion, great skil lful means, unpremeditated and unobstructed." 1 76 For example, the main section (part two) of one of the earliest available rDzogs chen texts, the sEas pa rgum chung, opens with a criticism of the tendency to take nonconceptuality as a thematic focus or as an experience : "To what extent does the profound nonconceptual appear as an object of the intellect? Because the experience of nonconceptuality is an experience, it is not that [nonconceptual suchness] ." IOL 594, pt. II, vol. I b : line 2 : ji tsam rtog myed zab mo zhigl blo 'i yul du snang zhe nal myi rtog zab mo nyams myong bal myong ba yin phyir de nyid myinl Compare with . . . ji ltar rtog med zab mo zhigl blo yi yul du snang zhe nal mi rtog zab mo nyams myong bal myong ba yin phyir de nyid mini I See Karmay 1 988 : 74. The text goes on to specifY how suchness defies representation and remains untouched by goal-directed soteriological activities. Ethical activities of accumulating merits and knowledge as well as meditative activities such as contemplation (samiidhi) and purifYing latent tendencies are all tethering pegs ( 'dzin pa 'i phur) . gNubs chen clarifies the sense of "tethering peg" in his bSam gtan mig sgron: "To try to make improvements and efforts in body, speech and mind is a tethering peg and an obscuration" and "to modify the unmodified is to [try to] tether it and pin it down conceptually." bSam gtan mig sgron 443 .6 : . . . sgo gsum ched du 'chos shing rtsol ba nil 'dzin pa 'i phur pa dang sgrib pa yinl l and ibid. 444.2 . . . bcos su med pa la bcos pa nyid] rtog pa 'i 'dzin pa dang phur pa '0 1 1 1 77 On this great dimension of spontaneity (lhun gyis grub pa 'i ngang chen po), the bSam gtan mig sgron (323 .6 f.) states : "Since this dimension of spontaneity that is great bliss is fi'ee from all spheres of activity (spyod yul : gocara) throughout the three times and no time, it is devoid of any scrutinizing agent or obj ect of thought. Thus, it is also great nonconceptuality [i.e. without premeditation] . It [nonetheless] responds to the aims of all wayfarers and trainees, satisfies their needs, and brings about their desired spiritual attainments according to their intentions." bde ba chen po lhun gyis grub pa 'i ngang ni dus gsum dus med par spyod yul thams cad dang bral bas i brtag pa po dangl rtog pa 'i yul med pasl mi rtog pa chen po" yang yinl lam pa dang gdul bya 'i ril gyis don bya ba dangl dgos pa 'i re ba yang skongl ji ltar bsam pa 'i dngos grub kyi 'dod pa yang byungl l "text has pa

72

spontaneity in the drive to rationalize our every act and thought, to render reasons for what

is in reality mostly unpremediated.

What becomes abundantly clear in examining early rDzogs chen responses to the

debates over nonconceptuality is the tradition ' s vehement rejection of nonconceptuality

pursued either as an end arrived at by conceptual means (Mahayana gradualism) or as a

means to its own end (Chan subitism) . Nonconceptuality is instead taken as a fundamental

condition of being and awareness simpliciter, one that eludes the instrumental (means-end)

framework common to conceptual and nonconceptual deliberations . It is on the basis of such

a critique that gNubs chen Sangs rgyas employs the ' figurative expression ' (bla dwags)

' great primordially present nonconceptuality ' (ye mi rtog pa chen pO) I78 to distinguish the

rDzogs chen view of human reality as primordially nonconceptual and spontaneously

present from Chan traditions that seek to suppress thoughts and Mahayana traditions that

seek to instrumentalize them within a means-end framework. Rong zorn pa went so far as to

declare that because both conceptuality and nonconceptuality are fundamentally equal by

nature, there is no need to try to improve things by means of deliberate effort. 1 79

The critical point for gNubs chen and the Sems sde tantras he comments upon is not

whether the practitioner has concepts or not but whether his or her activity - and especially

mental activity which is considered the source of verbal and bodily activities - is contrived

or spontaneous , deliberate or unpremeditated . With this account, the soteriological focus has

shifted from how we know (conceptually or nonconceptually) to how we act (contrivedly or

uncontrivedly) , where acting is seen to include thinking .

As gNubs chen sees it, action is primary and belief derivative . It is difficult to

overestimate the impact this reframing of the problem of nonconceptuality in terms of

spontaneity exerted on the development of rDzogs chen thinking and praxis . By shifting the

1 78 bSam gtan mig sgron 60.4 f: "In this clear yet vibrant primordial lucidity that is one ' s self-awareness - non established, not moving, not vitiated and not dwelling - what is there to meditate on? What is there to reflect upon? Nothing. There is only this state of absence. Who would ever concern themselves with that ! ? Within the great primordial nonconceptual state (ye mi rtog pa chen po), one does not supress appearances nor conceptualize them. Even this 'nonconceptuality' is only a figurative expression." rang rig pa ma bzhag ma g.yos ma bslad ma zhugs par lhan ne lhang nge ye gsal bar ci zhig bsgoml ci zhig dran par byar yod de medj med pa 'i don de nyid kho na yodl de dang du len pa su zhig ste l ye mi rtog pa chen po lal snang ba bkag pa yang med lal de la rtoga pa med del mi rtog pa nyid kyang bla dwags so i l 'text has rtogs 1 79 Theg pa chen po 'i tshul la 'jug pa, in Rang zom bka ' 'bum : 262.2 : rnam par rtog pa dang rnam par mi rtog pa gnyi ' ga 'ang rang bzhin gyis mnyam pa 'i phyirl rtsol bas bcos mi dgos pa nil I · · ·

73

soteriological focus from mediational epistemology - the view that we can only know things

and beings through our representations of them - to engaged agency, it restores primacy to

living praxis over theoretical reflection, and spontaneous activity over willful deliberation.

On this reading, the ' through-structure ' that characterizes mediational epistemology is seen

to have a thoroughly derivative and adventitious character . It is from the more originative

order of life as it is prereflectively and spontaneously lived that all thinking, sense-making,

truth-making and planning originates .

For these and other reasons to be considered in sections to follow, rDzogs chen

authors were inclined to distance themselves from the debates over conceptuality and

nonconceptuality that had figured so prominently in the history of Buddhist thought . In an

illuminating passage from the Zab don gnad kyi me long (Mirror of the Key Points of

Profound Meaning) Klong chen pa considers it ambiguous if not misleading to characterize

the distinction between mind and primordial knowing merely in terms of their having or not

having concepts . It is, in his estimation, a way of thinking characteristic of the ordinary

vehicles that is inclined to overlook the enactive dimensions of these modes of experiencing:

When ordinary vehicles distinguish mind and primordial knowing merely on the basis of the conceptual (savikalpa : rtog beas) versus nonconceptual (nirvikalpa : rtog med) , [the distinction] is unclear . Here, however, we shall elucidate their difference . Since primordial knowing has always been spontaneously present (ye nas lhun grub) , it is unconditioned and nonconceptual . It has [therefore] been established as the ground of arising of undefiled dharmakaya of the buddhas , as the condition of suchness possessing defilement, as the nature of spiritual embodiment and primordial knowing, and as the condition for the aspects of [both] the ground of emancipation and the goal of emanciption. 180

§ 3 . The rDzogs chen Analysis of Ye shes and Related Concepts

If much of what one encounters in the sNying thig exposition of mind (sems) has

been drawn from traditional Abhidharma and Cittamatra psychology, the descriptions and

explications of ye shes and related gnoseological concepts reflect strongly indigenous

1 80 sNyan rgyud gyi rgyab chos chen mo Zab don gnad kyi me long, in Zab mo yang tig vol . 2 : 280 .5 f : . . . theg pa thun mong pas rtog bcas rtog med fa sems ye shes su phye ba tsam las gsal po med kyangl 'dir khyad par gsal bar byed bstan te l ye shes ni ye nas lhun grub kyisl 'dus ma byasl rnam par mi rtog pal sangs rgyas ki chos sku dri ma med pa 'i 'char gzhil dri bcas de bzhin nyid kyi gnas skabsl sku dang ye shes kyi rang bzhinl bral gzhi bral 'bras kyi char gnas skabs kyi bzhag pa can yin te l l . . .

74

interpretations in which antecedent Mahayana and tantric formulations are assimilated to the

rDzogs chen disclosive paradigm. Technical terms referring to an implicit unconditioned

mode of awareness include inter alia Mind as such (sems nyid) , open awareness (rig pa) ,

primordial knowing (ye shes) , compassionate responsiveness (thugs rje) , and the enlightened

intent/thinking [of a buddha] ( [sangs rgyas kyi] dgongs pa) . The first three terms are of

special importance in the present context as they are ubiquitous not only in rDzogs chen but

also in other Tibetan Buddhist contemplative systems such as the non-gradual Mahamudra

teachings of the bKa' brgyud traditions. A measure of their significance within the sNying

thig system is attested by their occurrence in the titles of three works (numbers 2, 8 and 9)

belonging to Vimalamitra ' s Cycle of Nine Lamps (sGron rna dgu skor1 8 1 ) : the Sems nyid

bsdus pa ' i sgron rna , Ye shes bsdus pa 'i sgron rna and Rig pa bsdus pa 'i sgron ma . 1 82 rDzogs

chen texts have consecrated considerable attention to clarifying the connotations and

implications of sems nyid, ye shes and rig pa within their own doctrinal system and to

showing how these relate to antecedent Buddhist conceptions . It may therefore be

worthwhile to briefly investigate how these concepts were understood in rDzogs chen and

how, in some cases , they were reinterpreted to fit in with its own distinctive views of goal­

realization.

3 . 1 rDzogs chen Interpretations of Sems nyid

This technical term is widespread in rDzogs chen works and forms the central theme

of several rDzogs chen expositions including Vimalamitra ' s aforementioned Sems nyid

bsdus pa ' i sgron rna and Klong chen pa ' s Sems nyid ngal gso and Sems nyid rang grol. The

Tshig mdzod chen mo gives two definitions of sems nyid: ( 1 ) mind alone (sems kho na) and

(2) the basic nature of Mind (sems kyi chos nyid); these roughly correspond to two related

functions of the particle nyid, viz . ( 1 ) to single something out (i .e . a restriction nges gzung :

avadharalJa) 1 83 and (2) to indicate the quality or nature of something (corresponding to the

1 8 1 The ful l title is the gSang ba bla med sgron ma dgu skor gyi gdams pa . This cycle of teachings is included in the Bi ma snying thig vol . 2: 1 50.5-237 .3 . 1 82 These are lamps number 2, 8 and 9 respectively.

1 83 Tshig mdzod chen mo s.v. nyid: " I . It has the sense of 'merely' and 'only' , that is, a word which restricts or a word which excludes . . . 2. It is the honorific of 'you' as in 'what you said is true. '" For example, 1 . tsam dang kho na'i don te nges gzung gi sgra'am rnam gcod kyi sgral . . . khyod nyidj . . . kho nyidj . . . de nyidj . . . chos nyidj . . . stong nyidj . . . rang bzhin nyidj . . . 2. khyod kyi zhe sal . . . nyid kyis gsungs pa bdenl . . .

75

Sanskrit secondary suffix _tva) . 1 84 The most likely Sanskrit equivalent of sems nyid would

seem to be cittata, a term found in the Mahavyutpatti, though only in the compound

samcittata which is rendered as sems snyoms pa . 1 85 It is intriguing, then, that sems nyld in

the specific sense of nature of Mind (sems kyi rang bzhin, sems kyi chos nyid) is so widely

distributed among the Tibetan translations of Indian Buddhist tantric songs - dohas,

caryagfti or vajragfti - which were sung by Mahasiddhas to express their spiritual

realizations . 186 It would be difficult to overestimate the impact that the Indian siddha

movement, and the styles and contents of its teachings , exerted on the emerging Buddhist

orders during the second diffusion (phyi dar) of Buddhism in Tibet, especially given that all

of these schools (except the dGe lugs) traced their lineages to one or more of these Indian

siddhas . It is under its influence that a host of Tibetan technical terms describing the

fundamental nature of Mind gain wide currency in Tibet both in translations and in a

steadily increasing volume of original Tibetan spiritual songs, commentaries and treatises

based on these. That said, it is doubtful that sems nyid owes its origin or popularity to any

Indian equivalent. For example, it is interesting to discover in the most frequently quoted

instance of sems nyid - the translation of Saraha ' s Dohakosagfti stanza 74 where this Mind

as such alone (sems nyid gcig pu) is declared to be the seed of everything - that the original

Apabhraf!1sa simply has citta instead of cittata as one might expect . 1 87 Moreover, the

addition of the nyid particle here cannot simply serve to single out sems since this is already

implied by gcig pu (alone, single) ; rather it specifies that what is under consideration is the

nature of Mind as distinct from mind. One can note similar insertions of the nyid particle in

the Tibetan titles of siddha songs such as Kal)ha' s Cittaratnadr�ti which is rendered as Sems

nyid rin chen gyi lta ba or Lak�minkara' s Cittakalpapariharadr�ti which is rendered as Sems

184 The nyid particle renders a number of Sanskrit elements such as -tva, ta (' . . . ness ' ) eva ( 'only' ) .

185 See Mahavyutpatti nos. 1 89 and 1 90.

186 On this genre, see Roger Jackson, "' Poetry' in Tibet: Glu, Mgur, sNyan ngag, and ' Songs of Experience ' ," in Cabez6n and Jackson 1 996: 3 73 f..

187 See Do ha mdzod kyi glu bzhugs so, in Nges don phyag rgya ehen po 'i khrid mdzod, vol. am: 289.5 where the first two lines of the Tibetan read sems nyid gcig pu kun gyi sa bon tel gang fa srid dang my a ngan 'das 'phro bal This corresponds to stanza 43ab in Shahidullah 1 928 which reads : eitteka saafa bfam bhava-nivvalJa vi jalJ1si viphurantil . Here eitteka would be equivalent to sems gcig pu/pa. The addition of the element nyid allows for a Tibetan reinterpretation of the original which, in the case of rNying rna exegetes, supports the crucial distinction between mind and Mind as such. See Guenther 1 977: 1 64.

76

nyid kyi rtogs pa 'joms pa 'i ita ba . 1 88 It is also noteworthy that the Cittacaitanyasamanopiiya

is rendered as Sems dang sems nyid 'dui ba 'i thabs shes bya ba because here the term

caitanya (a term for consciousness or spirit associated with Hindu Vai�I,lavism and

Saqlkhya) is translated as sems nyid. 1 89 One possible Indian Buddhist precedent for the

sems/sems nyid distinction that warrants investigation is the differentiation between dharma

and dharmatii (Tib . chos!chos nyid) that is widely attested in Indian sources , most notably in

the Dharmadharmatiivibhiiga . 190

Whatever its inception, it is clear that the concept of sems nyid already had an

important place in the earliest rDzogs chen and Mahayoga and Sems sde teachings (circa 8th

c . ) , as reflected in the recurrent injunction that since Mind as such is already perfect

buddhahood, there is no need to search elsewhere for it . 1 91 Sems nyid is used in early Sems

sde materials as a synonym of awakened mind (byang chub [kyiJ sems : bodhicitta) and the

nature of Mind (sems kyi rang bzhin) or the fundamental reality of mind (sems kyi de kho na

nyid) 192 . In the Kun byed rgyai po, sems nyid is equivalent to bodhicitta and hailed as the all­

creative Monarch (kun byed rgyai po) holding sway over all phenomena of saqlsara and

1 88 D nos. 3 209 and 3 2 1 1 respectively. See also the Cittatattvopadda of KuddalI which is rendered as Sems nyid kyi de nyid bcing ba, in D no. 3250.

1 89 D no. 3237 . 1 90 See Mathes 1 996. Although I have yet to find any mention of choslchos nyid as a model for the semslsems nyid distinction among Tibetan Buddhist scholars, Klong chen pa did consider the two distinctions to be complementary, a view reflected in the titles and contents of the root texts of his Triology o/Self-Liberation (rang grol skor gsum) : Sems nyid rang grol, Chos nyid rang grol, Mnyam nyid rang grol. 1 9 1 This passage occurs in a commentary on the rTse mo byung rgyal, in Bai ro rgyud 'bum vol. 1 : 3 5 1 .2 . It is also found in the Guhyagarbha, Tb vol. 8: 1 9 1 .4 : sems nyid rdzogs pa 'i sangs rgyas tej sangs rgyas gzhan du ma tshol cigj j echoing the l ine sems la gzhan du sangs rgyas btsal myi dgosj j that occurs in the Dunhuang manuscript IOL Tib J 454, on which see Van Schaik 2008 : 14 . The same theme is found amongst the six lamps (sgron ma drug) which are attributed to gNyan dpal dbyangs (8th c.) but appear to be a later redaction (see Karmay 1 98 8 : 66-69). The Thabs shes sgron ma, for example, has rang gi sems nyid sangs rgyas yin shes naj gzhan nas bsgrub par bya ba ci yang med] j (D no. 4449 : 769.2). The ITa ba yang dag sgron ma has sems nyid ye nas chos nyid yin shes naj chos kyi dbyings nyid gzhan du bsgom mi dgosj j (0 no. 4447: 767.4). This idea is not unknown in the Mahayana sutras. See for example Atyayajiiiina-niima-mahayiinasutra ( 'Phags pa 'da' ka ye shes zhes bya ba theg pa chen po 'i mdo) D no. 1 22 : 3 05 .7 : sems ni ye shes 'byung ba 'i rgyuj sangs rgyas gzhan du ma tshol cigj j The idea that one ' s own Mind as such is already buddhahood and need not be sought elsewhere is the central theme of the Kun byed rgyal po. Klong chen pa explains the meaning of this dictum with supporting quotations from the Guhyagarbha and Kun byed rgyal po in his Grub mtha ' mdzod: 1 1 25.5 f. : rang byung gi ye shes rdzogs pa chen po nyid ye shes nas sangs rgyas kyi che ba 'i yon tan lhun grub tu yod pasj sku gsum rang chas su tshang ba 'i phyir logs nas btsal mi dgos pasj 'di nyid ma bcos ji bzhin pa 'i ngang nas ma g.yos pas 'grub par bstan te j j . . . 1 92 See for example the Pan sgrub rnams kyi thugs bcud snying kyi nyi ma, Bg vol. 1 : 1 7 1 . 1 which equates sems nyid with byang chub kyi sems, sems kyi de kho na nyid andji bzhin pa in the context of elucidating the meaning of the last two lines of the six-line Rig pa 'i khu byug.

77

nirval)a. 1 93 This portrayal clearly draws on earlier Sems sde formulations such as the Nam

mkha ' i rgyal po where sems nyid is heralded as the 'King of Space' because it liberates the

spiritual quintessence from saIpsara. 1 94 The Kun 'dus rig pa states that "this Mind as such

which is free from any foundation, abides primordially and is not created by anyone [or

anything] ; It is the Mind of the perfect dharmadhiitu that is invariant and spontaneously

present . , , 1 95 In sNying thig works , sems nyid is regarded as a near synonym of primordial

knowing (ye shes) and both are understood to be the expressive energy ( rtsal) of open

awareness . The Klong drug pa 'i rgyud variously describes Mind as such as ( 1 ) abiding

equally [in all phenomena] (mnyam par gnas pa 'i sems nyid) , (2) devoid of mental signs

(mtshan ma med pa), (3) ineffable (brjod du med pa) , (4) effortless (btsal du med pa) , (5)

undefiled (dri ma med pa), (6) nonconceptual (rtog pa med pa) , (7) devoid of

representational thought, (8) non-reflection (dran pa med pa), (9) devoid of conditioned

sensations (byung tshor med pa) , and ( 10) devoid of apprehended objects (gzung ba med

pa) . 1 96

In classical rNying rna exegesis, the difference between mind and Mind as such is

taken as a fundamental , if seldom explicated and frequently misunderstood, presupposition

of Buddhist soteriology. It is often emphasized by Klong chen pa and his successors to

193 In his Kun byed rgyal po 'grel (NyKs vol . 1 06 : 357 .6 f.), gZhan phan mtha' yas 'od zer explains: "If you directly understand this naturally occuring primordial knowing, Mind as such, the All-Creative Monarch, then you gain self­mastery over the everlasting domain of Samantabhadra, the dharmakaya. If you do not directly understand it, it is said that you do not find freedom no matter what eff0l1s you make by way of the paths of the lower vehicles." kun byed rgyal po sems nyid rang byung gi ye shes 'di nyid rang ngo shes na kun bzang chos sku 'i gtan srid la rang dbang 'byor bar 'gyur la de nyid ngo ma shes na theg pa 'og ma 'i lam gyis 'bad rtsol ji tsam byas kyang mi grol bar gsungs pa '0 1 1 194 Tk vol. 1 : 407.7 f.: sems nyid nam mkha ' chen po lal snying po 'khor ba las sgroI basi nam mkha 'i rgyal po yin par bya l l

195 Tk vol. 1 : 4 1 1 .2 f.: rtsa ba bral ba 'i sems nyid de l sus kyang ma byas ye nas gnasl mi 'gyur lhun gyis grub pa yil yang dag chos nyid dbyings kyi bIoi I 196 Ati vol . 2 : 1 53 .2 f. : mnyam par gnas pa'i sems nyid lal khyab gdal chen po'i yul snang basi gnyis med snang ba ye 'breI zhesl kun tu bzang po nga yis bstanl mtshan ma med pa'i sems nyid lal chos rnams grangs su snang ba nil rang grol gnyis med ces bya'ol kun tu bzang po nga yis bstanl bljod du med pa 'i sems nyid lal gling gzhi bral ba 'i tshig snang bal smra bsam yul las 'das pa zhesl kun tu bzang po nga yis bstanl btsal du med pa'i sems nyid lasl rang byung chen po rang snang bal rang byung ye shes chen po zhesl kun tu bzang po nga yis bstanl dri ma med pa 'i sems nyid lal yul rkyen bral ba'i snang ba nil rang dag chen po 'i dgongs pa zhesl kun tu bzang po nga yis bstanl rtog pa med pa'i sems nyid lal ma bzung 'gag med rang shar bal rang rig gsal ba 'i rang ngo shesl kun tu bzang po nga yis bstan bsam pa med pa'i sems nyid lal rang gnas lhun 'byams snang ba nil sgra bzhi rang log dgongs pa zhesl kun tu bzang po nga yis bstanl dran pa med pa'i sems nyid 'dil 'gyu byed rang dag snang ba nil 'dzin pa rang grol bsam gtan zhesl kun tu bzang po nga yis bstanl byung tshor med pa 'i sems nyid lal ma bsams lhag mthong snang ba nil 'gro 'ong zad pa 'i dgongs pa zhesl kun tu bzang po nga yis bstanl gzung ba med pa 'i sems nyid lal ma 'gags rig pa snang ba nil l rol pa chen po'i ting 'dzin zhesl l

78

highlight the continuity of rDzogs chen gnoseology with earlier mainstream sutric and

tantric strains of Buddhist thought . Here again, we come across many a creative attempt to

read this technical use of sems nyid back into Tibetan translations of Sanksrit passages

where no corresponding term occurs . A case in point is A�tasahasrikaprajfiaparamita 5b. 1 -2

which in the original reads tatha hi tac cittam acittaml prakrtis cittasya prabhasvara I : "That

Mind is not [dualistic] mind. Mind ' s nature is luminous . , , 197 The original context clearly

specifies that the expression "that Mind" (tac cittam/sems de) refers to bodhicitta . Klong

chen pa and his successors frequently quote this passage as scriptural support for the

sems/sems nyid distinction. In his Sems ye dris lan, Klong chen pa quotes this passage after

identifying 'Mind as such ' with luminous primordial knowing ( 'od gsal ba ' i ye shes) and

tathagatagarbha and then declaring that "it is when mind ceases or no longer functions that

Mind as such, luminous primordial knowing, shines forth as personally realized self-

awareness . , , 198

In his Theg mchog mdzod, Klong chen pa quotes the same passage after noting that

"even the exoteric texts make a distinction between mind and naturally pure Mind as such.

In these cases, 'mind' (sems) refers to sarp.saric phenomena that are conceptual fabrications .

' Mind as such ' (sems nyid) refers to nirval!ic phenomena that are free from discursive

elaborations . , , 1 99 One is hard pressed to find in the original Sanskrit passage a distinction

that is so explicit or far-reaching in its soteriological ramifications . What we detect in these

rDzogs chen interpretations of a well-known passage from classical Buddhist scripture, and

in many others like it, is the persistent attempt by rNying rna exegetes to invoke scriptural

support for what was in all likelihood a uniquely rDzogs chen distinction between sems and

sems nyid. At any event, the technical use of sems nyid as juxtaposed to sems allowed

rNying rna scholars to bring various traditional sutric and tantric discourses on absolute

197 See Schmithausen 1 977: 4 1 as lines E.b. l -2 . This passage occurs in the following context : "How does one learn? One should learn in such a way that one does not become superior-minded [conceited] even by this mind of awakening. Query: On what account? Reply: In this way: 'That mind is not mind. Mind's nature is luminous. ' " ci ltar bslabs na 'di byang chub kyi sems des kyang rlom sems su mi bgyid pa de ltar bslab par bgyi '0 1 de ci 'i slad du zhe nal 'di ltar sems de ni sems ma mchis pa stel sems kvi rang bzhin ni 'ad gsal ba lags sol (D no. 1 2 : 5 .3 ) . In interpreting the relevant passage (underlined), Klong chen pa is at pains to unequivocally distinguish the first use of sems (sems de or the less accurate translation sems la in the version he was working with) from the second, viz. to distinguish naturally luminous nondual sems nyid from dualistic sems.

198 Sems dang ye shes kyi dris Ian : 383 .4 f.. See under "Texts and Translations" : 265.

199 Theg mchog mdzod vol. 1 : 1 043.2 f.. See under "Texts and Translations" : 305.

79

bodhicitta , tathagatagarbha, citta [sya]prabhasvara[ta] (Mind ' s luminous nature) and jfiana

into line with rDzogs chen gnoseology .

If the mind/Mind as such distinction was considered an indispensable presupposition

of Buddhist soteriology, it was also thought to be largely unarticulated, misunderstood and

underappreciated by earlier Buddhist traditions . In his gZhi snang ye shes sgron ma, Klong

chen pa indicates why this sems nyid should in no circumstances be confused with sems2OO:

"Here, by speaking of 'Mind as such' (sems nyid) , we do not refer to mind (sems) but

instead to the very wellspring of open awareness (rig pa 'char gzhi) that is the vanishing

point of mind (sems kyi zad sa) . Some deluded fools who fail to distinguish between mind

and Mind as such say they are one and the same. This is a matter for laughter . , ,201

Perhaps the most nuanced available treatment of this sems/sems nyid distinction

occurs in the author ' s Theg mchog mdzod. In explicating the nature and classification of

mind, Klong chen pa makes a crucial distinction between pure and impure mind. Under the

first rubric , he makes a further distinction between pure Mind as such (sems nyid dag pa)

and pure mind (sems dag pa) . " 'Pure Mind as such ' refers to open awareness as it is

personally realized in onself (so so rang gi rig pa) ; it is the way things really are, the basic

nature that is empty of mind and mental factors and [their] grasping at entities as having

defining marks . , ,202 Pure mind, on the other hand, "refers to mind during the time of the path

[which includes] (a) factors such as meditative absorptions (samadhi) that are possible

causes (rgyur rung) of liberation unvitiated by concepts and (b) factors that are possible

causes of liberation such as conceptual forms of compassion and cultivating [bodhi]citta ., ,203

Here again we can discern the characteristic sNying thig reluctance to identify the workings

of mind, even its most virtuous applications , with Mind as such. At best, these can bring one

to the thereshold of unconditioned awareness , but not across it. Klong chen pa goes on to

200 More specific arguments are examined in chapter three below. 201 Bla ma yang tig vol . 2: 1 57.6 f. : 'dir sems nyid ces smos pas sems kyi zad sa rig pa 'char gzhi nyid la zer gyisl sems la mi zer rol blun po rmongs pa 'gasl sems dang sems nyid kyangl ma phyed par gcig tu smra ba ni gzhad bgad kyi gnas soi l 202 Theg mchog mdzod vol. I : 1 05 1 .2 f. : sems nyid dag pa nil sems sems byung dang dngos po mtshan mar 'dzin pas stong pa 'i chos nyid de bzhin nyid so so rang gi rig pa ste l l . . . 203 Theg mchog mdzod vol. 1 : 1 05 1 .4 f. : sems dag pa nil lam dus kyi sems rtog pas ma bslad thar pa 'i rgyur rung ting nge 'dzin pa dangl rtog bcas snying rje sems bskyed la sogs pa thar pa 'i rgyu rung rnams te l l . . .

80

explain that even in virtuous applications of mind conducive to liberation, "since one grasps

only a general idea [i .e. the object universal] (don spyi 'dzin pa) of the self-occuring

ultimate reality (rang byung gi don darn)204 and is consequently unable to perceive it as it

really is , they are subsumed under mind that is confined to the sphere of sarpsara." Finally,

under the rubric impure mind (serns rna dag pa) are subsumed the ego-mind (yid) and the

entire gamut of kleias and other mental factors drawn from Abhidharma inventories but

here reframed and reclassified within a gnoseological context. In the rDzogs chen account,

the reader is repeatedly reminded that the entire spectrum of obscuring mental and affective

activities unfolds from dualistic mind which is in turn an expression of open awareness , the

expressive energy of the ground 's spontaneity . zo5

The foregoing analysis of mind can be schematized as follows :

204 Here the rang byung gi in rang byung gi don dam could either be taken as nominative, viz. "ultimate Reality of the self-arisen [ones]" (as in the author's supporting quotation from RGV), or as adj ectival, viz. the self-arisen ultimate Reality". 205 Theg mchog mdzod vol . I : 1 052.5 f. : "Although the basic expanse is without any impurity, from the ground­manifestation during its movement away from [this expanse], it unceasingly manifests as anything whatsoever. [Dualistic] mind manifests from the play (rol pa) of ignorance, ego-mind from the display (rgyan) of mind, and afflictive emotions from ego-mind. In this context, 'play' (rol pa) does not refer to the inherent potential (nus pa) or expressive energy (rtsal) but simply the effulgence emanating from it like the manifestation of a sprout from a seed, or the image of one ' s face reflected in a mirror. 'Display' (rgyan) refers to what develops from this, the simple germinal factor as it individually manifests like flowers from a seed or the imprints from a seal. Thus as the Rig pa rang shar [Ati vol. 1 : 679.6] states :

Within the presence of authentic original purity, there is no ignorance, no mind, and no ego-mind. Nonetheless, from the expressive energy (rtsal) of spontaneity, ignorance comes about. From the play (rol pa) of ignorance comes mind. From the display (rgyan) of mind comes ego-mind. From the obj ects of ego­mind come the five emotional poisons. From the five emotional poisons come the sixteen afflictive emotions. From these sixteen come the twenty-five. From these come the fifty-one. And from these come the eighty-four thousand."

dbyings la ma dag pa med kyangl de las g.yos dus gzhi snang las go ma 'gags par gang yang shar te l ma rig pa 'i rol pa las semsl sems kyi rgyan las yidj yid las nyon mongs su shar ba '0 1 de yang rol pa ni nus pa 'am rtsal la ma zer ltar de las byung ba 'i gdangs tsam ste l sa bon las myu gu dangl byad kyi rnam pa las de 'i gzugs brnyan me long du shar ba bzhin nol rgyan ni de las smin sor shar ba 'bru 'i cha tsam ste sa bon las me tog dang rgya 'i 'bur bzhin nol de ltar yang rang shar lasl yang dag par" ka dag gi snang ba la ma rig pa medl sems medj yid med kyanl l lhun grub kyi rtsal lasci ma rig pa byungl ma rig pa 'i rol pa las sems byungl sems kyi rgyan las yid byungl yid kyi yul las dug lnga byungl dug lnga las nyon mongs pa bcu drug byungl bcu drug las nyi shu lngad byungl de las lnga bcu rtsa gcig byungl de las stong phrag brgyad cu rtsa bzhi" byung ngo zhes soi l aTb yang dag pa 'i bTb : yang dag pa 'i CAti, Tb la; Tk om. dAti, Tk nyi shu rtsa lnga; Tb nyi shu rtsa Ingar eAti, Tk, Tb omit rtsa bzhi but this adds up to a total of 80,000 kleSas instead ofthe standard 84,000.

8 1

. Typology

Pure mind (sems dag pa)

Impure mind (sems ma dag paJ

Table C: The rDzogs chen sNying thig Analysis of Mind from Klang chen pa ' s Theg mchog rin po che 'i mdzod

Classifi cation Major Cha racteristic Funct ion Pure Mind as such awareness as personally realized basic nature devoid of (sems nyid dagpa) in oneself (so so rang rig pa) mind and its reifications

mind during the path (lam kyi dus conceptual applications of Pure mind sems) - virtuous mind conducive mind (compassion etc .) (sems dag pa) to freedom but unable to realize

nonconceptual samiidhis self-occuring ultimate truth/reality

mind, ego-mind (yid), the play of ignorance (ma rig pa 'i basis of ego-mind (yid) emotions (nyon mongs) rol pa) - ' afflictive mind' and myriad emotions

Central to this analysis is the above-mentioned differentiation between pure mind

which comprises all applications of mind during the path, conceptual as well as

nonconceptual, and pure Mind as such, the realization of the basic nature, utterly devoid of

mind and mental factors with their reifying activities . It should be noted that 'purity ' (dag

pa) is here used in two quite different senses : applied to mind (sems) , it connotes a kind of

intentional attitude that is adopted as a motivational aim and ethical norm; applied to Mind

as such (sems nyid) , however, it can only refer to that involuntary, original purity (ka dag)

that is held to characterize Mind ' s abiding condition. In any case, the distinction has

important implications : while pure Mind as such is simply open awareness as it is personally

realized, mind in both its impure and impure modalities is an expression of ignorance that

ultimately has to be abandoned.

3 .2 rDzogs chen Interpretations of Rig pa and Rang rig

Rig pa is widely used in rDzogs chen texts as a technical term referring to the special

knowledge of an awakened one, though it is also commonly employed as a verb to denote

knowing, understanding or cognizing, in both generic and more elevated senses . 206 In the

earliest rDzogs chen sources, rig pa is sometimes used in conjunction with the all-important

206 The Mahiivyutpatti lists a number of Sanskrit terms that correspond to rig pa including vidyii (knowledge), vidviin (a knower, a learned one) , vid (knowing, a knower) vitti (consciousness, understanding, intelligence) vijfiii (wise, knowing, clever), [salJ7]vedana (perception, sensation, feeling) . The Tshig mdzod chen mo gives several meanings of rig pa that include seeing (mthong ba), understanding or knowledge (rtogs pa 'am shes pa), intellect (blo 'am shes pa), intelligence (blo gros) , sciences/fields of knowledge (bslab par bya ba 'i gzhij, and ' consciousness ' as variously explained in Buddhist doctrinal systems (chos lugs khag gis bshad pa 'i mam shes) .

82

concept of bodhicitta ( , awakened mind ' ) . Samten Karmay has noted the use of the

compound rig pa byang chub kyi sems or "awareness bodhicitta" in a Bon commentary on

the early Rig pa 'i khu byug.207 Sam Van Schaik has drawn attention to the occurrence of rig

pa byang chub kyi sems in various early Tibetan rDzogs chen and Mahayoga works

including the Dunhuang Mahayoga manuscript IOL Tib J 454 and has proposed that this

compound be considered as a source of the rDzogs chen term rig pa .208 This is not

conclusive, however, as one also finds other rDzogs chen gnoseological terms paired with

byang chub kyi sems in appositional compounds that include kun gzhi byang chub kyi sems

( ' awakened mind as ground of all , )209, rang rig byang chub kyi sems ( ' awakened mind as

self-awareness ' )2 1O , rang byung gi ye shes byang chub kyi sems ( , awakened mind as self­

occuring primordial knowing ' ) , and chos nyid byang chub kyi sems ( ' awakened mind as the

nature of Reality ' ) 2 1 l . More than anything else, such pairings testify to the centrality and

pervasiveness accorded to bodhicitta as a gnoseological concept in early rDzogs chen where

it is considered the fons et origo of all so-called enlightened cognitive and ethical qualities .

The central place of rig pa in rDzogs chen soteriology may have had more to do with its

superordinate status in relation to ignorance . It may be recalled that sNying thig sources

view the relationship between the antonyms rig palma rig pa not as one of simple opposition

(as in the Abhidharma tradition) but as one of assymetrical entailment whereby ignorance

represents a confined mode of awareness that derives but deviates from open awareness . In

early sources, this asymmetry is already conspicuous in the recurrent juxtaposition between

verbal uses of rig pa and ma rig pa in the context of distinguishing between buddhas who

recognize and sentient beings who do not recognize (rig/ma rig) the ever-present ground

(gzhi) or abiding condition (gnas lugs) . The use of rig pa as a verbal noun specifying the

' state ' of such recognition can be seen to follow naturally from this verbal use.

207 Karmay 1 988 : 44-5 . Note that the colophon to the Rig pa 'i khu byug often gives its title as Byang chub kyi sems rig pa 'i khu byug. See Bg vol. 5 : 306.3 , Tk vol. I : 4 1 9 .3 . 208 Van Schaik 2008 : 1 5 . 209 bSam gtan mig sgran : 2.2.

2 1 0 Byang chub sems rda rje 'ad 'phro ba 'i rgyud, Tk vol . 4 : 1 1 2 .3 f.: ' di ni rang rig byang chub semsl 'di zhes bstan du med pa 'al ci yang med las cir yang snangl rang byung snying pa mchag gi danl l 2 l l Thig !e kun gsa!, Tb vol. 1 3 : 434.3 .

83

In the sNying thig tradition, rig pa refers to ever-present awareness in its unrestricted

openness and undefiled purity . Its importance in this system is attested in an early and

influential text entitled Sangs rgyas kyi zhing du skad cig la grol bar byed pa ' i man ngag

attributed to Mafijusrlmitra ( 'Jam dpal bshes gnyen) that elucidates dGa' rab rdo rje ' s three

adamantine precepts (rdo rje ' i tshig gsum) : ( 1 ) directly recognizing one ' s nature, (2) clearly

ascertaining the single point, and (3) preserving the confidence of liberation. From its

opening invocation "Homage to the confidence born of realizing self-awareness",

Mafijusrlmitra ' s short commentary leaves no doubt that it is rig pa that one should directly

recognize, ascertain and preserve through these three precepts .2 12

Within the sNying thig context, the scope of open awareness IS said to be all­

embracing. Even Mind as such (sems nyid) and primordial knowing (ye shes) are regarded

as pure self-expressions of this rig pa - "rig pa and ye shes are comparable to gold and its

golden [hue] , ,2 13 - while ignorance and mind are its distorted self-expressions . On the one

hand, rig pa is identified with primordial buddhahood, the original ground ( thog ma ' i gzhi) ,

and with undefiled dharmakaya which "in its primal purity, is like the clear expanse of the

ocean which has never known the existence of defilement. , ,2 14 On the other hand, it is

radically distinguished from ignorance (ma rig pa), dualistic mind (sems), and the all-ground

(kun gzhi) with its myriad cognitive and affective processes, even if these latter are deemed

to be distorted aspects of its own self-effulgence (rang gdangs) .2 15 This open awareness is

compared to the awakened state one returns to when the sleep and dream states of ignorance

have ended.2 1 6 Thus , Klong chen pa maintains that "when open awareness is free from

2 1 2 This is confirmed in the introductory statement, Bi ma snying tig vol . 1 : 304.3 : " [Concerning] this open awareness of which nothing can be genuinely predicated, since its self-manifestation is unceasing in whatever ways it emerges, all that appears and exists dawns as the realm of dharmakaya. In this way, this very dawning [of open awareness] is free in itself.'· yin pa grub pa med pa 'i rig pa 'dil rang snang 'char tshul cir yang ma 'gags pasl snang srid kun kyang chos sku 'i zhing du shari shar ba de nyid [interlinear note: rig pa nyid] rang gi thog tu groll l 2 1 3 Zab mo yang tig vol. 2 : 2 1 5 . 3 : rigpa dangye shes ni gser dang de 'i ser po bzhin nol l 2 1 4 Theg mchog mdzod vol. 1 : 1 025.6 . See under "Texts and Translations" : 3 0 1 . 2 1 5 Theg mchog mdzod vol. 1 : 1 036.4. 216 Theg mchog mdzod vol. 1 : 1 026.6 f. : de 'ang rig pa dri ma med pa chos sku 'i ngo bo dus thams cad du ldog bya ma yin zhing mthar thug grol gzhir yod lal kun gzhi gnyid Ita bu 'khrul snang gi rmi lam thams cad 'char ba 'i rten du gyur pa las sangs par byed dgos pas khyad shin tu che ' 0 1 1

84

dualistic mind, since it is also, by implication, free from mind ' s distorted appearances, there

is no 'place to go ' apart from the unique state of buddhahood."217

If rDzogs chen texts generally portray rig pa as an ever-present mode of awareness

untouched by the ignorance that clouds ordinary perception, the sNying thig tradition

sharpens this distinction and takes it as a key point in its esoteric precepts . Indeed, the goal

of both the Breakthrough (khregs chad) and Leap-over (thad rgal) instructions is to directly

recognize open awareness which is possible only when one experiences the complete

dissolution (val ba) of dualistic mind, graphically compared to the collapse of a play fort

assembled by children or the breaking up of a ship at sea where none of the floating debris

can provide any support.2 1 8 As indicated previously, it is the aim of Breakthrough teachings

to introduce practitioners to open awareness in its empty, originally pure essence (ngo bo ka

dag stong pa), whereas the Leap-over teachings enable them to elicit open awareness in its

radiant, spontaneously present nature (rang bzhin lhun grub gsal ba) . In this connection, it is

important to remember that open awareness abides both as the natural condition of mind

(sems nyid) and as "embodied awareness" which makes its presence felt through the "vital

centres of one ' s lived body" (lus kyi gnad) , particularily the heart, head, eyes and

bioenergetic channels (rtsa) .2 1 9

2 1 7 Chos dbyings mdzod 'grel: 494 f .. See below 128-7 and n. 2 1 7 for text and full passage.

2 1 8 Theg mchog mdzod vol. 2 : 1 553 .2 f. : "Where mind does not exist, there is also no foundation [that survives its] destruction. For example, when a boat breaks up [at sea] , there is no support structure to hold on to in the water. For that reason, without understanding what the non-existence of mind [really] means, one seeks vision, meditation and conduct in mind but never discovers what has been shown to be liberation, bliss supreme. It is l ike groping in the water for a boat that has fallen to pieces. You are definitely deceived and fettered by this [tendency] to take the non­existence of mind as a foundation that exists." sems med pa la gzhig pa 'i gnas med pa nil dper na gru rdib pa 'i tshe chu la 'dzin pa 'i gnas med pa dang 'dra 'ol de 'i phyir na sems med pa 'i don ma shes pari Ita sgom spyod pa se ms la 'tshol ba nil bde chen thar pa 'i bstan pa rnyed dus med de gru rdib pas chu la 'jug pa Itarl sems med pa la yod par rten bcas pa de nyid kyis slu zhing 'cing bar nges soi l On the related teachings on the collapse of the playhouse mind (sems kyi khang bu gshigpa), see ibid. : 1 5 52.2 f and 1 554.3 f . 2 1 9 Using language and imagery reminiscent of third turning siitras, the Seng ge rtsal rdzogs (Ati I I : 308 .5 f) states : "Within the bodies of each and every sentient being, I Dwells the pure presence of primordial gnosis, I [Though] i t i s unable to shine forth t o its full extent. I For example, just as an [embryo ensconced] i n the sheath of a womb o r an egg I Becomes obscured and does not directly manifest, 1 But emerges once its inborn capacities are completely developed,1 So also, as soon as one casts off this [ordinary] conceptualization and embodiment, I One directly encounters the field of self-manifestation. I One will then see the non-conceptual essence, 1 Primordial ly present self­awareness itself (rang rig nyid). 1 One will [also] see the pure presence of primordial gnosis and I The reality that is buddhahood. I " sems can kun gyi rang Ius lal ye shes dag pa 'i snang ba gnasl rgya phye snang bar mi nus te l dper na mngal dang sgo nga 'i rgyal mngon du ma gyur sgrib 'gyur yangl rang rtsal rdzogs nas 'byung ba bzhinl rnam rtog Ius 'di bor ma thagl rang snang yul dang 'phrad par 'gyurl ye nas gnas pa 'i rang rig nyid] ngo bo rtog med mthong bar 'gyurl ye shes dag pa 'i snang ba dangl sangs rgyas bden pa mthong bar 'gyurl l In his Theg mchog

85

The term rang [gi] rig [pa] ("self-awareness") is also widely employed from the

earliest stratum of rDzogs chen literature onward with reference to naturally occuring

awareness .220 Rang rig is closely associated with various other gnoseological terms that

include rang byung ye shes ( ' self-occuring primordial knowing ' ) , rang byung rig pa ( ' self­

occuring awareness ' ) , so sor rang gi[s] rig pa ( 'personally realized self-awareness ' ) , so sor

rang [gi/s] rig pa ' i ye shes ( ,primordial knowing as personally realized ' ) and Mind ' s

luminosity ( 'od gsal) . Some of these associations call for closer attention. Rong zorn pa

equates [rang byung] ye shes with rang rig pa on the grounds that whenever any

consciousness manifests as subjective and objective aspects , it is itself given as a mere self­

awareness that is devoid of duality . Thus, he concludes , this self-awareness is called

primordial knowing because it is unmistaken regarding [its] object . 22 1 In some instances , this

mdzod (vol . 1 : 1 095 .4 f.) , Klong chen pa comments on this passage as follows : "In this context, [open awareness] manifests as spiritual embodiments (sku) in the heart, as modes of primordial knowing (ye shes) in the conch mansion [cranium] , as open awareness (rig pa) in the eyes (bhri gu ta), and the spiritual lights ( 'od) and spheres of the manifest expanse (dbyings snang) in the four energy channels (rtsa ba) ." de yang snying na sku/ dung khang na ye shes/ bhri gu ta na rig pal rtsa bzhin dbyings snang gi 'od dang thig Ie 'char ba yin noll 220 The gnoseological concept of rang rig is ubiquitous the rNying rna tantras. The following are but a few examples : Ye shes gsang ba 'i rgyud, Tk. vol . 4: 79.3 f: kun 'dus ye shes dag pa 'i 'oaj mthon dman rlom sems che chung meaj bdag gzhan gnyis med rang rig lal 'dzin pa kun bral 'od gsal dagl dbyer med nam mkha ' Ita bur khyab l ; ibid. vol . 4: 80 .3 : rang gsal ye nas ma bcos pal don de shes pas ye shes yinl chos nyid ka dag 'od gsal semsl don de shes pas ye shes yin I ma bkad rang rig rgyu med gsall rang byung ye shes 'gyur med semsl ; Byang chub sems rdo rje 'od 'phro ba 'i rgyud, Tk. vol. 4: 1 1 2 .3 f. : 'di ni rang rig byang chub semsl 'di zhes bstan du med pa '0 1 ci yang med las cir yang snangl rang byung snying po mchog gi doni ; Thig Ie kun gsal chen po 'i rgyud, Tk vol. 5: l 3 8 .4 : rang gis rang rig pa las rig pa 'i ye shes ye shes sol

In the six lamps attributed to dPal dbyangs (8th c.), rang rig occurs nineteen times and is described variously as being devoid of obj ect and thus devoid of apprehending subject (yul med de la 'dzin med), as totally pure (rnam par dag), inexpressible by thought (bsam brjod med), aspectless (rnam pa med), conceptless (rtog med), luminosity ( 'od gsal ba), free from limitations (mtha ' bra!), as accomplishing all aspirations (smon pa kun rdzogs) and, finally, as the Lord of all goals ( 'bras bu kun bdag) because there is in reality nothing to be attained. In short, rang rig is an endogenous, naturally lucid mode of awareness that is devoid of object and subj ect, unmodified by reflection and thematization yet replete with all capacities for the spiritual fulfilment of oneself and others. 221 Rang byung ye shes chen po 'bras bu rol pa 'i dkyil 'khor du blta ba 'i yi ge , in Rong zom bka 'bum : 559 .3 f. : de bas na shes pa gang la gzung ba dang 'dzin pa 'i rnam par snang ba de 'i tshe nyid na gnyis pos stong pa 'i rang rig pa tsam nyid yin par grub pa '0 1 rang rig pa de nyid ye shes zhes bya ste l don la phyin ci log pa med pa 'i phyir rol l Elsewhere Rong zorn pa establishes the equivalence of self-awareness and self-occuring primordial knowing on the grounds that that mind ' s luminous, nondual character means in effect that it lacks not only any obj ective correlates but any cognitive qualities (shes rig gyi chos) as well . See rGyud rgyal gSang ba snying po dkon cog 'gre!, in Rong zom gsung 'bum, vol. \ : 1 74. 1 4 f.: "Since mind and primordial knowing are both primordially devoid of apprehended [object] and apprehending [subject] , their characteristic feature is that they are independent of other [entities] . Even the mere self-awareness (rang rig tsam) is in itself devoid of cognitive qualities (shes rig gi chos) . Given that it is thus primordially luminous, it is called ' self-occuring primordial knowing' . sems dang ye shes kyang gdod ma nas gzung ba dang 'dzin pas mtshan ma de yang gzhan laa bltos pa med lal rang rig pa tsam de nyid kyang shes rig chos kyi stong pas gdod ma nas 'od gsal ba 'i phyir rang byung gi ye shes zhes bya ste l atext has las, corrected on basis of critical edition in Almogi 2009: 3 89 .

86

self-awareness is also identified with primordial buddhahood222 or buddha nature, as when

gNubs chen in his dGongs 'dus pa 'i mdo commentary equates rang rig [pa ' iJ byang chub

[kyi] sems ( ' awakened mind as it is realized oneself' ) with the early rDzogs chen term for

buddha nature byang chub snying po (*bodhigarbha)223 , a term we will be looking at more

closely in chapter four .

The occurrence of rang rig within the compound so sor rang rig pa ' i ye shes has

been noted by Paul Williams224 and taken as evidence of a distinctive rDzogs chen

interpretation of rang rig. More specifically, Williams takes so sor rang rig pa ' i ye shes

tsam, as it occurs in a commentary on Bodhicaryiivatiira 9 .35 by the rNying rna scholar Mi

pham 'Jam dbyangs mam rgyal rgya mtsho ( 1 846- 19 12) , to be a rDzogs chen technical term

which he renders as "mere reflexive gnosis" (and for which he provides as the Sanskrit

equivalent the problematic compound pratisvasaf!lvedanajfiiinamiitra) . This reading prompts

Williams to draw connections between rDzogs chen and Yogacara conceptions of self­

awareness . However, Matthew Kapstein has noted significant problems with this

interpretation.225 The first is that the technical term in question should not include tsam as an

element of the compound with the adjectival sense 'mere ' ; rather tsam is used there as an

adverbial particle of limitation or exclusion (tsam gyis) that comes after the compound and

has the sense of 'merely ' . The more serious problem, however, is that so sor rang rig pa 'i ye

shes (Skt . pratisvasaf!lvedanajfiiina) is not a rDzogs chen term at all. Rather, as Kapstein

demonstrates with ample textual support, it is an expression that in its Indic equivalents has

been in currency from the time of the Pali Canon onwards226 and has been widely accepted

and employed by Indian and Tibetan Buddhist scholars of virtually all traditions ever since.

222 In his Chos dbying mdzod 'gre! (473 .2), for example, Klong chen pa states that " the three kiiyas together with their buddha-fields are shown to be the unique state of self-awareness." sku gsum zhing khams dang beas pa yang rang rig geig pur bstan pal

223 Mun pa 'i go eha vol. 2, ch. 55 : 50 .6 .

224 Williams 1 998 : xi. See also Karmay 1 988 : 1 07 n. 4.

225 See Kapstein 2000.

226 See for example Kapstein 2000 0 1 2 f.) where the following passage from Majjhimanikiiya I 265 (PTS ed.) is quoted: upanftii kho me tumhe bhikkhave iminii sanditthikena dhammena akiilikenal ehipassikena opanayikena paeeattal!l editabbena vii'iiluhil l "Monks ! you have been guided by me by means of this visibly true dhamma, that is timeless, ostensible, conducive [to the goal], and to be personally realized by the wise ." (I have s lightly altered Kapstein ' s translation for the sake of consistency). Here, paecattal!l veditabba is equivalent to the Sanskrit pratyiimaveditavya (0 -vedanfya) and to Tibetan so sor rang gis rig par bya ba.

87

The compound can be rendered as 'primordial knowing as it is personally realized ' where

the so sor rang rig pa 'i-o (Skt. pratyiitmavid-O) element of the compound is not intended

adjectivally or nominatively but rather as a adverb-verb combination that qualifies the

abstract noun ye shes. It expresses the rather old idea that the desired soteriological

condition (in this case, jfiiina but elsewhere the paramiirthasatya, the parini�panna227 etc .)

must be 'personally experienced ' to be fully understood. 228 In other words , primordial

knowing is a matter of direct acquaintance and not discoverable in any other fashion. Thus

when the vyiikhyii on Ratnagotravibhiiga 1 .7 characterizes "self-awareness" using the term

so so rang gis rig par bya ba (pratyiitmavedanfya), it is specifying a mode of awareness that

must be personally realized to be known.229

This brings us to the delicate question of how these rDzogs chen gnoseological

conceptions of rang rig relate to the Mahayana theories of self-awareness (sva-salflvitti, 0_

salflvid, o-salflvedana, iitma-0) that were associated in particular with Y ogacara episemology

but widely discussed and debated amongst other Buddhist and non-Buddhist systems as

well . Common to these theories is the idea that all conscious experience has a reflexive

nature - in its awareness of objects, consciousness is simultaneously aware of itself. When

one perceives something blue, one is at the same time aware one is perceiving something

blue . The idea of self-awareness is first introduced into Indian logico-epistemological

discourses by Dignaga (480-540)230 as a defining characteristic of all mental states .

According to his famous successor Dharmaklrti, mind and all epistemic and affective mental

factors accompanying it possess this self-awareness .23!

227 It occurs a few times in Bhaviveka's Tarkajviilii, as for example its explanation of Madhyamakahrdayakiirikii V.5 where a Yogacara opponent takes the perfectly established nature (parini$pannasvabhiiva) to be an obj ect of personal realization (pratyiitmavid) in contrast to the imagined nature (parikalpitasvabhiiva) which is an object of worldly knowledge. See Hooernert 1 999: 1 54. 228 We can consider, for example, Candraklrti ' s characterization of ultimate truth as the nature of things (svabhiiva) that is to be known by each individual personally: "The ultimate reality of the buddhas is the nature of things (svabhiiva) itself. Because it is, moreover, non-deceptive, it is the truth of ultimate reality (paramiirthasatya). It is to be known by each one personally." (don dam pa 'i bden pa). sangs rgyas rnams kyi don dam pa ni rang bzhin nyid yin zhing I de yang bslu ba med pa nyid kyis don dam pa 'i bden pa yin fa I de ni de rnams kyi so sor rang gis rig par bya ba yin no. MAvBh 1 0 8 : 1 6-19 . 229 See Mathes 2008: 542 and n. 1 83 8 . 230 On Dignaga' s theory of self-awareness, see Kellner 20 10 . 23 ! Nyiiyabindhutlka 1 . 1 0 : sarvacittacaittiiniim iitmasal'!zvedanaml See Kellner 20 1 0 : 204. Dharmaklrti further states that " if [cognition] were [itself] not perceived, the perception of [its] object would not be established." PVin I k. 5 5 :

88

In The Reflexive Nature of Awareness , Williams has shown that the idea of self­

awareness has been widespread in South Asian thought but also subject to varying

interpretations .232 Following a distinction made by the dGe lugs pa scholar Thub bstan chos

kyi grags pa ( 1 823- 1905) in his outline of the ninth chapter of Santideva ' s (ca. 650-700)

Bodhicaryavatara, Williams distinguishes two basic kinds of self-awareness .233 These can

be broadly distinguished as transitive (taking an object) and intransitive (not object­

oriented) : ( 1 ) The transitive type that Williams traces to Dignaga refers to a reflexivity or

self-awareness that is held to accompany any intentional cognitive act : perceiving and

knowing that one is perceiving always go together . This idea of self-awareness formed a

cornerstone of Y ogacara epistemology wherein attempts were made to verify its existence

by means of memory arguments , e.g. I not only can remember an object because I

previously perceived it sensorily, but I can remember perceiving that object because the

earlier sensory perception was also self-aware . Self-awareness was also used to justify

idealism, when it was further maintained that awareness has access only to itself (i .e . is

confined to its own representations) . To put things in the usual Yogacara terms, self­

awareness consists in the mind' s subjective aspe"ct (grahakakara) being aware of the mind' s

own objective aspect (grahyakara) . (2) The intransitive type of self-awareness, often

qualified as auto-illumination (rang rig rang gsal) and identified with mind ' s luminosity

(cittaprabhasvarata) , is taken to be the defining characteristic of all consciousness such that

its presence or absence is what distinguishes the sentient from the insentient (jatja) .234

Humans have this clear and knowing cognition, rocks and furniture do not. This conception

dmigs pa mngon sum ma yin nal don mthong rab tu 'grub mi 'gyurl l See Skt. edition of TattvasalJ1grahapafijika by E. Krishnamacharya p. 40 1 , 4: apratyaksopalambhasya narthadrsti/:l prasidhyatil See Vetter 1 966 : 96, n. 2. For the Buddhist philosopher, the reason why the perception of obj ects is deemed to depend on self-cognition is that cognition that does not understand the qualifier (visesafla) cannot understand qualified things (visesya). In other words, in the cognition of an object, the object is the qualified thing and the state of being cognized is the qualifier. Now, if the state of being cognized (the qualifier) were not known by cognition, then the object (the qualified thing) could not be known either. Obj ects presuppose awareness. See Tarkabhasa of Mok�akaragupta: 1 7, 8 - 1 1 , as cited in Keira 2004: 39 n. 75 .

232 See Williams 1 998 .

233 Williams 1 998 : 4 . Kellner (20 1 0 : 205) characterizes these as intentional and non-intentional respectively. On these two types of self-awareness, See also Yao 2005 .

234 Santarak�ita MadhyamakalalJ1kara 1 6 (=TattvasalJ1graha k . 2000) in Ichigo 1985 : 70 f. : vijfianalJ1 jarJarupebhyo vyavrttam upajiiyate I iyam evatmasalJ1vittir asya ya 'jarJarupata I I Tib. rnam shes bem po 'i rang bzhin lasl bzlog pa rab tu skye ba stel bems min rang bzhin gang yin pal de 'di 'i bdag nyid shes pa yin l l " Consciousness arises as something opposed to the nature of insentient matter. Its [own] nature is its immateriality."

89

of svasalflvedana appears to have been introduced into Buddhist philosophy by Santarak�ita

who accepted it as a self-evident hallmark of consciousness and therefore as conventionally

existent . He characterizes it as a fundamental nondual intransitive mode of consciousness -

i .e . devoid of the act-object structure of intentional awareness - that makes the intentional

types of object-awareness and self-awareness possible. Because this self-awareness is the

mark of sentience and diametrically opposed to materiality, Santarak�ita will further argue

(MAK 1 7) that cognition is able to know itself, given awareness and its self-knowledge are

of the same (immaterial) nature, but unable to know objects which are of a fundamentally

different nature . As a consequence, cognition is confined to its own representations (akara),

with no way of making contact with the external world. In this way, the intransitive type of

self-awareness is , like the transitive type, employed as a justification for a representational

form of subjective idealism, using arguments that presuppose a quasi-Cartesian dualism

between the nature of matter (held not to exist) and that of mind (which alone exists) . 235

The question at issue here is what, if anything, these two theories of self-awareness

have to do with the gnoseological ideas of self-awareness that are presented in rDzogs chen

texts from early on . Paul Williams has examined attempts by the late rNying rna scholar Mi

pham ( 1 846- 1 9 1 2) to defend the conventional existence of the intransitive type of self­

awareness and to argue that this is implicitly endorsed by *Prasangika-Madhyamaka thinkers

like Candrakirti and Santideva who had only explicitly argued for its ultimate non-existence .

(Of course, one could respond to this defence by simply pointing out that not arguing for the

conventional non-existence of intransitive self-awareness in no way entails an endorsement

of its conventional existence.) In any case, Mi pham takes as his main opponents in this

debate dGe lugs pa successors of Tsong kha pa who claimed to concur with the *Prasangika

in denying consciousness any reflexivity, either conventional or ultimate . This debate has

been discussed at some length in Williams 1 998 and Garfield 2006 and need not be reprised

here . What is important to stress here is that Mi pham ' s attempt to defend a Mahayana

version of rang rig has no precedent in rNying rna philosophy from the eighth to fourteenth

centuries . In fact, Klong chen pa rejects Y ogacara theories of self-awareness in toto in his

treatments of philosophical systems in the Grub mtha ' mdzod and Yid bzhin mdzod 'grel.

23 5 For an interesting critique of this proto-Cartesian representational from a dGe lugs pa *Prasangika-Madhyamaka standpoint, see Garfield 2006 .

90

Looking at the former work, the author dismisses as incoherent the claims held both by

Sakaravadins/Satyakaravadins (who hold representions to be veridical) and Nikaravadins/

Alikakaravadins (who hold representations to be false) that the cognition devoid of subject

and object (gzung 'dzin gnyis su med pa ' i shes pa) ultimately exists as something real . For

Klong chen pa, the implied duality of cognizer and cognized in the view that cognition takes

itself as its own object fundamentally contradicts the supposition that there is at one time

one (non-dual) cognition. It is as impossible for cognition to know itself by itself as it is for

a sword to cut, or even touch, itself. 236 Klong chen pa here rejects what in contemporary

philosophy of mind is known as a higher order theory of consciousness . On this account,

what makes a mental state (intransitively) conscious is the fact that it is taken as an object by

a higher order (transitive) state .237 According to Klong chen pa, this account presupposes an

immanent subject-object duality within what is alleged to be a nondual state of awareness .

The way i s thus open to a vicious infinite regress whereby the cognition cognizing itself

requires yet another cognition to itself be conscious and so on ad infinitum. The author also

proceeds to reject alternative theories that hold self-awareness to consist in a past cognition

being known by a present one,238 or to consist in awareness simply knowing itself.239 There

is nothing particularly new in the theories he tables or his refutations of them but I note

them here simply as evidence of Klong chen pa ' s blanket rejection of the Yogacara

svasaYflvedana . Of course, the main target of his sweeping critique, as he makes clear in his

Yid bzhin mdzod 'grel, is the Y ogacara proclivity to treat consciousness as a real entity with

real characteristics and to presuppose it in justifications of idealism: "It is eminently

reasonable to claim that any objects that appear are unreal, but we refute the claim that mind

is ultimately real . , ,240 Klong chen pa is also patently opposed to allowing self-awareness a

conventional existence so that it can then be used to buttress representational epistemologies

236 Grub mtha ' mdzod: 772.2 £: de ltar rnam pa dang bcas pa dangl rnam pa med pa gnyis kas gzung 'dzin su med pa 'i shes pa don dam par bden pa dangl rdzun par yod par khas blangs pa de yang rigs pa ma yin te 'di ltarl blo rdzas gcig dus gcig la rig bya dang rig byed gnyis rdzas 'gal ba 'i phyirl rang gis rang rig pa 'ang mi srid del ral gris rang gi rtse mo gcod pa 'am reg par mi nus pa bzhin nol l

237 Zahavi 2005 : 1 7 £ . See also Kellner 20 1 0. 238 Grub mtha ' mdzod: 773 . l : 'das pa 'i shes pa da ltar bas rigpa 'i phyir rang rigpa 'o . . . 239 Grub mtha ' mdzod: 773 .3 : rang nyid rig par skyes pas rang rig pa yin no . . .

240 Yid bzhin mdzod 'grel: 1 1 1 1 .5 f. : don snang ci yang mi bden pa nyid shin tu 'thad mod kyis l sems don dam du 'dod pa dgag pa la . . .

9 1

that assume we can only know external objects (if indeed such are held to exist) through our

internal representations of them. Interestingly, his thoroughgoing rejection of Y ogacara

epistemology and his wholehearted endorsement of the *PrasaIigika stratagems · for

undermining any and all forms of realism (from substance ontologies to subjective idealism)

make his stance on svasaf!lvedana appear, for all intents and purposes , quite similar to the

dGe lugs pa position that Mi pham was criticizing.

What, then, are we left with when it comes to the rDzogs chen self-awareness? It

must be acknowledged that the rDzogs chen conception of rang rig does concur with some

elements of Santarak�ita' s self-awareness , particularily its nondual and luminous character.

This we have already seen in Rong zorn pa's above-mentioned identification of intransitive

rang rig pa with the Sems sde conception of rang byung ye shes . We can also draw attention

to the following characterization of rang rig in a text attributed to Vimalamitra from the Bi

rna snying thig:

In essence, the term self-awareness (rang rig) means awareness of itself (rang gi rig pa) . Why is it termed ' awareness ' ? 'Awareness ' means alert wakefulness ; it is endowed with the acuity of cognition . Why the [reflexive particle] rang? The point is that although this awareness that shows [itself] in the sky is vividly present, it lacks any subjective or objective parts . In manifesting, it is self-manifesting, in arising, it is self-arising, in abiding, it is self-abiding, in seeing it is self-seeing, in being free it is free in its own [ontological] freedom. By moving it has acuity and subtlety and by appearing it is aware . Since it is clear and knowing it is ' awareness ' . 24 1

However, notwithstanding certain obvious affinities between this rDzogs chen rang rig and

the intransitive type of svasaf!lvedana, Vimalamitra elsewhere maintains that the rDzogs

chen self-awareness transcends dualistic mind: "This term rang rig pa ' i ye shes refers to

what is free from mind (serns), ego-mind (yid) and representational thinking (bsarn pa) ., ,242

Although its essence is difficult to grasp, he continues, its nature is free-flowing (dal chags

pa) . On this understanding, mind (citta) is not to be reified but transcended. Thus, the key to

241 Bi rna snying tig vol. 1 : 420 . 1 f. : nga ba rang rig pa 'a zhes bya ni rang gi rig pa 'al rig pa zhes bya ba de rang gang lags I rig pa ni shes pa 'i sgrin paa dang bcas pa ste rig ge seng nge 'al de rang gang lagsl dan ni narn rnkha ' la bstan pa 'i rig pa de hrig hrig du 'dug kyangl gzung cha dang 'dzin cha rned de snang bar rang snangl shar ba rang shari gnas pa rang gnasl rnthang ba rang rnthangl gral ba rang gral du gral ba yin nai l 'gyu bas sgrin pa phra zhing snang bas rig pa 'al rig cing gsal bas rig pa 'a l atext: sgrib pa corrected on basis of Bi rna snying tig vol. 2 : 224.4: shes pa sgrin pa dang bcas pa rig ge sing nge ba gting nas hrig chags pa nyarns sing bag dang bcas pal l 242 Bi rna snying tig vol. 2: 224.3 f. : . . . rang rig pa'i ye shes zhes bya ba 'di nil serns dang yid bsarn pa las gral bal l

92

understanding the difference between the rDzogs chen and Y ogacara conceptions of rang

rig comes back to the imperative to properly distinguish between mind and primordial

knowing, so as to not confuse prereflective-nonthematic awareness from the reflections and

thematizations that derive from it.

If the provenance of the rDzogs chen rang rig and the extent and specifics of its

indebtedness to Yogacara conceptions of self-cognition (svasaf!1vedana) remain far from

transparent, there is plenty of evidence to suggest that rDzogs chen scholars were inclined

from early on to distinguish their own understanding of self-awareness from Y ogacara and

Mahayoga interpretations .243 The Yogacara idea of svasaf!1vedana is explicitly criticized in a

Rig pa 'i khu byug commentary from the Bai ro rgyud 'bum as a fruitless state associated

with nonconceptual meditation. The commentary states that "Followers of Cittamatra

meditate on suchness consisting III the felt experience of luminous self-awareness

(svasaf!1vedana ), ,244 and proceeds to include this among the flaws of nonconceptual

meditation (along with those practiced by pratyekabuddhas and Madhyamikas) that leave

their practitioners submerged in the darkness of 'no thought ' wherein lucidity is blocked and

primordial knowing does not dawn. 245

Classical rNying rna pas were even more resolute in denying any connection between

rDzogs chen and Yogacara-Cittamatra conception of rang rig. Klong chen pa contends that

"although the open awareness that realizes the non-existence of subject and object is

conventionally designated as "self-occuring primordial knowing" (rang byung ye shes) , it is

not held to be similar to the Yogacara-Cittamatra conception of "self-luminous self-

243 A close analysis of rDzogs chen terms having apparent YogacaraiCittamatra affiliations (gzhi, kun gzhi, rang rig, gnas 'gyur) reveals an attempt to reinterpret them in line with the disclosive paradigm of rDzogs chen gnoseology. It is important to recognize that terms such as rang rig and kun gzhi had already undergone significant reconceptualization in the Mahayoga assimilations of Yogacara psychology, and that such developments certainly exerted a formative influence on early rDzogs chen. Thus a measure of hermeneutical vigilance is required when considering the same term in shifting frameworks of Buddhist discourse: one must remain be alert to the role immanent criticism and semantic transformation (and even inversion) may have played in reinterpreting its original sense(s) and reframing its original context(s) .

244 Khu byug gi lta ba spyadpa 'i 'khar 10, Bg vol. 5 : 349.2 f. : sems tsam rang rig pa gsal ba nyams su myang ba 'iji bzhin pa la bsgaml l

245 Khu byug gi Ita ba spyad pa 'i 'khar la, Bg vol . 5 : 349 .5 f : rang rgyal sems tsam dbu ma gsuml mi rtag pa sgam pas skyan yin te l mi rtag pa 'i mun thim pa dangl snang ba 'geg pa dangl ye shes mi skye ba dangl skye ba 'i rgyu 'bras log pa 'al l

93

cognition" (rang rig rang gsal) ., ,246 He goes on to point out that self-occuring primordial

knowing lacks most of the qualities associated with the Yogacara svasaf!1vedana - its

alleged reality, internality, reflexivity, self-evidence, and accessibility to introspection - but

then cautions that "should one become attached to these [rDzogs chen gnoseological] terms

as denoting something real, you won 't find any difference from the Cittamatra conception of

svasaf!1vedana, that is , the cognition which is devoid of subject-object duality and which is

simply auto-illumination. , ,247 In highlighting the many drawbacks of reifying the mental ,

Klong chen pa rules out any basis for confusing the gnoseological and mentalist conceptions

of self-awareness : for the idealist, self-awareness is a real entity having real characteristics ,

whereas for the rDzogs chen pa, i t i s simply a vivid auto-manifestation, a process lacking

any reality whatsoever .

Let us conclude this rather lengthy excursus on self-awareness by noting that gNubs

chen Sangs rgyas ye shes (b . 844) had already identified rang rig as a key concept in the

Mahayoga tradition which maintained that all phenomena are simply this lucid self­

awareness .248 gNubs chen observes that suchness (de bzhin nyid) in the Mantra[yana] is

246 Chos dbyings mdzod 'gre!: 32 1 . 1 f. : gang !a gzung ba dang 'dzin pa med par rtogs pa 'i rig pa de 'i ngo bo !a ni rang byung gi ye shes su tha snyad btags kyangl rang rig rang gsa! !o zhes rna! 'byor sems tsam pa !tar mi 'dod del

247 The full passage from Chos dbyings mdzod 'gre! (32 l . l f.) reads : "Since it [rang byung ye shes] is devoid of outer and inner, it is not found as some ' inner mind' (nang gi sems). Since it is devoid of self and other, it is not found as some exclusive ' self-cognition' (rang gi rig pa) . Since it has never known the existence of subject and obj ect, it is [also] not found as something separate from these. Since it is devoid of any obj ect of feeling or cognition, it is not found as some 'nondual experience' (myong ba gnyis med). Since it is devoid of mind and mental factors, it is not found as ' one ' s own mind' (rang gi sems) . And since it is devoid of lucency and non-lucency, it is not found as something ' self-lucent' (rang rig). That which is nothing that could be labeled as "consciousness only" (rig pa tsam) since it transcends both awareness and ignorance (rig ma rig) is what we call the supreme complete perfection that is free from limitations. Although we may describe [this mode of awareness] as "self-occuring primordial knowing," "awakened mind," "dharmakiiya," "great spontaneously present basic expanse," and "naked self-lucid open awareness" when using the convention of ostensive definitions, one should understand that apart fi'om merely designating it in order to facilitate a knowledge of [what the] terms [mean] , it is in itself supremely indescribable. Otherwise, should one become attached to these terms as denoting something real, you won't find any difference fi'om the Cittamatra conception of svasmrlvedana, that is, the cognition which is devoid of subj ect-obj ect duality and which is simply auto-illumination." phyi nang med pas nang gi sems su ma grub pa dangl rang gzhan med pas rang gi rig pa kho nar ma grub pa dangl gzung 'dzin yod ma myong bas de nyid dang bra! bar ma grub pa dangl tshor rig gi yu! na med pas myong ba gnyis med du ma grub pa dangl sems dang sems byung med pas rang gi sems su ma grub pa dangl gsa! mi gsa! du med pas rang gsa! du ma grub pa 'i phyir rol rig ma rig las 'das pas rig pa tsam du 'ang gdags su med pa 'di nil mtha ' bra! yongs su rdzogs ap chen po zhes bya ste l mtshon tshig gi tha snyad rang byung gi ye shes dangl byang chub kyi sems dangl chos sku dangl dbyings lhun grub chen po dangl rig pa rang gsal rjen pa zhes brjod kyangl brda shes pa 'i phyir btags pa tsam las rang ngo brjod med chen por rtogs par bya '0 1 de ftar ma yin par ming fa don du zhen na sems tsam pa 'i rang rig rang gsal gzung 'dzin gnyis med kyi shes pa dang khyad par mi rnyed dol l

248 A still unidentified supporting quotation fi'om a text cited simply as sGyu 'phru! drwa ba (Miiyiijiila) contains the term gzung 'dzin bra! ba 'i rang rig. A similar interpretation is is found in MaitrTpa's Tattvadasaka, verse 5 where it

94

characterized as the all-pervasive luminosity of nondual self-cognition (rang rig gnyis med

kun tu 'od gsal ba) . This he contrasts with final or consummate suchness (de bzhin nyid

mthar thug) in rDzogs chen that is spontaneously perfected (lhun rdzogs) .249 This difference

aside, gNubs chen does not hesitate to adopt the concept of rang rig in the context of

introducing the meaning and scope of rDzogs chen. The goal (don) of spontaneous

perfection (lhun rdzogs) that is considered the essence of rDzogs chen is said to be "directly

realized in one ' s self-awareness (rang rig pa 'i mngon sum) ." It is not, however, something

that can be intellectually posited and confounds all evaluation by introspective

discriminating insight (rang gi so sor rtog pa 'i shes rab) . Why is this? "Because the entire

range of commonly accepted phenomena have since time immemorial been of the nature of

buddhahood within the immensity of the great sphere of self-occuring primordial knowing,

having never shed their coats or changed their colours . , ,25o Here gNubs chen advances a

rDzogs chen interpretation of rang rig, a technical term that he had just identified as a key

concept of the Mahayoga tradition. All this goes to show how little is yet known about the

assimilation and transformation of Y ogacara ideas within Tibetan Mahayoga and rDzogs

chen traditions .

3 . 3 rDzogs chen Interpretations of Ye shes

Of the three principle rDzogs chen gnoseological terms, ye shes is both the most

ubiquitous and semantically polyvalent. This is due in part to the long and complex

conceptual genealogies and classifications of the term jfiana (2-fold through 6-fold) that had

developed within the Indian Mahayana and Mantrayana systems to which Tibetans were

heir . But the pervasiveness and polysemy of ye shes in rDzogs chen also reflect the

is maintained that phenomena [are experienced as] being luminous through the samiidhi of realizing reality as it is (yathiibhutasamiidhi). Sahajavajra in his commentary explains that " luminous" here refers to "self-awareness" in view of its being naturally free from defilements. ( 'od gsal zhes bya ba ni rang bzhin gyisa dri ma spangs pas rang rig pa ste l atext has gyi) . See Mathes 2006 : 2 1 0, 2 1 5 . I thank the author for drawing my attention to this reference. 249 See bSam gtan mig sgron : 49 1.3 .

250 I here paraphrase bSam gtan mig sgron 29 1 .2 f. : de Ita bu 'i theg pa thams cad kyi yang mdzod spyi mes chen po 'di 'i ngo bo lhun gyis gruba pab 'i ngang nyid kyi doni rang rig pa 'i mngon sum khong du chud nas blo bzhag par bya yang med pa 'i don chen po rang gi rig pa la gsal bar bya ba yangl ji ltar shes par bya zhe nal shin tu rnal 'byor gyi theg pa 'di lal rgyud lung man ngag gi gzhung ltarl dang po gzhal bya 'i chos gcig lal rang gi so sor rtogC pa 'i shes rab kyis gzhal bar byar yang med pa ste l de ci 'i phyir zhe nal chos so cog tu grags pa thams cad] ye gdod ma nyid nas spu ma brjer:! mdog ma bsgyur bar rang byung gi ye shes thig Ie chen po 'i klong du sangs rgyas ba 'i rang bzhin lal l . . . aaddit. btext: ba Ctext: rtogs d text: brjes A similar but more extensive summary of Atiyoga is given in the author's Mun pa 'i go cha vol. 1 (NyKs vol. 93) : 5 1 1 .4 .

95

profusion of autochthonous interpretations of this term that are one hallmark of this

tradition . The term ye shes itself has presented something of an enigma to contemporary

scholars of Tibetan Buddhism since the prefix ye has no obvious equivalent in the Sanskrit

jfiiina which it renders . In her meticulous research on the term ye shes and possible reasons

for use of the element ye in it, Oma Almogi has made a number of important observations of

which the following can be summarized here25 l : ( 1 ) The term jfiiina has been rendered into

Tibetan as shes pa, mkhyen pa and ye shes according to context. 252 Of these, shes pa is a

generic term for knowledge, while its honorific form mkhyen pa and the more technical

abstract noun ye shes are both used with reference to the special knowledge of a realized

being. (2) ye shes is traditionally explained as (A) primordially existing knowedge (ye nas

gnas pa ' i shes pa) , i .e . the awareness of emptiness and radiance that is naturally present in

the mental continuum of all sentient beings, and (B) the knowledge possessed by Noble

Ones . 253 Almogi here points out that the particle ye applies only to the first of these senses

and suggests that this interpretation may reflect the early influence of tathiigatagarbha

and/or prabhiisvaracitta concepts in Tibet. 254 (3) The particle ye generally means

'primordial ' , ' enduring ' and ' certain ' , as its definitions in the Tshig mdzod chen mo suggest:

(A) beginning, origin, root, (B) constant, perpetual , and (C) certain, definite . 255 (4) It is

nonetheless possible, Almogi suggests , that the element ye originally had a meaning other

than 'primordial ' - for example one in line with other, and more archaic, senses of ye «

yas) as ' all ' , ' total ' , 'very ' , or ' definite ' , senses which would correspond to the idea of

' omniscience ' (sarvajfiiina : thams cad mkhyen pa) .256 (5) Almogi concludes (p . 1 62) that

"whatever the original meaning of the component ye in the word ye shes may have been, it

25 1 See Almogi 2009 : 1 60 .

252 See Tshig mdzod chen mo s.v. ye shes. 253 Tshig mdzod chen mo defines ye shes as follows; ( 1 ) ye nas gnas pa 'i shes pa ste sems can thams cad kyi rgyud la rang bzhin gyis gnas pa 'i stong gsal gyi rig pa, (2) 'phags pa 'i mkhyen pa. 254 Here it is necessary to qualify the view expressed by Almogi 2009, Wangchuk 2005 and Karmay 1 988 that tathagatagarbha theory played an insignificant role in early rNying rna literature. In chapter four, I demonstrate that buddha nature concepts played an highly significant part in early rDzogs chen, albeit mostly in the form of tantric * bodhigarbha rather than siltric tathagatagarbha or * sugatagarbha concepts. It is also worth noting that the particle ye is frequently used in combination with this distinct class of buddha nature terms, as seen for example in terms ye snying po byang chub pa, ye gzhi snying po, ye gzhi snying po byang chub kyi sems (on which see chapter four) . 255 Tshig mdzod chen mo s.v. ye: ( 1 ) thog ma dangl gdod mal rtsa bal . . . (2) gtan dangl nam rgyun . . . (3) nges par dangl mtha ' gcigl l . . . 256 See Almogi 2009 : 1 6 1 -2 and n. 63 for her detailed investigation of the ye particle in the term ye shes.

96

seems that the tradition takes it to be 'primordial ' - on the basis of speculative etymology

(though not necessarily by definition) or as a result of a semantic shift - or simply

disregards it altogether. " I would suggest here that the addition of the element ye in ye shes

(like the addition of nyid in sems nyid) reflects the Tibetan penchant for specifying technical

uses of the more generic Indic originals (e .g. citta , jfiana, vidya) , terms that had through

semantic accretion taken on many diverse, and at times divergent, associations and

connotations in the course of their long and complex conceptual histories . In this regard, it is

interesting that the Karma bKa' brgyud scholar gTsug lag 'phreng ba ( 1 503/4- 1 566)

observed that the early Tibetan translators found it necessary to variously render jfiana as

shes pa ("cognition") or rnam shes ("consciousness") when describing the cognition of a

sentient being, and as ye shes ("primordial knowing") when describing the cognition of a

buddha, there being no such difference conspicuous in the original term. 257

A survey of the ways ye shes has been variously employed in rDzogs chen sources

leaves little doubt that the element ye in ye shes has had these connotations of 'primordial '

(ye nas) and ' enduring ' (gtan) from the time of the tradition' s earliest available literature .

Used adjectivally, the ye ( 'primordial ' ) qualifies shes ( 'knowing ' in a generic sense) in order

to specify a mode of knowledge that is considered genuine, abiding and originary in contrast

to normal cognition that is adventitious, transient and derivative . In this regard, it should be

noted that rDzogs chen texts distinguish rang byung ye shes (self-occuring primordial

knowing) , synonymous with rig pa , from other modes of ye shes that are considered

manifestations or expressions of this rig pa (rig pa 'i rtsal) . A text from the Bfa ma dgongs

'dus attributed to Padmasambhava declares that "the key point of all ye shes is the rang

byung ye shes ("self-occuring primordial knowing") . Other ye shes are transient and

impermanent. , ,258

Early rDzogs chen characterizations of primordial knowing reflect the innatist and

quietistic strains of thought that characterize the early Sems sde teachings . This is well-

257 Byang chub sems dpa 'i spyod pa fa 'jug pa 'i rnam par bshad pa Theg chen chos kyi rgya mtsho Zab rgyas mtha ' yas pa 'i snying po: 764.5 f. : . . . spyir dznya na 'i sgras sems can gyi shes pa brjod tshe shes pa 'am rnam shes dang sangs rgyas kyi shes pa brjod tshe ye shes su bsgyur dgos par fo pan gyis bka ' sa bcad pa yin gyi skad dod tha dad med fal . . .

258 Zhal gdams dmar khrid don bsdus thugs kyi phreng ba in Bfa ma dgongs 'dus vol. 5 : 833 . 5 f.: ye shes thams cad kyi gnad nil rang byung gi ye shes yinl ye shes gzhan ni 'gyur zhing mi rtag pa '0 1 . . .

97

attested in the Khyung chen lding ba , an important Sems sde source for understanding the

rDzogs chen conceptions of ye shes . It states that self-occuring primordial knowing abides

as pervasive suchness . Free from deliberate activity and not dwelling on objects , it is

nothing to be improved on using antidotes .259 Not attainable by applying concepts such as

error (bhriinti) and path of awakening (bodhimiirga) , it transcends the limits of words (tshig

gi mtha ' dang bral)?60 It is nonetheless directly present as the nature of primordial

buddhahood (ye nas sangs rgyas) ?61 gNubs chen incorporates the early Sems sde

interpretations into his own presentation of rang byung ye shes as one of the nine principal

views of rDzogs chen. 262 According to the viewpoint of this system, he says, all phenomena

are self-luminous in the state of great primordial knowing like light in the sky, having

always been the very essence of this self-occuring primorial knowing which remains

naturally free from causes and conditions . 263

The systematization of Sems sde teachings in the 1 1 th century brought with it an

intensified focus on ye shes (and especially rang byung ye shes) as the sine qua non of

Buddhist doctrine and practice . A typical example of this trend is the following passage

from the Nam mkha 'i mtha ' dang mnyam pa 'i rgyud in a chapter devoted to explicating ye

shes (ye shes bstan pa) :

Radiant primordial knowing of open awareness, beyond effort, Is not produced but has occurred primordially since the very beginning . Since it comes from oneself, it does not come from elsewhere . Since it is spontaneously present, it is impartial . Self-radiant primordial knowing of open awareness Is originally empty of cognition of anything other than it. Since there are no possible positions with regard to its spontaneity.

259 Khyung chen lding ba, Tk vol. 1 : 4 1 9 .5 f. ; Bg vol. 5 : 308 .2 f. : rang byung ye shes mi rtog kun tu ji" bzhin gnasl bya bral yul la mi gnas gnyen pas bcos su medj I aBg rang 260 Tk vol. I : 420.4 f; Bg vol . 5 : 309.2 f: 'khrul dang byang chub lam dea rtog pas thob pa medj rang byung ye shes nyid kyang tshig gi mtha ' dang brall l aTk ste 261 Tk vol. I : 420.4: Bg vol. 5 : 309 .2 : ye nas sangs rgyas bdag nyid mngon sum gnas pa lal l 262 See below Table E on p. 1 67 . An interlinear note in the text attributes this view to dGe slong rna Kun dga' rna who has been identified as the 22nd on a lineage list of 23 early rDzogs chen masters (after Srlsil11ha and before Vimalamitra) presented in the rJe btsun thams cad mkhyen pa be ro tsa na 'i rnam thar 'dra 'bag chen mo, on which see Karmay 1 9 8 8 : 1 9-20. He is given as the 23rd on very similar list of 25 masters presented in the PafJ sgrub rnams kyi thugs bcud snying gi nyi ma, on which see Kapstein 2008 : 279-80. 263 The full passage in bSam gtan mig sgron (340 .3 f.) reads : de la rang byung gi ye shes su Ita ba'i lugs ni skye 'jig gis bsdud pa ri chos thams cad kyang gdod ma nas rang byung gi ye shes rgyu rkyen ngang gis bral ba'i ngo bar sangs rgyas pa ri phyi nang med par nam mkha'i 'ad bzhin ye shes chen par rang gsal lol l

98

It is free from opposing positions such as being radiant and not radiant . As for being ' self-occuring ' ; since it is devoid of causality, It has always been without producer and produced. 264

Here, the various ways of characterizing rang byung ye shes serve to clarify each of the

components of the term: it is 'primordial ' (ye) insofar as it has been spontaneously present -

radiant yet empty - since the beginning; it is 'knowing ' (shes) in that it is a naturally lucid

condition of being aware that is devoid of self and other; and it is ' self-occuring ' (rang

byung) in that it occurs effortlessly, endogenously, and spontaneously without depending on

causal production, or on construction and contrivance . 265 Similar presentations are adopted

in a large number of later Sems sde works, most notably in the Kun byed rgyal po, a late

(probably 1 1th - 12th century) synthesis that comes to be regarded by classical doxographers

as the root tantra of this tradition. 266 This tantra explicitly distinguishes self-occuring

primordial knowing (rang byung ye shes) from primordial knowing that conceptualizes

sense objects (yul la rtog pa ' ; ye shes) which cannot be considered ' self-occuring ' since its

occurrence depends on those objects (yul las byung) .267

264 Nam mkha 'i mtha ' dang mnyam pa 'i rgyud chen po, Bg vol. 1 : 266.5 £ ; Tk vol. 3 : 5 1 4 .6 £ : brtsal bral rig pa ye shes gsall ma bskyed' ye nas gdod nas byungl rang las byung bas gzhan byung mini lhun gyis grub pas p hyogs ris medj rang gsal rig pa 'i ye shes lal gzhan gyi rig pa gdod nas stongl lhun grub nyid la phyogs med pasl gsal dang mi gsal phyogs dang brall rang byung nyid la rgyu med pasl bskyed bya bskyed byed gdod nas medi i aTk bskyed

265 This text later defines ye shes ' in terms of its elements ye and shes and indicates its relationship to open awareness . Bg vol. 1 : 267.5 £; Tk vol . 3 : 5 1 5 .5 £ : " Since it knows primordially, it is primordial knowing. I [And] since it has primordially been great open awareness, I It is great primordial knowing of open awareness. It is primordial knowing by virtue of ascertaining I The reality of open awareness just as is, uncontrived. I I " ye nas shes pas ye shes yinl ye nas shes rig chen po pasl rig pa ye shes chen po yinl ma bcos ji bzhin rig pa 'i doni gtan la phebs pas ye shes yin l l 266 An illustrative passage from Kun byed rgyal po (Tb vol. 1 : 1 5 .5 f. ; Tk vol. 1 : 12 .7 f. ) reads : rang byung zhes ni bya ba nil rgyu rkyen med pa 'i snying po pasl rtsol sgruba kun las 'das pa yinl ye shes zhes ni bya ba nil 'gags pa med cing ma bsgribs pasl chos kun ma Ius stong par byedj I . . . [line omitted] ye nas bya ba ' i don 'di nil thog ma nyid nas gnas pa 'i doni I aTk bsgrub This tantra is included in both rNying rgyud and the bKa ' 'gyur canons. 267 Tb vol. I : 1 68.4 £, Tk vol. 1 : 145 . 1 f.: ye shes ye shes zhes bya bal ye shes ye nas shes pa yinl rang byung ye shes ye nas shesl yul la rtog pa 'i ye shes del yul las byung bas rang byung mini I In his commentary on the Kun byed rgyal po, gZhan phan mtha' yas ' od zer (b. 1 800) offers this analysis of ye shes: Kun byed rgyal po 'grel pt. 2 (NyKs vol. 1 06) : 704.5 : '"Thus, the actual referent designated by the term 'primordial knowing' is the vital factor of self­knowing awareness that is free from knower and known, the very essence of ceaseless self-radiance that has primordially not depended for its existence on objective frames of reference. Since it is unconditioned luminosity, it is self-occuring primordial knowing that has also not depended on any causes and conditions whatsoever. Although this is already known in and by itself as it really is, having primordially remained unobscured by ignorance, it remains naturally free from concepts subject to transition and change, and therefore naturally abides within as spontaneously present primordial knowing that has been present like the rays of the sun, shining in its own light at all times. Thus it is shown to be free from effort and achievement." 'di ltar ye shes zhes pa 'i 'dog yul dngos ni ye nas dmigs bya 'i yul la mi ltos par rang gsal 'gags med kyi ngo bo shes bya shes byed dang bral ba 'i rang shes rig pa 'i bdag nyid 'od gsal 'dus ma byas pa yin pas rgyu rkyen gang la yang ma ltos pa 'i rang byung gi ye shes te l de ni

99

The sNying thig tradition' s interpretations ye shes in many ways parallel its

interpretations of rig pa, building on earlier Sems sde and Mahayoga formulations and

developing these along its own distinctive gnoseological, ontological and tantric­

physiological lines . There is a difference in scope, however, particularly in the classical

period as scholars sought to reveal the continuity of rDzogs chen descriptions of ye shes

with earlier Buddhist speculations on jfiiina . This resulted in syncretistic articulations and

classifications of primordial knowing of extraordinary variety and complexity . In the face of

this profusion of discourse, my objective is to simply summarize a few key elements in the

sNying thig discourses on primordial knowing. One hallmark worth mentioning is their

emphasis on direct introduction (ngo sprod) as the primary method of realization. For

example , the Dur khrod phung po 'bar ba man ngag gi rgyud, an early sNying thig work268

attributed to Vimalamitra, states that primordial knowing is realized by a student when its

abiding (though elusive) presence is pointed out by a qualified master . 269 This principal

method of transmission is in keeping with the classical rDzogs chen view that the sems/ye

shes distinction has its inception in oral instructions (snyan brgyud) .

Classical sNying thig texts elaborate on earlier characterizations of primordial

knowing as both empty (stong) and radiant (gsal) , developing these aspects into distinct, but

mutually enhancing, systems of doctrine and praxis . The emptiness aspect emphasizes the

abiding (gnas lugs) , originally pure (ka dag) , nonconceptual (mi rtog) , and inexpressible

(brjod med) elements of primordial knowing that are the focus of the Khregs chod teachings .

The radiance aspect draws attention to its dynamic (shar lugs) , spontaneous ([hun grub) ,

expressive (rtsal) character that are the focus of the Thod rgal teachings . These

complementary ways of characterizing primordial knowing are developed fully in the

seventeen tantras .270 As we read in the sGra thaI 'gyur:

ye nas rna rig pas sgrib pa med par rang ngo rang gis shes zin pa yin Ayangl 'gyur 'pho 'i rtog pa dang ngang gis bral bas nang rang gnas lhun grub Ayi ye shes dus thams cad pa rang gsal nyi ma 'i 'ad ltar gnas pa yin pas rtsol sgrub dang bral bar bstan te l l 268 It is found in the Bai ro rgyud 'bum and editions of the rNying rna rgyud 'bum. 269 Bg vol . 8 : 205.6 f. ; Tk vol. 4 : 596.5 £: nges tshig ye nas shes pas ye shes sol glo bur med pas ye shes sol ye nas yod pa 'i rig pa deal bla rna dam pas mtshon nas nil rang rig rtogs pas shes tsam nal ye shes zhes ni de la bya l l aTk ste 270 See the overview of this tantric c�rpus entitled Dung yig cem rgyud Ayi khong don bsdus a sgron rna snang byed that is contained in Bi rna snying thig vol. 2 : 263-42 1 and NyKs vol . 33 : 595-7 14 .

100

'Primordial knowing as spontaneously present nature ' Is unborn, unceasing, and does not think anything. This is because it is pure of objects and is indeterminate . [But] since its expressive energy and qualities are ceaseless From its manifesting simply as a playing forth, It constitutes the matrix for the complete manifold [world] . Because it is nothing, it appears, yet because it appears, it is empty. It thus possesses these facets of accessing radiance and emptiness .271

Elaborating on the characterization of ye shes as both empty and radiant, Klong chen

pa sees it both as the pristine source of all manifestation (like a crystal ball) in its awareness

aspect (rig cha) and the expressive display of conceptual elaborations (like refracted light

from a crystal ball) in its manifestation aspect (shar cha) . If this appears to confuse

primordial awareness with discursive elaborations that derive from it, the author is careful

to point out that error has its roots not in manifestation itself but in the self-identifications

with and reifications of particular aspects thereof. 272 There is, he continues , no duality

271 Ati vol. 1 : 1 52 .6 f, Tb vol. 1 2 : 1 27.6 f. : rang bzhin lhun grub ye shes zhesl mi skye mi 'gag cir mi dgongsl yul dag nges pa med phyir rol rtsal dang yon tan 'gags med pasl rol pa tsam du snang ba lasl sna tshogs rdzogs pa 'i gzhi ma '0 1 med phyir snang fa snang phyir stongl snang stong 'jug pa 'i yan lag canl See also Ati vol. I : 1 85 . 3 , Tb vol. 1 2 : 1 55 . 6 : mtshan nyid stong gsal rig pa lal rang bzhin gang dang ma 'dres pal gzung dang 'dzin pa 'i mtha ' zad dangl chos nyid rang ngo zacf dag pa ' 0 1 1 a Ati om. zad The two aspects are characterized in the Rig pa rang shar in terms of the disclosive and spontaneous elements of primordial knowing. Ati vol. 1 : 45 1 . 1 : "The way of explaining great primordial knowing is as follows : I It consists [both] in buddhahood as direct realization and I Buddhahood as spontaneously present nature: I If one 'knows ' this 'primordial ' spontaneously present nature, I Then realization will directly manifest. I Such is the etymology of 'primordial knowing' ." : ye shes chen po 'i bshad lugs nil rtogs pa mngon gyur sangs rgyas dangl rang bzhin lhun grub sangs rgyas sol ye nas rang bzhin lhun gyis grub I shes na rtogs pa mngon du gyurl ye shes nges tshig de bzhin nol l 272 Chos dbyings mdzod 'grel: 241 .2 f: " ' Self-occuring primordial knowing' is open awareness that is empty yet radiant, being free from discursive elaborations. Given that it occurs such that in essence it does not discriminate sense obj ects, similar to a pure crystal globe, it abides as the factor of being a ground for arising [of myriad manifestations] ; yet in its very essence there is neither manifesting nor non-manifesting. Thus it is that which is vidvidly present in its own light, unimpeded in its emptiness and pristine in its original purity. Within its sphere, its aspect of manifesting as myriad things is the discursive elaboration of subject and object, whereas its aspect of being aware - the pristine nakedness that is the very essence of this manifesting - abides as primordial knowing. Since it therefore does not conceptualize sense obj ects, it is called "self-occuring primordial knowing." In this context, all those who have not encountered this through direct introduction [mistakenly] take the view to be a matter of mere ly going along with whatever [thoughts] crop up. They fail to understand the key point that "conceptualization itself is error". When things manifest, this pristine naked awareness in which there is no locus or agent of manifestion is identified as that which is present as primordial knowing which is the unceasing mode of arising of responsiveness (thugs rje). It is therefore, by implication, identified [also] as that which is nakedly present in its own place as the fundamental self-occuring primordial knowing (rtsa ba rang byung ye shes). And since there is no duality between its essence (ngo bo) and its self-expressive energy (rang rtsal), it is called "non dual self-occuring primordial knowing free from elaboration that is the unique sphere [of being]"." rang byung gi ye shes ni rig pa stong gsal spros pa dang bral ba she I gong dag pa Ita bu yul la mi dpyod pa 'i ngo bor skyes pa de yin lal 'char gzhi 'i char gnas kyangl rang ngo la shar dang ma shar med pas rang gsal du Ihag ge stong par zang ngol ka dag tu sangs se ba 'di yin nol de 'i ngang las sna tshogs su shar ba 'i cha de gzung 'dzin gyi spros pa ste l shar ba de 'i rang ngo rjen sangs se ba de rig cha ye shes su gnas pasl yul la rtog pa ma yin pas rang byung gi ye shes zhes sol 'dir ngo sprad la ma 'phrod pa kun shar thog der glod pa la Ita bar ngos 'dzin te l rtog pa nyid 'khrul zhes bya bas gnad ma go ba

10 1

between the essence of primordial knowing and its self-expressive energy (rang rtsal)

stemming from its responsiveness (thugs rje); apparent duality is the result of mistaken

identifications incurred by reflection on and reification of this play (rol pa) of expressive

energy. It is possible, Klong chen pa suggests , to simply recognize this nondual self­

occuring primordial knowing in its pristine nakedness (rjen pa sang nge ba) - both as it

abides in its naked clarity and as it continuously manifests as myriad objects - without

hypostatizing it. 273 For so long as "one thinks of the abiding and manifesting of cognition as

two different things and talks about [the experience of] ' settling in the nonconceptual

essence ' [but also of] 'preserving the expressive energy as being free in its arising ' , one ' s

practice goes in two directions and one fails to understand the key point . , ,274

The sNying thig characterization of primordial knowing in terms of the indivisibility

of its pure empty essence (ngo bo ka dag stong pa) and luminous spontaneous nature (rang

bzhin lhun grub gsal ba) has lent itself to complex typologies of ye shes which seek to

accommodate antecedent Buddhist interpretations and classifications of jfiiina within a

specifically sNying thig framework. An example of the attempt to amalgamate rDzogs chen

and traditional Buddhist interpretations of jfiiina/ye shes within a comprehensive typology is

the elaboration of ten modes of ye shes275 in the sPros bral don gsal and (abridged) Thig Ie

kun gsal tantras :

The classifications [of jfiiina] include the following interpretations : [ 1 ] Since all of sarp.sara and nirvaI).a manifest from the great unimpeded primordially pure and non­entitative open awareness, it is called "ground-abiding primordial knowing". [2] Since this abides in its emptiness , it is called "primordial knowing of the basic expanse" (dharmadhiitujfiiina) . [3] Since this emptiness is present as unceasing

yin nol shar dus nas shar sa shar mkhan med pa 'i rig pa rjen sangs seng de thugs rje 'char tshul ma 'gags pa 'i ye shes su gnas pa de ngos bzung basi rtsa ba rang byung ye shes su rang sa na rjen par gnas pa de zhar la ngos zin nasi ngo bo dang rang rtsal gnyis su med pas gnyis med rang byung gi ye shes spros bral thig Ie nyag gcig ces bya ste l l

273 See Chos dbyings mdzod 'grel: 246.2 f£

274 The full passage in Chos dbyings mdzod 'grel (246.2 £) reads de dag kyang rang ngo spros bral dangl de 'i rtsal las shar dus phyir ma dpya� nang du ma brtagsl bar du ma bzhag pa 'i rig pa rjen pa sang nge ba 'dzin rtog med pa nyid ngo zin pa tsam gyis l rang ngo spros bral de ka der rjen ne ba las gzhan med par rtogs pasl gnyis med rang byung gi ye shes te l ngo bo dangl de 'i rtsal zhes brjod pas shes pa gnas pa dangl 'char ba gnyis yin snyam nasi ngo bo mi rtog par Jogi rtsal shar grol du skyong zer nasi nyams len cha gnyis su song ba ni gnad ma gol l

275 Compare with the five-fold typology given by gNyag Jfifulakumlira in his 'Phrul gyi me long: 995 .6 £ : . . . de bzhin nyid dangl chos kyi dbyings dangl mi gnas pa dangl rang byung dangl lhun gyis rdzogs pa 'i ye shes dang lnga 'ol l

102

awareness, it is called "mirror-like primordial knowing" (iidarsajiiiina) . [4] Since emptiness is itself aware and awareness is itself empty so that emptiness and awareness are indivisibly united, it is called "primordial knowing of equality" (samatiijfiiina) . [5] Since one knows [these two] individually within the nonduality of emptiness and awareness, it is called "discriminating primordial knowing" (pratyavek�aniijfiiina) . [6] Since primordial knowing that is a non-entitative open awareness is devoid of material phenomena, it opens the gates of inborn qualities . Since its therefore gives rise to temporally endless and spatially limitless expressive energies , it is called "task-performing primordial knowing" (krtyiinu�tiinajfiiina) . [7] In this regard, while it is indicated276 by way of unbiased terminology (tshig) , since it also does not manifest as having any partial meaning (don) , it is called "non-static primordial knowing" (mi gnas pa 'i ye shes) . [8] Alas, son of a noble family ! When it comes to understanding it in this way, since it is known in and by277 oneself, it is "primordial knowing as awareness" (rig pa 'i ye shes) . [9] Since it has no creator, it is called self-occuring primordial knowing (rang byung gi ye shes) . [ 10] Since it does not go beyond this Reality, it is called primordial knowing of adamantine Mind (thugs) that is difficult to pass beyond ( ' da ' dka ' thugs kyi ye shes278) . 279

In this passage, traditional Buddhist conceptions of jfiiina such as the five jfiiinas (2 - 6),

non-static jfiiina (7) , self-occuring jfiiina (8) , and jfiiina that survives mortality ( 1 0) are

reinterpreted and assimilated within the distinctive rDzogs chen view of ye shes as it is

personally realized as the ground of being ( 1 ) .

276 Tb here reads brtags "investigated" instead of bstan "indicated" in Tk. 277 Tb has the genetive rig gi; Tk has the ergative rig gis. 278 The term 'da ' dka ' thugs kyi ye shes l ikely derives from 'da ' ka ye shes (Skt. atyayajnana) which refers to jnana at the time of abandoning corporeal existence. It is also the title of a short Mahayana sutra in the bKa' 'gyur, the A tyayajnana-nama-mahayanasutra ( ,Phags pa 'da ' ka ye shes zhes bya ba theg pa chen po 'i mdo) D no. 1 22, on which two Indian commentaries are found in the bsTan 'gyur. See Almogi 2009 : 1 97 n. 27. 'Da ' ka [mal seems to be akin to the term [nam] 'chi kha [mal which is employed in this short sutra, e.g. D K vol. 54 : 305 .3 f.. The Encyclopaedia of Buddhism 1 965 suggests that the title of this work may be corrected to Mrtijnana. The above quotation supports the sense 'difficult to pass beyond' suggested by the Tibetan 'da ' dka ', which implies the enduring quality of a buddha' s mind (thugs) or awareness (jnana). ' Jigs med gling pa discusses three 'da ' ka ma in the context of describing how the vase empowerment (bum pa 'i dbang : kalasabhi,yeka) purifies obscurations of corporeal existence that result in the attainment of nirmalJakaya. See his Yon tan mdzod 'grel vol. 2 : 2 1 0 .2 .

279 Tb vol . 1 3 : 3 1 .3 f. (and 3 12.2 0; Tk vol. 5 : 1 37 .7 f. : dbye ba rnam grangs dang bcas pa ni l rig pa dngos medye dag zang thai chen po de lasl 'khor 'das thams cad snang bas nal gzhi" gnas kyi ye shes sol de stong par gnas pas na chos kyi dbyings kyi ye shes sol stong pa de rig pa 'gag pa med par 'dug pas me long ye shes sol stong pa de nyid' rigc pa yin lal rig pa de nyicl stong pa yin teel stong rig dbyer mi phyed pas mnyam pa nyid kyi ye shes sofl stong pa dang rig pa gnyis su med par so sor mkhyen pas so sor rtog pa 'i ye shes sol rig pa dngos med kyi ye shes gdos pa cang gyi chos med' pas yon tan gyi sgo yangs pa ste l rtsal phyogs med du gang la yangi thogs pa med par 'byung bas bya ba grub pa 'i ye shes sol de ltar tshig phyogs med nas bstank kyangl don phyogs chad dang bcas par mi snang bas mi gnas pa 'i ye shes sol kye ma ho rigs kyi bu de ltar shes pa nil rang gim rig pas rig pa 'i ye shes sol de la byed pa po med pas rang byung gi ye shes sol de 'i don las mi 'da ' bas 'da ' dka ' thugs kyi ye shes soi l aTk zhi bTk stong nyid cTb reg dTk om. de eTk no f Tk mnyam pa nyid do gTk bcad hTk, Tb men iTb om. jTb re kTb brtags 'Tk che mgis

103

In the sNying thig system, primordial knowing is classified into three types : ( 1 )

ground-abiding (gzhi gnas ky i ye shes), (2) characteristic-beholding (mtshan nyid 'dzin pa 'i

ye shes) , and (3) object-pervading (yul Ia khyab pa 'i ye shes) .280 In scope, this scheme

parallels the three kayas in ranging from unmanifest to manifest modalities . While elements

of this three-fold typology are to be found amongst the oral instructions of Vimalamitra

preserved in the Bi ma snying thil8! , its most detailed treatments occur in the seventeen

tantras and the commentaries and treatises based on these. We can see that this typology

combines distinctly rDzogs chen views of primordial knowing ( 1 and 3) with the classical

Mahayana-Vajrayana classification of five jiianas (2) that are here viewed as expressions of

open awareness ,z82 The key to understanding this scheme goes back to the idea that

primordial knowing is empty in essence yet spontaneously present by nature, and expressive

as compassionate responsiveness . These three primordial modalities of awareness that

together constitute the so-called primordial knowing that abides as the ground of being (gzhi

gnas kyi ye shes) provide the framework for understanding all the others . Table D provides a

schematic overview based on accounts found in the Mu tig phreng ba , sGra thal 'gyur, the

bKa ' ma commentaries on these, the Ye shes bsdus pa 'i sgron ma, Thig Ie kun gsal and

Klong chen pa' s sNying thig summaries , particularly his Theg mchog mdzod. The table is

intended to provide an schematic overview of the sNying thig analysis of primordial

knowing, the baroque intricacies of which exceed the compass of this work.

The foregoing analysis of some key rDzogs chen gnoseological terminology has been

able to offer little more than tentative clues concerning the provenance and lines of

280 See for example Mu tig phreng ba: Ati vol. 2: 5 1 8 .3 f.; Tk vol. 9: 569.4 f.; Tb vol. 1 2 : 3 80 .2 f.: " Primordial knowing is as follows: Pure ground-abiding primordial knowing, characteristic-beholding, and obj ect-pervading." ye shes nyid ni 'di Ita ste l gzhi gnasa dag pa 'i ye shes dangl mtshan nyid 'dzin dang yul khyab pa 'al l aAti, Tk, Tb have nas; I base my reading on Theg mchog mdzod vol. 1 : 1 072. 1 and the Mu tig phreng ba 'grel pa in NyKs vol. 1 1 2 : 434. 1 which both have gzhi gnas. For an analysis of these modes of ye shes under different rubrics see sGra thaI 'gyur, Ati vol . I : 1 50 f..

281 The first two are identified in the Ye shes bsdus pa 'i sgron ma, Bi ma snying thig vol. 2: 220.4 f. : ye shes kyi dbye ba ni gnyis te l gzhi gnas pa 'i ye shes dangl mtshan 'dzin pa 'i ye shes sol gzhi gnas fa gsum stel ngo bo ka dag gi ye shes dangl rang bzhin lhun grub kyi ye shes dangl thugs rje kun grof ba 'i ye shes sol de la rig pa nyid 'khruf ma myong basi ngo bo [ye nas] ka dag gi ye shes su bzhugs pasl 'khor ba fa thog ma med pa [ 'i gnad] dangl rig pa la rang bzhin des kun fa khyab pasl rang bzhin fhun grub kyi ye shes su bzhugs pasl gnad shes pa rnams sangs mi rgya mi srid pa dangl rig pa de sna tshogs su shar basi thugs rjes kun grof gyi ye shes su bzhugs pas 'bad rtsol bya mi dgos par yongs su grol ba 'al l The five modes of mtshan nyid 'dzin pa 'i ye shes are discussed at 22 1 .3 f.. These two correspond to the first two among the five-fold classification of rig pa in Rig pa bsdus pa 'i sgron ma. 282 See in particular Thig fe kun gsa!, Tk vol. 5: 3 1 6 .2 f..

104

transmission of terms such as sems nyid, rig pa, and ye shes . gNubs chen may be pointing us

in the right direction when he notes the importance of terms such as rang rig in the

Mahayoga system. But this of course raises the question of how much Mahayoga and other

early tantric traditions in Tibet were themselves indebted to other currents of Buddhist

thought such as Y ogacara. One thing that is clear is how far concepts adopted from the

Indian Buddhist milieux have been adapted to rDzogs chen systems of doctrine and praxis

with their emphasis on the disclosure of primordial awareness . In the history of Buddhist

thought, the assimilation and reinterpretation of ideas has always been a fluid process in

which the semantic boundaries of concepts shift, expand, and contract over time to

accommodate the variable range of phenomena they are called upon to articulate within

ever-changing doctrinal and soteriological contexts . More study of the literature of the early

rDzogs chen masters and their coreligionists will be needed to form a clearer picture of

these semantic genealogies and trace the possible lines of influence that have shaped them.

105

Table D: The rDzogs chen sNying thig Analysis of Ye shes in Atiyoga tantras Mu tig phreng ba and sGra thai ' gyur

oues ahd Fi ih""';;; .... "'. . ·· · ··.········. i .. ... I IVt� ...... . . ....... i. > • . >�. , ,.. ':.�" " < . .. . ••. . .... Ground-ab id ing primord ia l knowing (gzhi gnas kyi ye shes)

• th ree express ions of the pr imord ia l ground : empty, radiant and a l l -pervad ing

Cha racteristic-beho ld ing pr imord i a l knowing (mtshan nyid 'dzin pa'i ye shes)

• comprises five modes of jfitina

each of which is fu rther d ivided i nto five (= 25)283

• its a spect as responsiveness comprises ye shes subsumed under ( a ) knowing ( subtle qu i ntessence in a l l be ings) a n d ( b) knowable ( i . e . ji

Ita ba mkhyen pa'i ye shes and ji

snyed pa mkhyen pa'i ye shesf84

Object-pervad i ng primord ia l knowi ng 286

(yul la khyab pa'i ye shes)

• rDzogs chen vis ions as outward man ifestations of inner l um i nosity

• a pparent objects a re self-l iberated i n their man ifest ing

.l"YPOI6gy ····· }I. i i . . i . . . . . .... . .. , ... ... .. .. . . . . .. .. . . ... . . .....•.. . .... . . . . < .

1. Original ly pure essence (ngo bo ka dag gi ye shes)

2. Spontaneously present nature (rang bzhin Ihun grub kyi ye shes)

3. All-pervading reponsiveness (thugs rje kun khyab kyi ye shes)

1. Primord ia l knowing of basic expanse (dharmadhtitu : chos kyi dbyings kyio)

2. Mi rror- l ike pr imord ia l knowing (tidarsao : me long Ita bu'io)

3 . Primord ia l knowing of equa l ity (samattio : mnyam pa nyid kyio)

4. Discrim inating primord ia l knowing (pratyavek$anao : so sor rtog pa'io)

5. Task-performing pr imord ia l knowing (krtytinu$ttinao : bya ba [s]grub pa'io)

Primord ia l knowing of man ifestations (snang ba'i ye shes)

Primord ia l knowing of emptiness (stong pa'i ye shes)

Primord ia l knowing of sense objects (yul gyi ye shes)

• · . . ·r"' . " ; ·' · . · · · . . . .. ":',<I., "' .... . �"" .'�ll\,," .•..•.. ..•.•.•. •... ••.. • ... . . . <

Beyond l im itat ions of existence and non-existence, l i ke sky

Pr imord ia l ly replete with buddha qua l ities as expressive energy of ground, l i ke wish-granting jewel

Devoid of i nherent nature yet serves as source of spontaneous man ifestati-ons acting for welfare of sentient beings

Self-awareness from perspective of its emptiness without attri butes

Self-awareness from perspective of its rad iance as vivid cognition

Self-awareness from perspective of ind iv is ib i l ity of rad iance-emptiness

Self-awareness from perspective of unceasing insight due to recogniz ing it

Self-awareness from perspective of having no achievement [and being with premeditation] 285

Ye shes based on the five e lements: earth, water, wind, fire, space287

Ye shes unestabl ished by i ntrospection; cuts through sensory attachments; without essence or l im itations; nonconceptua l and inexpressi b le

When five objects such as form are natura l ly self- l i berated, one's bas ic nature is fu l ly rea l ized (chos nyid gong

'phe/)288

283 These are presented in rDo rje sems dpa ' snying gi me long, Ati vol. I : 3 75 .4 f and their meaning elaborated in the Rig pa rang shar, Ati vol. I : 454.2 f..

284 These last two comprise (A) knowing things in all their complexity, i .e . to know the nature of all phenomena in accordance with the intentions of those to be trained in order to help them fulfill their aims (gzhan don), and (B) knowing things as they really are, i.e. in their fundamental abiding condition in order to dispel error and fulfill one ' s own aim (rang don). See sGra thal 'gyur Ati vol. 1 : 1 56 .3 f as explicated in Theg mchog mdzod vol. I : 1 078 .2 f..

285 These descriptions of the fivejnGna are based on Thig le kun gsal, Tk vol . 5 : 3 1 6 .2 f.. More detailed treatment is found in sGra thal 'gyur, Ati vol. I : 1 54. 1 f. ; Tk vol. 10, 492.2 f. ; Tb vol . 1 2 : 128 .6 f..

286 In the Chos dbyings mdzod 'grel, it is this category which comprises the ji lta ba mkhyen pa 'i ye shes andji snyed pa mkhyen pa 'i ye shes.

287 These three are based elaborated in sGra thal 'gyur, Ati voL 1 : 1 60 . 1 f.. and Theg mchog mdzod vol. 1 : 1 087 . 1 f..

288 This chos nyid gong 'phel constitutes the last of the four visions (snang ba bzhi) of the Khregs chod teachings. See Theg mchog mdzod vol. 1 : 1 088.4 f..

106

§4. Concluding Remarks : Reframing the Two Truths

It has been a principal aim of this chapter to show that the distinction between mind

and primordial knowing not only forms a cornerstone of classical rDzogs chen doctrine but

also provides a valuable key to understanding its complex soteriology . As a rule, classical

rNying rna scholars were inclined to reinterpret traditional Buddhist philosophical views in

line with this distinction and its underlying soteriological commitments . A striking instance

of this general tendency is their interpretation of the two truths (satyadvaya) of Indian

Buddhist philosophy as objects (vi�aya : yul) or spheres of activity (gocara : spyod yul) of

these modes of cognition. 289 In concluding this chapter, I shall tum my attention to how

(re)framing the two truths in terms of these two cognitive styles provided rDzogs chen

scholars with a standard Buddhist philosophical framework for developing their own often

audacious perspectives on spiritual awakening and the means of realizing.

This way of interpreting the two truths was hardly unprecedented. Indeed, in

correlating the two truths with the two relevant modes of awareness that make them

possible, classical rNying rna thinkers claimed allegiance to the *PrasaIigika Madhyamaka

tradition of Nagarjuna and Candraklrti . On this account, ultimate truth (paramiirthasatya) is

the sphere of primordial knowing whereas conventional truth (saJ,!w['tisatya) is the

289 The fifth Dalai Lama Ngag dbang Blo bzang rgya mtsho ( 1 6 1 7-82) neatly summarizes this current of thought in his lucid summary of the sNying thig system, rDzogs pa chen po 'i 'khrid yig Rigs 'dzin zhal lung, in Ngag dbang blo bzang rgya mtsho 'i gsung 'bum vo!' 24: 92.5 f. : "The Mu tig phreng ba states that " The distinction between mind and primordial knowing should be known by those who are wise." According to this statement, mind and open awareness are totally different in their aspects. Thus, mind based on the all-ground (kun gzhi 'i sems) is the adventitious conventional [reality] (glo bur gyi kun rdzob) insofar as it is subject to discursive elaborations of apparent obj ects. It is conditioned [and constructed] insofar as it arises due to conditions [and] it is subj ect to thoughts bound up with the clinging to [and belief in] duality. Its locus is the lungs and it is carried by the karmic energy currents. When it emerges from the sensory gates, it indulges in the obj ects of the eightfold ensemble [of cognitions) . As for its function, it comes to fruition as sarpsara due to the power of the error attendant upon dualistic beliefs. Open awareness, the self-existent monarch (rig pa rang byung gi rgyal po), is the final ultimate [reality] (mthar thug don dam pa), free from discursive elaborations of subj ect and object. It is unconditioned insofar as it is not produced by causes [and] it is beyond dualistic beliefs. As for its dwelling place, the Kun bzang thugs kyi me long states : "In the Tsitta palace of the heart, open awareness resides as the embodiments of peaceful [deities)" . de 'ang mu tig phreng ba lasl sems dang ye shes dbye ba nil mkhas pa rnams kyis shes par byal zhes gsungs pa ltar sems dang rig pa gnyis ni rnam pa kun tu tha dad pas kun gzhi 'i sems ni glo bur gyi kun rdzob yul snang gi spros pa can rkyen las byung ba 'i 'dus byas gnyis 'dzin gyi rtog pa can de gnas sa glo bar gnas shing las rlung gis drangs te dbang po 'i sgo rnams las thon nas tshogs brgyad kyi yul la longs spyodt, byed las bden 'dzin gyi 'khrul pa'i dbang gis 'bras bu 'khor bar skye lal rig pa rang byung gi rgyal po ni mthar thug don dam pa yul yul can gyi spros dang bral ba rgyus ma bskyed pa'i 'dus ma byas gnyis 'dzin las 'das pa de gnas sa yangl kun bzang thugs kyi me longl tsitta snying gi gzhal yas nal rig pa zhi'i sku ru bzhugsl l

provenance of dualistic mind. Not only is · this held to be consistent with the *PrasaIigika

approach; it is also said to have been affirmed by its leading thinkers such as Santideva and

Candraklrti in certain oft-repeated quotations . 290

According to Klong chen pa' s summary of the *PrasaIigika system in the twelfth

chapter of his Yid bzhin rin po che 'i mdzod, the essence of the two truths is that all

phenomena lack any intrinsic nature (svabhava) .291 This means in effect that both the

essence of the conventional, i .e . the objects of the intellect (blo) and senses, as well as the

essence of the ultimate, i .e . the object of primordial knowing as it is personally known by

each (so sor rang gi rig pa 'i ye shes), are free from the limits of discursive elaborations

insofar as both these truths lack any instrinsic nature . He is quick to add, however, "should

one assume this personally realized self-awareness and intellect are the same, it is really due

to a terminological confusion: ' intellect ' (blo) is used in the present context in the sense of

' hypostatization' (kun tu rtog pa) . , ,292 As he proceeds to explain, "the hypostatized objects ,

sensory capacities , and mental engagements constitute the conventional because they are

simply mistaken. 'Personally realized self-awareness ' , by contrast, refers to a non-deluded

primordial knowing that defies expression in thought and language." 293

So for Klong chen pa, distinguishing conventional and ultimate objects on the basis

of their respective reflective-thematic and prereflective-nonthematic cognitive styles is not

only consistent with *PrasaIigika philosophy but explicitly advocated by its leading thinkers .

But why was he so concerned to align classical rDzogs chen gnoseology with this current of

290 What the most often-quoted passage of Candraklrti ' s Madhyamakiivatara (XI . l 7) in fact states is that suchness (tathata) is made manifest by the kiiyas due to the cessation of mind. This passage is clarified and widely discussed in Klong chen pa' s works, one example being the Sems ye dris lan, on which see translation and critical edition below. For Klong chen pa, of course, suchness and primordial knowing are coextensive. 291 Jan Westerhoff has identified three meanings of svabhiiva in Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka philosophy: 1 . essence -an essential property that an object can't lose without ceasing to be that very thing; 2. substance - something that does not depend on anything else; and 3 . absolute - a property that is regarded as the true or final nature of things. See Westerhoff 2009 : 1 2 - 1 3 and chapter 2. Central to Madhyamaka philosophy is the view that these (first two) svabhava do not exist but are conceptually superimposed on phenomena which lack them and are in this sense empty (sunya) . 292 Yid bzhin mdzod 'grel: 1 1 5 5.4 f. : so so rang rig dang blo gcig yin mod snyam nal brda fa rmongs pas re bdenl 'on kyang blo ni kun rtog pa la skabs 'dir mdzad del l

293 Ibid. 1 1 55 . 5 f. : kun rtog pa 'iyul dang dbang po dang yid fa byedpa rnams kun rdzob pa yin te l so sor rang gi rig pa nil ma 'khrul pa 'i ye shes smra bsam brjod pa las 'das pa ste l l

108

Indian Buddhist philosophy? We may n�call that Klong chen pa was one of a growing

number of scholars in the classical period to regard *Prasailgika Madhyamaka philosophy as

the summit of the Indian Buddhist philosophical systems presented in Mahayana siltras . He

begins his summary of this philosophy in the twelfth chapter of the Yid bzhin mdzod 'grel by

affirming the philosophy of Nagarjuna as the pinnacle of Buddhist sUtric philosophy and

CandrakIrti as its most authoritative interpreter . He then claims that this is the only sutric

philosophy to have clearly recognized the indivisibility of the two truths , of appearance and

emptiness (snang stong dbyer med) , which facilitates the crucial transcendence of discursive

elaborations (spros pa: prapafica) and extremes (mtha ' : ko(i) . He then summarizes the

meaning of Candraklrti ' s classic texts : "The basic way things are is, in essence, not

established as any intrinsic nature whatsoever, yet all claims involve an attachment to

truth/reality (bden zhen) . Thus the claims made in the classical texts belonging to the

traditions of proponents of intrinsic nature (rang bzhin du smra ba : svabhiivaviidin) are

[mired in] internal contradictions. All that is discussed in the classical texts of those who

make claims by appeal to the power of facts (dngos po 'i stobs zhugs : vastubiilapravrtta) are

hence refuted. But following this negation, there ensues no certitude (niScaya) [about any

position] , as would be the case for the *Svatantrika. , ,294 To be specific , it is Candraklrti ' s

uncompromising crjtique of ontological and epistemic foundationalism that is held to offer

the best philosophical antidote to the mind ' s inveterate propensities toward abstraction and

reification . This is how Klong chen pa characterizes *PrasaIigika in his Theg mchog mdzod:

That none of the philosophical postulates fashioned by the intellect actually exist is asserted [by Nagarjuna and Candraklrti] in order to pacify discursive elaborations . [The *Prasailgikas] may apply categories of symbol-based cognition that are in accord with whatever the worldly posit concerning what merely appears as various things . However, because they make no claims [of their own] , and because phenomenal presence goes beyond [constructions of] truth or falsity, these [*Prasailgikas] maintain that this [phenomenal presence] is from this very moment

294 Yid bzhin mdzod 'grel: 1 1 43 . 1 £ : gshis ngo bor gang yang rang bzhin ma grub pa dangl khas len pa thams cad bden zhen dang bcas pas na rang bzhin du smra ba dag gi lugs rang gi gzhung khas blangs nang 'gal ba dangl dngos po stobs zhugs khas len pa po de 'i gzhung la grags tshod des 'gog pa yin lal bkag pa 'i rjes la rang rgyud pa ltar nges pa 'i dam bca ' med del gal te nges dam bca ' 'ga ' yodl l

109

free from the limits of existence and non-existence. This constitutes the pinnacle among the proponents of Buddhist philosophical systems . 295

Klong chen pa recognized that the skeptical quietism of *PrasaIigika anti­

metaphysics offers the Buddhist philosopher the surest prospect of escaping the wilderness

of his own superimpositions. It is important to recognize, however, that the study of

Buddhist siitric philosophy plays something of a propaedeutic role within the context of

rNying rna soteriology as a whole . In strictly doxographical terms, the place of

Madhyamaka systems within the rNying rna 9-fold yiina scheme is the 3rd yiina up from the

bottom, i .e . the highest of the Bodhisattvayana approaches, with outer and inner Mantrayana

systems stretching up and beyond. According to the relevant doxographical categories,

*PrasaIigika is ranked highest of the "the cause-oriented vehicle of characteristics" (rgyu ' i

mtshan nyid kyi theg pa) . Thus, the remainder of the siddhiinta chapter in Klong chen pa ' s

Yid bzhin mdzod 'grel outlines the tantric philosophies of the "goal-oriented vehicles of

secret mantra" ( 'bras bu ' i gsang sngags kyi theg pa) after first explaining how they are

superior in theory and practice to the vehicles of characteristics . 296 The understanding of

these categories within classical rNying rna doxography and the reasons for deeming

Mantrayana superior are discussed in some detail in chapter six below.

The question of how far Klong chen pa ' s interpretation of the two truths in terms of

the mind/primordial knowing distinction accords with the *PrasaIigika philosophy,

especially as interpreted by Candraklrti, is of no small importance and certainly bears

further investigation. But whatever the verdict, there is little doubt that Klong chen pa and

295 Theg mchog mdzod vol. 1 : 236 . 1 f. : de 'ang bIos bkod pa 'i grub mtha ' gang yang med de spros pa zhi ba 'i phyir ro zhes 'dod cingl sna tshogs su snang tsam 'jig rten paji ltar 'jog pa !tar brda shes pa 'i yan lag tu bzhag kvangl de yang khas len med pasl chos su snang ba bden rdzun las 'das pas yod med kvi mtha ' dang da lta 'i dus nas bral bar 'dod dol 'di ni sangs rgyas pa rnams kvi grub pa 'i mtha ' smra ba rnams kvi rtse mo yin nol l 296 The relatively low position of *Prasangika-Madhyamaka in rNnying rna doxographical schemes may tempt one to conclude that its philosophy is for the rNying rna pa simply a prelude to bigger and better things, and that its principal role is to clear the way of reif)dng tendencies for a less distorted engagement with Mantrayfma. This is in part correct and consistent with the unanimously held Tibetan view that Mantraylina systems are superior to the Paramitaylina or Lak�aJ)aylina in practice. But one must also recognize that Klong chen pa and many other Tibetan scholastics were inclined to treat *Prlisangika as a complete and reliable system of liberation, with its own efficacious views, practices and soteriological aims. This is certainly how it is presented in Klong chen pa' s Yid bzhin mdzod 'gre!. The Tibetan Buddhist schools sometimes refer to three great systems of liberation in Tibetan Buddhism, dBu chen, Phyag chen and rDzogs chen, where dBu chen (Great Madhyamaka) generally refers to a system of study and practice based on the correct understanding and application of *Prlisangika philosophy. On these ' three great ones ' (chen po gsum) according to Mi pham, see Almogi 2008, 1 97.

1 10

his successors were intent on pushing the *PrasaIigika understanding of emptiness (sunyatii)

and non-elaboration (ni�prapaiica) in the direction of a radically affirmative account of non­

dual experience . On this account, the realization of emptiness facilitates a recovery of the

originary fullness and dynamism of lived experience . Philosophy is relevant only to the

extent that it serves the living praxis of soteriology . We see this clearly in Klong chen pa ' s

Mantrayana (and rDzogs chen) based interpretation of the two truths presented in the

eighteenth chapter of his Yid bzhin mdzod 'grel. Recalling that *PrasaIigika was considered

the only Indian philosophy to clearly recognize the two truths as the indivisibility of

appearance and emptiness (snang stong dbyer med) , Klong chen pa shows how this

interpretation provides a transition point from the propositional truths of representational

thinking to the disclosive truth of existential understanding:

Since this luminous primordial knowing is not touched by cloud-like conventional phenomena of sarpsara, not even a trace of deluded appearance is found. If that is not found, then one also does not establish an 'ultimate ' evaluated as the emptiness of all that is perceived. Since neither of these is established, then none of the distinctions between two truths as evaluated by the philosophical systems are established. Given these do not exist, one goes beyond the two truths as they are intellectually imputed in terms of what is ' true ' and 'false ' . In this pacifying of all discursive elaborations , since imputed truth is no longer established, we nonetheless describe things in terms of "the indivisibility of truth/reality" . Since this goes beyond what is expressed in terms of being conventionally established and ultimately not established, this luminous primordial knowing as the basic expanse is described as "great utterly pure spontaneity" . And since it also does not exist as anything like the two truths of appearance and emptiness proclaimed in the philosophical systems, these [two] are described in terms of the indivisibility of truth/reality.297

What is at issue in this Mantrayana-oriented reintepretation of ' truth ' is something

like the Heideggerian distinction between truth as correspondence, the agreement

(confirmation or disconfirmation) between propositions and states of affairs , and a more

elementary form of truth as disclosure which is simply the display of a state of affairs, and

297 Yid bzhin mdzod 'grel: I 396.5 f. : 'ad gsal ba 'i ye shes de la 'khor ba kun rdzob pa 'i snang ba sprin dang 'dra bas reg pa med pas 'khrul par snang ba tsam du 'ang ma grub I de ma grub pa nal snang tshod stong nyid du gzhal ba 'i don dam ma grub l de gnyis ma grub pas grub mthas gzhal ba 'i bden gnyis kyi dbye ba gang du 'ang grub pa med] de med pas bios bden rdzun du sgro btags pa 'i bden gnyis las 'das te spros pa thams cad zhi ba 'di nil btags pa 'i bden pa ma grub pas kyang bden pa dbyer med ces brjod lal kun rdzob tu grub pa dang don dam du ma grub par brjod du med pasl dbyings 'ad gsal ba 'i ye shes nil lhun grub rnam dag chen po zhes brjod kyangl grub mthar grags pa 'i snang stong dbyer gnyis Ita bur med pas kyang bden pa dbyer med ces bya bar brjod pa yin te l l

1 1 1

therefore the condition of possibility of propositional truth. 298 For Klong chen pa, the shift in

perspective concerning truth coincides with the transition from representational thinking to

primordial knowing . From a disclosive standpoint, ' emptiness ' is not in the first instance a

deductively formulated account of a state of affairs but describes the prepredicative display

of a state of affairs before its being channeled through the categories of representational

thinking and reified as this or that. Hence the emphasis on the indivisibility of presence and

emptiness .

Now, the roots of the rDzogs chen rejection of what is sometimes called an exclusive

or sheer emptiness (stong nyid rkyang rna) can be traced to early discourses on

nonconceptuality, as epitomized in one of the oldest rDzogs chen texts, the six-line Rig pa 'i

khu byug. The middle two lines of this text state :

Though the way things really are is nonconceptual, It is ' all good ' [Samantabhadra] and shines forth in [all] aspects . 299

A commentary on this text in the bKa ' rna shin tu rgyas pa300 interprets these lines as

confirming that the basic nature of phenomena is indeed nonconceptual and therefore

298 In Being and Time, Heidegger ( 1 962 : 2 1 8 f.) famously distinguishes the traditional Aristotelian conception of truth as correspondence, i .e . the agreement between thought and thing (adequatio intellectus et rei), from a deeper sense of truth as disclosure (ancient Greek aletheia, 'unconcealment') , the original clearing or opening onto a world that makes any knowing of things qua things possible. Heidegger significantly shifts the locus of truth from the thought, belief or statement to the original disclosure-discovering of what shows itself. It is important to recognize that in doing so Heidegger did not question the validity of the claim that propo sitional truth (or ' correctness 'as he sometimes called it) consists in the correspondence between our beliefs or utterances and states of affairs . What he did criticize was the way in which such correspondence is typically construed as an agreement between representations and obj ects, the assumption underlying all meditational epistemologies. Heidegger' s notion of disclosure/unconcealment was not intended to replace or revise propositional truth but rather to articulate the condition of its possibility. In taking his account of un concealment as explaining how it is possible for propositions to correspond to the world, Heidegger made unconcealment the ground of propositional truth. In his essay "Moira," Heidegger ( 1 975 : 97 f.) writes: "The essence of aletheia remains veiled. The visibility it bestows allows the presencing of what is present to arise as outer appearance [Aussehen] (eidos) and aspect [Gesicht] (idea). Consequently, the perceptual relation to the presencing of what is present is defined as ' seeing' (eidenai). Stamped with this character of vision, knowledge and the evidence of knowledge cannot renounce their essential derivation from luminous disclosure, even where truth has been transformed into the certainty of self-consciousness. Lumen naturale, natural light, i .e . , the illumination of reason, already presupposes the disclosure of the duality [i .e . , of the presencing of what is present] . The same holds true of the Augustinian and medieval views of light - not to mention their Platonic origins - which could only develop under the tutelage of an Aletheia already reigning in the destiny of the duality. "

299IOL 647 Ch.73-III-20 [29] : fol . I a. l : ji bzhin pa zhes myi rtog kyangl rnam par snang mdzad kun tu bzangl l Note that although rnam par snang mdzad is also the Tibetan translation of 'Vairocana' , central deity of the five buddha families, the commentaries only interpret it literally as "the shining forth of aspects" , whereas kun tu bzang clearly refers to Samantabhadra, the central deity in the emerging rDzogs chen system.

1 12

inaccessible to transitive-ideational forms of meditation. It goes on to state, however, that

this suchness "is declared to ' shine forth in all aspects ' in order to to show that this is not

like the ' freedom from elaboration' (ni�prapafica : spros bral) of the incompatible

Madhyamaka [system] . , ,301 The Madhyamaka system mentioned here must be the

*Svatantrika-Madhyamaka that had been introduced to Tibet in the eighth century by

Santarak�ita and further promoted by his disciple Kamalaslla. It is not yet the *PrasaIigika

Madhyamaka tradition of Nagarjuna and Candraklrti that increasingly comes to prominence

in the classical period. So it is interesting that Klong chen pa will later draw a similar

contrast between rDzogs chen and the *PrasaIigika Madhyamaka in his mature Chos dbying

mdzod 'grel, this despite his explicit endorsement of the latter ' s philosophy:

The methods of evaluating reality employed by this tradition of natural Great Perfection - such as the freedom from discursive elaborations (ni�prapafica) - are largely in accord with the *PrasaIigika Madhyamaka. That said, the Madhyamaka takes as its ground the deduction that things are completely empty (stong stong po) like space. Here, on the other hand, we take open awareness alone as the ground, just as it nakedly reveals itself in its original purity, unceasing yet not established [as anything] . On this basis, we evaluate this [awareness] and all the phenomena manifesting within its range to be free from limitations like space.302

Underlying the persistent rDzogs chen critique of taking emptiness as an end in itself

is an affirmation of the basic dynamism and fecundity of lived experience ( rig pa) that is

disclosed to the extent that the abstractions and reifications that distort and conceal it have

subsided. The main point can be expressed in this way: when all that is added to life by way

of superimpositions and elaborations is stripped away, what remains is not simply neutral or

merely empty (stong nyid rkyang ma) but emphatically positive (kun tu bzang po) .

300 NyKs vol. 1 03 : 327 f.. Unfortunately, most of the commentaries on the early Sems sde works contained in the bKa ' rna collections provide no information on authorship or place of composition. One exception is the rTse rno byung rgyal 'gre! pa that is ascribed to gNubs chen (and is intringuingly similar in language and content to the Rig pa khu byug gi 'grel pa and some of the other commentaries) . A close philological, historical and thematic analysis of this commentarial literature would greatly improve our understanding of the early development of rDzogs chen.

30 ] NyKs vol . 1 03 : 3 3 3 .6 f.: rni rnthun pa 'i dbu ma 'i spros bral lta bu ma yin par ston pa 'i phyirl rnam par snang mdzad zhes pal l

302 Chos dbyings rndzod 'greI 322.4 f. : rang bzhin rdzogs pa chen po 'di 'i lugs kyis mtha ' bral la sogs pa 'i 'jal tshul phal cheri dbu rna thai 'gyur dang mtshungs pa lasl dbu mar stong stong po nam mkha ' 'dra ba rtsis gzhir byed pal 'dir rig pa ka nas dag pa rjen zang nge ba ma grub la mi 'gag pa tsam de la gzhir byas nasi de dang de 'i ngang las shar ba 'i chos rnams mtha ' grol nam mkha ' ltar 'jal ba ste l l . . .

1 13

Primordial knowing is characterized as being both empty and luminous (stong gsal dbyer

med) . In later formulations, it is held to be originally pure (ka dag) in being devoid of any

trace of substances and attributes yet spontaneously present (lhun grub) in being naturally

replete with all positive qualities and capacities . It is further characterized as being

compassionately responsive (thugs rje) in an all-pervasive (kun khyab) manner .

This last point resonates, in interesting ways, with Heidegger ' s insight in Being and

Time that human life has , at its most fundamental level of world-comportment, a care

structure that is common to all our ways of being human.303 Stated otherwise, things and

beings , ourselves included, fundamentally matter to us; we have a stake in being (and

belonging) and live, to a large extent, in light of our future possibilities . We can conclude

this discussion by simply noting, without further elaboration, the momentous ethical

implications of this insight. If caring, altruistic behaviour is in the first instance a matter of

who we are rather than how we ought to act, then it is to the constitutive structures of human

existence and not to prescriptive forms of reasoning that we should turn to discover its

sources . In this regard, the rDzogs chen analysis of primordial knowing is at the same time a

clarification of the existential foundations of ethics .

In this chapter, my philosophical task has been to show that the historical

development of rDzogs chen was characterized from the outset by a pervasive and persistent

emphasis on primordial awareness as the indispensable precondition and goal of its

doctrines and practices . But this leads unavoidably to questions of evidence and legitimacy:

on what basis can this mode of awareness be verified and accorded primacy, especially in

view of its notoriously inconspicuous and elusive character? Also, why and how should it be

distinguished from much of what is customarily associated with mind - reflection,

representation, ideation and the like? Such vexing questions appear to have increasingly

taken on the status of exigencies for rNying rna scholars in the classical period in the face of

303 See Heidegger 1 952 : 225 f .. See also Dreyfus 1 99 1 : 23 8 f .. This care structure is linked with the predominantly futural orientation of human existence. We live always in light of future possibilities. This anticipatory structure of lived temporality carries the implication that our orientation to the world, our self-understandings and our relationships to the things and beings around us, are all guided by an awareness of potentiality as much as actuality. It would be interesting to consider buddha nature theories in this light.

1 14

growing criticisms leveled by opponents cif the ascendant gSar rna traditions . It is to some of

these scholars ' more cogent and illuminating responses that we now turn our attention .

1 15

3 I Classical Justifications of the Mind/primordial Knowing Distinction

This chapter looks at some of the key arguments that have been used to justify and

defend the distinction between dualistic mind (sems) and primordial knowing (ye shes) . Of

particular interest are those adumbrated by Klong chen rab 'byams pa in a number of his

treatises, commentaries and poetic works . In a wide range of doctrinal contexts , Klong chen

pa will argue that the entire edifice of Buddhist doctrine becomes incoherent in theory and

amiss in practice when one fails to recognize the primacy of a primordial mode of

awareness and to unequivocally distinguish it from dualistic mind. This chapter will first

examine some of his arguments used to convince his audience of the acceptability of such a

distinction in light of theoretical and practical drawbacks of not recognizing it. It will then

focus on two types of transcendental argument (of the general form ' for y to be possible x

must be the case ' ) that Klong chen pa repeatedly invokes to show that the mind/primordial

knowing distinction was not only tacitly presupposed in Indian Buddhist soteriology but

was , in fact, indispensable for making sense of the path and goal-realization.

§ 1 . Why the Distinction?

Why does Klong chen pa consider the mind/primordial knowing distinction so

crucial for the understanding and practice of Buddhism in general , and of rDzogs chen in

particular? In arguing for the validity and relevance of a radical distinction between

conditioned and unconditioned modes of awareness , the author delineates certain theoretical

and practical drawbacks of not allowing for such a distinction. One theoretical consequence

is a failure to recognize mind' s obscurational and obstructive nature. This is the target of an

argument advanced in Klong chen pa 's Sems dang ye shes kyi dri Ian (Reply to Questions

Concerning Mind and Primordial knowing) , a short treatise written in response to questions

posed by his disciple and biographer Chos grags bzang po ( 14th century) ?04 Klong chen pa

there addresses an opponent who fails to distinguish bodhicitta generated by an aspiring

bodhisattva from bodhicitta understood as the goal of such aspiration. In the relevant

304 For an annotated translation and critical edition ofthis text see "Texts and Translations" : 269-95 .

1 1 6

passage305, Klong chen pa ' s opponent deems it untenable to maintain that mind and mental

factors are obscurations on the basis of two considerations : ( 1 ) because one generates the

mind of awakening (byang chub sems : bodhicitta) and (2) because Mind as such (sems nyid)

is held to be one ' s spiritual potential (khams) . The gist of his objection is this : if mind is

indeed obscurational, why would any Buddhist whose goal it is to be freed from

obscurations , want to cultivate or realize it? Klong chen pa sees this objection as

symptomatic of the general failure to distinguish conditioned dualistic mind (sems) from

unconditioned Mind as such (sems nyid) . Taking each point in turn, he states :

[A] With regard to 'producing the mind' [of awakening] , i s this not also a conceptualizing that involves accepting [some things] and rejecting [others] in the context of saf!lsara [and hence obscured]? If so, it would ultimately have to cease .

[B] But if one were to speak about Mind as such [in this way] then this would be inappropriate because it cannot be established given that there is neither produced nor producer [i .e . no causality] . 306

On Klong chen pa ' s understanding of the issue, the failure to distinguish mind and

Mind as such, or what are traditionally called conventional and ultimate bodhicitta ,

constitutes a version of what Gilbert Ryle called a 'category mistake ' 307 , talking of

something in terms appropriate to something of a radically different kind . In the case of

generating bodhicitta , the opponent has wrongly ascribed characteristics associated with

dualistic mind (sems) - conceptualization, acceptance and rejection, causal efficacy - to

Mind as such (sems nyid) , an originary nonconceptual mode of awareness that cannot be

established in terms of causal production. He has confused the process of awakening with its

goal and therefore fails to see mind as obscurational . For Klong chen pa, this category

mistake stems from a lack of conceptual precision and signals a need to properly formulate

the requisite distinction:

It seems [here] that one has not properly distinguished between mind (sems) and Mind as such (sems nyid) . Since 'mind ' involves conceptual and analytic factors of mind-streams belonging to the three realms, it is that which grasps erroneous

305 For full passage, see under "Texts and Translations" : 274 f . .

306 Sems dang ye shes kyi dris lan, 3 82 .6 f . . See below 274.

307 Ryle 1 949: 1 7 .

1 17

superimposed aspects together wIth the all-ground [comprising] the eightfold cognitive ensemble. As the Satyadvayavibha1iga maintains :

' Conceptualization ' consists of mind and mental factors Having superimposed aspects that constitute the three realms . 308

' Mind as such ' is luminous primordial knowing, the tathagatagarbha . Thus It IS when mind ceases or no longer functions that Mind as such, luminous primordial knowing, shines forth as personally realized intuitive awareness . As the A�tasahasrikaprajfiaparamita [5b. 1-2] states :

That Mind is not mind; Mind ' s nature is luminous.309

[Objection : ] But doesn 't great Mind (sems chen po) exist on the level of buddhahood?

[Reply : ] This refers to great primordial knowing (ye shes chen po) . It agrees completely with descriptions of the ' great passions ' as [expressions of] primordial knowing that are found in the tantras . In short, mind together with its mental factors belonging to the three realms and subject to latent tendencies transmitted since beginningless time are shown to have the two obscurations [intellectual and emotional] as their nature and to be produced. And thus they are explained as something to be eliminated and that must be stopped. 3 10

In his later Theg mchog mdzod, Klong chen pa turns his critique on those who follow

canonical distinctions between mind and primordial knowing yet proceed to take mind as

ground, path and goal where path (lam) is understood as a linear succession of causes and

308 Full title : Satyadvayavibhangakarika. Tib. Eden pa gnyis rnam par 'byed pa 'i tshig Ie 'ur byas pa, in D no. 3 8 8 1 , dbu lO a, vo! ' SA: 2 . I . For English translation, see Eckel 1 987.

309 As noted previously (79, n. 1 97), this passage is often cited by Klong chen pa as scriptural support for the semslsems nyid distinction. The author interprets the first occurrence of sems ("that mind", sems de or the less accurate sems la in the version at his disposal) as a reference to Mind as such (sems nyid) and the second occurrence as a reference to dualistic mind (sems). Although the sfitra itself does not offer any clear terminological distinction of this kind but simply reads tatM hi tac cittam acittam (see below 307 n. 754 for full passage), Klong chen pa may have based his interpretation on the commentary of Ratnlikarasfmti (A9.tasahasrika-prajnaparamitapai1jzkii D : fo! ' 1 8a) where the nondual mind of bodhisattvas is claimed to be distinctly superior to the minds of sentient beings which are not free from duality and adventious factors such as attachment: de 'i phyir byang chub sems dpa ' rnams kyi sems ni sems can thams cad las khyad par du 'phags pa yod par 'dod del des kyang rlom sems su mi byed na tha mal pa 'i sems kyis Ita smos kyang ci dgos zhes bya ba 'i don ci dgos zhes bya ba 'i don tal de ci 'i slad du zhe nal zhes bya ba ni mam pa gang gis de fa rfom sems med pa yin zhe nal 'di ftar zhes bya ba fa sags pas Ian smras sol sems de ni sems ma mchis pa zhes bya ba ni gzung ba dang 'dzin pa gnyis la de mi snang ba 'i phyir rol gal te sems med na 'on kyang de sems !wi rang bzhin ni 'ad gsal ba zhes smos sol ji ltar 'ad gsaf ba yin zhe nal gang gi phyir sems ni 'dod chags la sags pa dang dang po nas mi fdan pa yin te l de dag ni rang bzhin gyis glo bur ba yin pa 'i phyir rol de nyid kyi phyir phyis kyang bral ba med dol l

3 1 0 Sems dang ye shes kyi dris fan : 383 .2 f.. See critical edition under "Texts and Translations".

1 18

effects (with the two accumulations as 'causes ' ) from a starting point (gzhi) toward a pre­

established telos ( 'bras bu) . That they do so "in the context of an exoteric vehicle concerned

with objective references" reflects their inability to escape from the grip of representational

thinking . Construing the path as an objective framework into which the individual must

somehow fit himself precludes recovering the pre-representational space of freedom in

which such objectifications have fallen away:

Also, as for fools who do not know how to distinguish between mind and Mind as such, they are just blatantly arrogant people who pride themselves in knowing the canon. Thus, having properly distinguished mind and primordial knowing, they nonetheless proceed to take mind as the ground, path and goal in the context of an exoteric vehicle concerned with objective references; but they all fail to discover what these [three] are all about . So in this [rDzogs chen] vehicle, we are swiftly free from sarpsara because we posit that primordial knowing is ground, path and goal of buddhahood. For those others who hope for spiritual awakening from what is fundamentally sarpsara, it is difficult for them to attain it even after a long time because of their confusion about how to construe the ground. As the Kun tu bzang po thugs kyi me long [Ati vol . 1 , 258 .4] declares :

Those who claim buddhahood derives from mind deviate from me ! 3 1 1

The rDzogs chen sNying thig tantras and their commentaries repeatedly emphasize

the drawbacks of not recognizing this distinction. A case in point is a section in the sixty­

ninth chapter of the Rig pa rang shar entitled "Invalidating All Points of Disputation" ( rgol

ba thams cad sun 'byin pa) . The relevant passage advances a series of arguments in defence

of the distinction between mind and primordial knowing that are cast in the form of "a

dialogue with open awareness involving logical debate that summarizes the contradictions in

[considering these] two to be identical" . 3 1 2 This passage, presented as a kind of primer for

defending the validity of the distinction in the context of logical debate, begins as follows :

Concerning the claims of certain people, [Some] claim that goal-realization is to be sought in mind. This [claim] may be countered as follows . "To what extent i s mind a real entity?" They may develop an answer to this question as follows : "Given that nothing entitative exists in the mind . . . "

3 1 1 Theg mehog mdzod: 1 044. 1 f. . See edited text under "Texts and Translations".

3 1 2 Tshig don mdzod 928.4 f. : gnyis geig pa la 'gal bsdud pa 'i rig pa dri Ian rgal rtsod dang beas par gsungs pa . . . 1 1

1 19

"Well then, [we say] what are the defining characteristics of mind?" They may develop an answer to this question as follows : "The characteristic of mind is the basic nature (chos nvid) ." You can counter this by stating: 3 13 "Given that nothing entitative exists in the mind, Do subject and object exist within its basic nature or not?" In response to this question they may elaborate : 3 14 "How could the subject object duality exist in the basic nature? For example, it is like the characteristics of space Because subject and object do not exist [therein] ." You may then respond with these words : "Do subject and object exist in mind or not?" They may develop an answer to this question as follows : "Although subject and object are present in mind, Its basic nature is without subject and object." You may then utter the following response : "You thereby violate your previous thesis : Why? Because mind and its basic nature were [deemed] identical . If subject and object occur in mind, Then one could not discover buddhahood by striving for it . Why? Because subject and object exist in mind. , ,3 15

In this dialogue (similar in form to a Socratic elenchus or argument of refutation) , the

opponent in the debate is forced to accept, on the basis of his own presuppositions,

conclusions at odds with his own original beliefs . Here the opponent assumes an identity

between mind and its basic nature and on this basis asserts that goal-realization is to be

sought in or by means of mind. Through an interrogation of the absurd and undersirable

consequences of the presuppositions, he is led to accept that the mind ' s characteristic

SUbject/object structure makes it radically distinct from, and parasitic on, its fundamental

nondual nature and therefore unable to serve as a basis for realizing this nature.

3 13 I have inserted two lines that occur in Tb though not in Tk, Ati, Theg mchog mdzod or Tshig don mdzod. These additional lines are integral to the debate and make the argument more intelligible. See critical edition under "Texts and Translations".

3 14 These two lines occur in Tb and Tk . . . but not in Theg mchog mdzod.

3 15 Ati vol. 1 : 730.6 f.; Tk vol. 1 0 : 24 1 . 5 f. ; Tb vol. 1 1 : 588 .7 f .. See edited text under Theg mchog mdzod section of "Texts and Translations".

120

§2 . Some Consequences of Not Distinguishing Mind and Primordial knowing

The failure to differentiate mind and primordial knowing lends itself to two basic

kinds of erroneous premise that are identified and criticized by Klong chen: ( 1 ) that mind is

unceasing and (2) that cessation of mind (cittanirodha : sems 'gog pa)3 16 is possible but

results in a blank state utterly devoid of cognition . Each of these general premises will in

turn lead to certain contemplative pitfalls . ( 1 ) The claim that mind is unceasing, that

conceptualization continues inexorably, rests on a failure to distinguish Mind as such from

its nominalizing and reifying operations . Klong chen pa sees it as a failure , in

phenomenological terms, to distinguish reflective-thematic and prereflective non-thematic

modes of intentional awareness, one that leads to the incorrect view that all c onscious

experience is conceptual through and through, that all understanding involves using

concepts to make sense of things . This kind of view, long presupposed in many Western and

Eastern epistemologies, assumes (to quote Hubert Dreyfus) "that there is only one kind of

intelligibility, the unified understanding we have of things when we make judgements that

objectify our experience by bringing it under concepts ." 3 17 Klong chen pa is clearly opposed

to such a position and suggests , in his Sems nyid ngal gso 'grel, that the kind of intelligibility

based on conceptual judgement presupposes another kind of intelligibility already implicit

in our most basic nonconceptual interaction with things and beings around us :

Those who are [partially] blinded by the myodesopsia3 1 8 of ignorance [and] who claim that mind is unceasing are confused. While objects are present in sensory perception even during meditative composure, the cognitive capacity involved in conceptualization and analysis nonetheless ceases . . . In brief, "mind and mental factors" refer to the arising of conceptualization and analysis of objects that is ostensibly causally produced by the subject -object [dichotomy] . "Primordial

3 1 6 For an illuminating study of cessation of mind (cittanirodha) doctrines in Indian Buddhism with particular attention to Abhidharma and Yogacara meditative systems, see Griffiths 1 99 1 . There has not yet been a study of such doctrines in Madhyamaka, tantric or indigenous Tibetan contemplative systems though such a study would be of considerable interest. 3 1 7 Hubert Dreyfus, "Introduction I" in Todes 200 1 : xv. 3 1 8 Rab rib (Skt. tim ira) is often, though incorrectly, translated as cataracts or glaucoma. It seems rather to describe an optic condition known as myodesopsia, more commonly known as '"floaters". In those afflicted, deposits of varying size, shape and consistency within the vitreous humour cause them to perceive hair-like floaters (often what look like falling hairs) in the visual field. I thank my wife, Dr. Naseem Janmohamed, for this information. See also httu;L6yww. nei . n i h . g,o.y!heall h! glaucQll.li!Lg 1 aucn m a facts. asp

12 1

knowing" refers to a [simple] object awareness in which the subject-object dichotomy has completely subsided.3 19

(2) A corrollary of the view that dualistic mind is unceasing is the view that the

cessation of mind is possible but leads to a state devoid of all consciousness . This follows

logically, for if all conscious activity is conceptual and if conceptual knowledge is our only

source of intelligibility, its disruption must result in an unconscious state .320 One

consequence of this view is to espouse cognitive nihilism and take a sheer emptiness - "a

state devoid of anything whatsoever" - as the basis of contemplation. But basing one ' s path

on a sheer voidness devoid of anything whatsoever, as Klong chen pa contends in his Sems

ye dris lan , proves self-stultifying : instead of eliciting the inborn qualities (yon tan) inherent

in one ' s natural condition, it leads to their suppression or negation, a condition akin to the

early Buddhist attainment of an unconscious but still mundane formless meditation that is

the very antithesis of existential disclosure :

Thus we have ascertained by way of the view (Zta ba) that primordial knowing in its luminosity constitutes the ever-present ground of being. These days, most ' spiritual friends ' and all ' great meditators ' are in agreement in taking an utter emptiness devoid of anything whatsover as the ground. This does not agree with the import of Buddhist discourses [of the third turning] that are of quintessential meaning. The goal, i .e . buddhahood endowed with all inborn qualities , does not arise by virtue of experiencing a ground that is simply nothing at all . [Why?] Because the three aspects of ground, path and goal are misconstrued and because buddhahood being an actualization of the goal of emancipation is unconditioned and endowed with spontaneously present qualities . Therefore, these [views] and the view of the peak of worldly existence321 would seem to be the same.322

3 1 9 Sems nyid ngaf gso 'gref: 1 32 .5 f. : de fa mi shes pa 'i rab rib kyis fdongs pa dagl sems mi 'gag par 'dod pa ni rmongs pa ste l 'di ftar mnyam par bzhag pa 'i tshe na 'ang dbang shes fa yuf snang yang rtog dpyod kyi shes pa 'gag stel . . . mdor na gzung 'dzin mngon du rgyus bskyed pa 'i yuf fa rtog dpyod du skyes pa ni sems sems byung zhes bya fal gzung 'dzin nye bar zhi bas yul rig pa ni ye shes zhes bya ste l l 320 See Fasching 2008 for an account of Hindu Yoga interpretations of cittanirodha as not involving a total cessation of cognitive functioning. "One would expect that to be cognitively inactive in this way is to be in a quite dull , if not almost unconscious, state. The suprising fact is that the opposite is the case, it is a state of being wide­awake . . . Consciousness is precisely what meditation is all about: The task is to remain fully awake while letting all intentional activity come to a halt (meditation means to inhibit everything but being conscious) , one is simply conscious without doing much else." (465) 321 On 'peak of worldly existence' (bhaviigra : srid rtse), see below 272 n. 643 and corresponding passage in critical edition of Sems dang ye shes kyi dris fan under "Texts and Translations" 322 Sems dang ye shes kyi dris fan : 3 80.3 f.. See critical edition under "Texts and Translations".

122

This passage suggests why Klong chen pa will consider the recognition of one ' s

existential condition (vin lugs) understood as a spiritual affiliation (rigs : gotra) o r spiritual

potential (khams : dhatu) - the focal point of sutras of the third turning - to be of central

importance . The sense that one has hidden depths , that somewhere - in some activity or

condition - lies a fullness and richness awaiting discovery seems central to Buddhist

soteriology, just as it was to the Buddha ' s own circuitous quest. 323 To construe fulfillment in

purely negative terms, as an absence of suffering, of emotionality and discursiveness , as

absence per se, is clearly only part of the picture and may, if taken as an end in itself, lead to

the negation of spiritual awakening. The question becomes whether the immediacy of

prethematized experience is mute or meaningful . Klong chen pa ' s arguments for the

primacy of primordial knowing go hand in hand with the recognition of a depth dimension

of experience - as part of an integral approach that makes room for a sense of fullness as

well as emptiness .

§3 . Criticisms of the Cessation of Jfiiina Doctrine

Another related position that Klong chen pa attributes to the lack of clear

differentiation between sems and ye shes consists in the thesis that all knowledge (jiiana : ye

323 My use of 'fullness ' here is not merely provocative. I employ it as a shorthand term for a large family of rDzogs chen technical terms - among them ye shes rtsal rdzogs, gzhi 'i yon tan, rang bzhin lhun grub, and rdzogs pa chen po itself - that describe a condition of abundance, richness and fecundity toward which one aspires that becomes explicit by way of realizing emptiness, the absence of all reification. It should be noted that the creative juxtaposition of negative (apophantic) and positive (cataphatic) modes of discourse is central to the rDzogs chen characterization of reality as the indivisibility of emptiness (stong) and presence (snang), of primal purity (ka dag) and spontaneity (lhun grub). The emptiness/fullness dialectic is crucial to Klong chen pa' s understanding goal­realization as a clearing process - the dissipation (sangs) of obscuring factors and concurrent expansion (rgyas) of inborn capabilities (yon tan). This dialectic can be traced through many scriptural traditions of Indian Buddhism including the tantras, siddha works and Mahayana sutras of the third turning. A striking example is the paradoxical formulation ' emptiness endowed with all excellent aspects ' (Skt. sarvakaravaropeta siinyata=Tib. rnam pa kun gyi mchog ldan pa 'i stong pa nyid) found in the Ratnagotravibhaga 1 .92 which occupies an important place in non­gradual Mahamudra teachings of the Tibetan bKa' brgyud traditions (especially the Stod 'brug lineages) as well as in later rNying rna exegesis. On this term in bKa' brgyud ( 'Brug pa) exegesis, see Yang dgon pa' s Ri chos Yon tan kun 'byung gi than thabs chen mo (Yang dgon gsung 'bum vol. 3 ) : 64.5 ; 'Ba' ra ba rGyal mtshan dpal bzang' s Ngo sprod bdun ma' i 'grel pa Man ngag rin po che ' i sgron me : 276.4 and Padma dkar po ' s Phyag chen gan mdzod, 67,78, 1 03 , 1 1 0 etc. Among rNying rna interpretations of the term, see Mi pham 'Jam dbyangs rgya mtsho ' s gNyug sems zur dpyad skor gyi gsung sgros thor bu rnams Phyogs gcig tu bsdus pa rDo rje rin po che 'i phreng ba where he repudiates the dGe lugs pa understanding of the term as an explicit, non-affirming negation (med dgag) (687.5 f) or sheer nothingness (stong rkyang) (70 1 .3) .

123

shes) ceases to exist on the level of buddhahood.324 This position is advanced in a number of

8 th to 9th century Indian Madhyamaka texts and appears to have been a hotly debated

polemical issue up until the demise of Buddhism in India. It was taken up by Tibetan

Buddhist scholars from at least as early as the late 8th century and has been vigorously

defended or criticized by representatives of various schools to the present day . 325

There was a semantic element of this controversy that we have had occasion to take

note of previously, namely, that the Sanskrit term jfiiina possessed many different, and

sometimes divergent, connotations . We may recall gTsug lag 'phreng ba' s ( 1 503/4- 1 566)

observation that jfiiina could refer, on the one hand, to the consciousness (vijfiiina) of a

sentient being and, on the other hand, to the primordial knowing (jfiiina) of a realized being,

and that the early Tibetan translators therefore deemed it necessary to render it by different

Tibetan terms (shes pa, mam shes, ye shes) according to context. As gTsug lag notes, "when

mam shes and ye shes are distinguished [in the Tibetan language] , the subject/object­

oriented mind that should be purified [is explained by the term] ' consciousness ' (mam shes)

whereas the naturally luminous nature of phenomena ( ' od gsal ba ' i chos nyid) is explained

by the term 'primordial knowing ' (ve shes)" .326 In this regard, it was partly due to this

324 A detailed historical and doctrinal analysis of this Indo-Tibetan controversy with emphasis on clarifying Rong zorn Chos kyi bzang po ' s position is offered by Almogi 2009. While Rong zorn pa clearly denies the existence of any cognitive element in the experience of Buddhahood, he nonetheless elsewhere describes self-occuring primordial knowing (rang byung gi ye shes) as being synonymous with purified dharmadhatu, the only constituent (chos) of buddha hood on his account. Rong zorn pa' s diplomatic disinclination to categorically deny the existence of primordial knowing - "Because a buddha 's jFianas are inconceivable, we do not commit the offensive [act] of rej ecting them." - influenced later attempts by Mi pham rgya mtsho ( 1 846- 1 9 1 2) to align Rong zorn' s position with the classical rNying rna espousal of primordial knowing by contending that the latter only excluded extrinsic primordial knowing (gzhan byung gi ye shes) from the level of buddhahood but not self-occuring primordial knowing (rang byung gi ye shes) . This interpretation, as Almogi notes, downplays Rong zorn pa' s explicit rejection of any cognitive factor in the dharmadhiitu which he also terms self-occuring primordial knowing, clearly following a certain Indian tradition represented by Dharmamitra (see Almogi 2009 : 2 1 1 ) . "The crucial difference . . . is that for Rong-zom-pa, self-occuring primordial knowing is not a cognitive phenomena in any sense of the term, thus begging the question why it is called gnosis in the first place, whereas for Mi-pham it is the ultimate valid cognition." (Almogi 2009: 232) . I am grateful to Dr. Almogi for additional clarifications of Rong zorn pa's position in personal correspondence.

325 The issue is already discussed by the famous Tibetan translator Ye shes sde (second half of 8tl1 century to early 9th

century) . For an account of various positions on the controversy as advocated by Indian and Tibetan scholars, see Almogi 2009.

326 Byang chub sems dpa 'i spyod pa la 'jug pa 'i rnam par bshad pa Theg chen chos kyi rgya mtsho Zab rgyas mtha ' yas pa 'i snying po : 764.6 f. : rnam shes dang ye shes 'byed pa 'i tshe yang dag bya gzung 'dzin gyi sems la rnam shes dang rang bzhin gyis 'od gsal ba 'i chos nyid la ye shes kyi sgras bshad pa yin zhing 'di ni yod med la sogs pa sgro skur gyi rnam pa gang du yang mi gnas pa 'i phyir rol

124

semantic ambivalence of the term jfiiina arid partly due to the all-too human proclivity to

attribute characteristics of human cognition to the transcendent realization of a buddha that

the Indian *Prasangika-Madhyamaka philosophers found it expedient to baldly declare that a

buddha has no jfiiina, though gTsug lag adds that this view did not preclude a positive

appraisal of goal-realization: "Thus, the classical scriptures of the profound view explain

that even jfiiina does not exist in order to demolish [any] clinging to perceptual cognition

being established as jfiiina , but they did not [thereby] teach that the buddhahood revealed

was some lifeless matter or emptiness as a sheer vacancy. , ,327 What gTsug lag goes on to

suggest is that the whole controversy over whether or not a buddha has jfiiina is misguided

from the outset since the fundamental (and more interesting) problem is to understand the

complex nature and structure of this buddhajfiiina itself: "the debate over whether or not

buddhas have jfiiina is a biased way of thinking . From the standpoint of the discriminating

[jfiiina] (pratyavek$ana[jfiiina] : so sor rtog pa[ ' i ye shes] ) , they cannot be imputed as not

having it, while from the standpoing of the [jfiiina of the] basic expanse (dharmadhiitujfiiina

: chos dbying kyi ye shes)328, they cannot be imputed as having it. 329

As could be expected, Klong chen pa and other classical rNying rna scholars rejected

the position that a buddha has no jfiiina on the grounds that it disregards a critical distinction

between consciousness per se (the event of presencing itself) and the reifying

superimpositions and elaborations that prescind from it. It is Klong chen pa ' s view that such

an omission leads its adherents to conclude, among other things , that primordial knowing

and the specific forms of knowledge arising from it derive from ignorance, the source of

reification, and are therefore abandoned when the reifications are abandoned. Without

327 Ibid. : 764.4 f. : de nas zab mo Ita ba 'i gzhung du ye shes tsam yang mi mnga ' bar bshad pa ni rnam rig pa ye shes grub par 'dzin pa de gzhig pa 'i phyir bstan gyi sangs rgyas bems po 'am chad stong du ston pa ma yin la . . . 328 gTsug lag (ibid. : 697.3 f. , 76 1 . 1 f.) observes that slitras generally recognize four jnanas that are inseparable from the dharmadhatu (dbyings dang ye shes dbyer med pa) within the state of enlightenment, whereas the tantras explicitly present this dharmadhatu as a fifth jFiana. "In general, the Guhyamantra[yana] explains five jnanas, whereas the Lalqal)a[yana] explain four jnanas without applying the designation 'jnana" to the dharmadhatu . . . " Ibid. : 76 1 . 1 : spyir gsang sngags su ye shes Ingar bshad cing mtshan nyid theg par chos kyi dbyings la ye shes kyi tha snyad ma sbyar bar ye shes bzhir bshad pa . . . The author 's contention that the Buddhabhumisutra (D no. 275, especially 37a. 5 f.) represents one example of a sUtra that does recognize dharmadhiitu as a fifth jniina is not convincingly demonstrated by his supporting quotations.

329 1bid. : 764.7 f. : des na sangs rgyas la ye shes mnga ' mi mnga ' rtsod pa yang phyogs re 'i blo ste so sor rtogs pa 'i ye shes kyi cha nas mi mnga ' bar gdags su med la chos kyi dbyings kyi cha nas mnga ' bar gdags su med . . .

125

differentiating knowledge grounded in nondual primordial knowing - as exemplified by

spontaneous altruism - from knowledge grounded in dualistic ignorance, one risks throwing

out the proverbial baby with the bath water .330 In his Grub mtha ' mdzod, Klong chen pa

casts his opponents ' position in terms of principles of entailment (vyapti) well known from

south Asian epistemology in order to underscore the absurdities that follow from it. If the

position were true, he contends, not only would the entire gamut of Buddhist discourses

concerning spiritual awakening and its associated modes of ethical knowledge and conduct

become meaningless . More seriously, one would be cut off from the vital source of meaning

and fulfillment:

Some who profess to be Madhyamikas [maintain that] since a buddha does not have jfiana , there is no knowledge belonging to jfiana either. This is because knowable objects are discursive elaborations , and he is free from these. It is also because open awareness is [wrongly construed as] what is pervaded [by] ignorance in the sense that by eliminating the pervader, ignorance, one also eliminates open awareness , the pervaded . . .

Open awareness is the basis of ignorance, but not what is pervaded by it. It does not follow, therefore, that by undermining ignorance, open awareness will be undermined. It is like the foundation remaining even though the house has been

330 A trenchant critique of the cessation of jfiiina doctrine is presented by the Zur rNying rna scholar Ye shes rgyal mtshan (b. 1 395) in his Theg pa spyi beings rtsa 'grel, a commentary on the Theg pa dgu 'i spyi beings (KMsg vol. 5 8 : 5-58) of his early Kab thog predecessor (and founder of Kab thog monastery) Dam pa bde gshegs ( 1 1 22- 1 1 92). Ye shes rgyal mtshan there identifies "proponents of non-existence of jfiiina" (ye shes med smra ba) as a subsect of *Prasangikas who proclaim that jfiiina no longer exists in the mental continuum at the time of buddha hood (sangs rgyas dus su thugs rigs pa 'i ye shes med pa). See Theg pa dgu 'i spyi beings, 258 .4 f. The gist of Ye shes rgyal mtshan ' s critique is that proponents of non-existence of jfiiina collapse the distinction between conditioned and unconditioned modes of awareness. "If by overcoming ma rig pa at the time of reaching the end of the paths and levels, rig pa is also overcome, then [one is forced to] absurdly conclude that primordial knowing is of the same nature as the mind that is defilement". Ibid. 255 .20 f. : rgyun mtha 'i dus su ma rig pa log pas rig pa log nal dri ma sems kyi rang bzhin du thall According to Ye shes rgyal mtshan, this denial of buddhajfiiina amounts to a kind of auto-refutation which undercuts the very ideas and ideals that define Buddhist soteriology (often epitmomized as the union of transcendent insight and altruistic conduct). This denial, he argues, has the unfortunate effect of depriving such central Buddhist ideas as the two truths (bden gnyis), the two fulfilments (don gnyis) of oneself and others, and a buddha' s spontaneous altruistic activity ( 'phrin las) of the kind of transcendent knowledge which they in fact presuppose. It is noteworthy that Ye shes rgyal mtshan's views do not reflect those of earlier rNying rna scholars of the Zur tradition (zug lugs) who, like Rong zorn, were inclined to follow the more concilliatory distinction between ( I ) foundational (rten beas) accounts of a buddha' s altruistic activity (mdzadpa) (e.g., Haribhadra, Zhang Shes rab bla rna) accepting the existence ofjfiiina (as a kind of working basis) , (2) foundationless (rten med) accounts (e.g. , Nagarjuna, Rong zorn pa) advocating the non-existence of jfiiina, and (3 ) 'naturalistic' accounts (ngo bo nyid kyi mdzad pa) (e.g. , SrTsif!1ha, Zur chung Shes rab grags pa) that view altruistic activity as an expression of the unceasing creative energy (rtsal) inherent in the nature of Reality itself. On these views according to Zur lugs and Rong-Klong lugs scholars, see Almogi 2009, 1 95 f. .

126

demolished. The dharmakiiya of buddhahood is said to be made evident by open awareness . . .

Although mind ceases, not only does primordial knowing not cease but it i s ever­present as the highest good. Otherwise, on what basis does mind cease? If one claims its functioning is interrupted - a [vacuous] state like space - this would be similar to the Carvaka [position] .

Therefore, mind and mental factors subsumed under the all-ground and eightfold ensemble [of cognitions] are brought to cessation on the basis of primordial knowing, open awareness . . . Therefore the thesis that [a buddha] has jfiiina is the correct one .331

Against those who deny the presence and primacy of primordial knowing, Klong

chen pa will argue, in his Theg mchog mdzod, that the complete cessation of ignorance (ma

rig pa), of which mind is an expression, results not in the dark abyss of a vegetative state

(what cognitive neuroscientists call absence-automatism) but in the realization of a more

originary, less conditioned mode of being and awareness :

Some ignorant people claim "when there is no mind, there is [a state] similar to being inanimate (bems po) or in a stupor (mun pa)" but they have [evidently] learned little: even in the absence of mind, since primordial knowing is present, it is not the case that open awareness [also] ceases . Moreover, through the cessation of ignorance, one ' s deluded mind, the sun of luminous primordial knowing dawns just as with the fading of night comes the dawning of day. 332

To further sharpen the distinction between mind and primordial knowing, Klong chen pa

will unequivocally declare that mind is precisely what distinguishes an ordinary sentient

being (sems can) , literally a 'minded being ' , from a buddha (sangs rgyas) . According to the

Theg mchog mdzod:

33 1 Grub rntha ' rndzod: 99 1 .5 £ : dbu rna par 'dod pa kha cig sangs rgyas la ye shes rned pasl ye shes kyi rnkhyen pa 'ang rned de shes bya spros pa yin lal de dang bral ba 'i phyir dangl rig pa rna rig pa 'i khyab bya yin te l khyab byed rna rig pa ldog pas khyab bya rig pa log pa 'i phyirl . . . rig pa rna rig pa 'i rten yin gyi khab bya rna yin pas rna rig pa log pas rig pa ldog par rni 'gyur te l khang pa zhig kyang sa gzhi gnas pa bzhin nol sangs rgyas pa 'i chos sku rig pas rnngon du yed par gsungs te l . . . serns 'gags kyang ye shes ni rni 'gag gi steng du ches bzang ba de rtag tu yod dol gzhan du na sems gang gi steng du 'gagsl 'jug pa rgyun chad narn rnkha ' ltar 'dod na rgyang 'phen pa dang rntshungs par 'gyur rol des na serns sems byung kun gzhi tshogs brgyad kyis bsdus pa rig pa ye shes kyi steng du 'gag par byed dol . . . ces gsungs pas ye shes yod par gsungs pa 'i phyogs 'os pa nyid dol l

332 Theg rnchog rndzod: 1 04 1 .4 £ . See edited text under "Texts and Translations". Compare with 'Jigs med gling pa's ( 1 729- 1 798) comments in Yon tan rndzod 'grel pt. 4, in 'Jigs gling gsung 'bum vol. 4 : 1 69 .3 £: grub pa 'i rntha ' khyad par can 'di la phyogs sngar 'dzin cing blo yul du rni chud pa dagl serns rned na bern po yin te l sems 'gags dus rig pa 'ang 'gag pa 'i phyir rol zhes 'dod pa ni bdag cag gis bka 'i don dpyis ph yin pa yang rna rig la Ita sgorn spyod pa serns las 'da ' rni nus pas rnarn par shes pa 'i tshogs brgyad dang rna 'dres pa 'i chos nyid kyi gnas lugs ni rna rnthong ngo zhes dam 'cha ' ba ste l serns rned kyang serns nyid ' od gsal ba 'i ye shes yod pas rig pa 'i bdag nyid 'gag pa ga la srid] I

127

In this regard, the term "minded being" (serns can) means one that is endowed with, i .e . has, that mind which obscures open awareness . Since this mind collects karma, it is in error: it sets in motion the process of cyclical existence where one blunders from one confused situation to the next. This mind is divorced from open awareness . When clarified to the point of purity and exhausting [all errancy] , one calls i t buddha (sangs rgyas) because open awareness is then divested of defilement. Therefore , the actual contaminated phenomena to be eliminated are simply mind. As the Mu fig phreng ba [Ati vol . 2, 5 1 7] states :

When free from this mind, there is buddhahood. The defilements of all embodied beings are then exhausted, Animate beings are animated by this mind, Without which there could be no animation. Hence animate beings are similar to machines . 333

Klong chen pa and the tantra he quotes play off the meanings of two standard

Tibetan terms for a living being: 'minded being ' (serns can) and ' animate being ' ( 'gra can) -

literally ' having mind ' and 'having movement ' . But here the relation of 'having ' is seen to

work both ways . To possess a mind is to be possessed by mind. A minded being is a mind­

governed being. By extension, animate beings ostensibly possess movement - we can see

them move - but how they are animated remains unseen. Often, our sources suggest, they are

animated by, controlled by, mind. Mind is what drives the recurrent habitual patterns of

cyclical existence, the automatized routine of actions and reactions that propel beings

inexorably from one situation to the next. It is in this sense that the Mu fig phreng ba refers

to human beings as machines ( ,khrul 'khar) or automatons animated by mind. The simile

poignantly captures the feeling human beings often have of losing control of, or even being

controlled by, their own randomly occurring thoughts . On this account, the question is how

to restore psychic autonomy, how to reclaim control over our minds and lives . In the Chas

dbyings rndzad 'grel, Klong chen pa states :

When open awareness is free from dualistic mind, since it is also, by implication, free from mind' s distorted appearances, there is no 'place to go ' apart from the unique state of buddhahood. This is because the very essence that is buddhahood becomes actualized through freedom from what obscures it. When open awareness is

333 Theg mchog mdzod: 1 039 .3 f. See edited text under "Texts and Translations".

128

associated with mind, it is called 'mind-governed being ' (sems can) . When dissociated from mind, it is called buddha .334

§4. Clarifications and Transcendental Arguments

Central to Klong chen pa's wide-ranging polemic against those who deny the

primacy of primordial knowing is the contention that they are denying something implicit in

and indispensable to their own soteriological frameworks . The arguments he adumbrates

can, I think, be usefully regarded as examples of transcendental argument. 335 In a general

sense, a transcendental argument is one that begins from some indisputable aspect of

experience or discourse (y) and moves to a stronger conclusion that is understood as a

condition for its possibility (x) . It may be formulated as the claim that ' for y to be possible, x

must be the case ' . We can recognize in Klong chen pa' s arguments in support of the

mind/primordial knowing difference two general types of transcendental argument that have

been classified in recent works on the subjece36: ( 1 ) a concept-directed type and (2) an

experience-directed or phenomenological type .

( 1) Concerning the first of these : Klong chen pa will argue that the mind/primordial knowing distinction is implicit in the entire soteriological framework underlying Buddhist doxastic norms and practices . It is here that Klong chen pa invokes a type of modest concept-directed or belief-directed transcendental argument which may be formulated as follows : for y to be possible, x must be the case, where x refers to some concept/belief which is claimed to be indispensable to some framework of concepts/beliefs (y) and whose denial would result in self-

334 Chos dbyings mdzod 'gre!: 494 f.: rig pa sems dang bra! dus sems kyi 'khrul snang dang zhar !a bral basi sangs rgyas nyag gcig las 'gro sa med de l ngo bo sangs rgyas su yin pa de sgrib byed dang bra! bas mngon du gyur ba 'i phyir rol rig pa la sems dang beas dus sems can zerl sems dang bra! dus sangs rgyas zer te I I 335 The bulk of the recent literature on transcendental arguments fa1\s, not suprisingly, into two camps -epistemological and anti-epistemological - both of which are ultimately indebted to Kant. ( 1 ) The epistemological camp, represented by Stroud 1 968, 1 999 and Stern 1 999, 2000 etc. and drawing on analytic philosophers such as P.F. Strawson, Hilary Putnam, Donald Davidson, is largely concerned with assessing the validity of transcendental arguments in answering the skeptical cha1\enge of whether there is an independently existing external world. There is broad consensus that such arguments have proved inconclusive in refuting skepticism. (2) The counter­epistemological camp, represented by Taylor 1 978-9, Rorty 1 97 1 , Guignon 1 983 etc. draws attention to how transcendental arguments (or what Rorty ca1\s 'parasitism' arguments) have been applied by philosophers such as Martin Heidegger, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, and Ludwig Wittgenstein to the task of overcoming epistemology by helping show the subject/object picture on which it depends to derive from a largely unarticulated background of everyday embodied agency with its repetoire of mostly unthematized socialized practices and coping skills.

336 I have here adopted two ofthe four types defined by Stern 2000 : 1 0.

129

contradiction. The point here is that such self-contradiction undermines the entire framework.

(2) Concerning the experience-directed argument, Klong chen pa will offer a phenomenological account of primordial knowing and mind in the context of articulating the conditions for the possibility of nondual experience as well as its obscuration . Here, Klong chen pa uses an experience-directed transcendental argument which may be formulated as follows : for y to be possible x must be the case, where x refers to some implicit mode of experience which is claimed to be indispensable to some more explicit, derivative, mode of experience (y) as the condition of its possibility .

It is important to note that neither form of transcendental argument can tell us anything

conclusive about the ontological status of the world but they do, by way of a chain of

indispensability claims, allow for deeper understandings and articulations of lived

expenence .

( 1 ) Concept-directed transcendental arguments : The indispensability argument for

the mind/primordial knowing distinction takes as its point of departure the assumption that

spiritual awakening (bodhi) , the realization of nondual primordial knowing, is a worthy and

achievable soteriological aim. This is, for any Buddhist, indubitable and beyond cavil .

Otherwise, there would be no point in talking about a Buddhist path or its fruition or

engaging in any of its practices . The idea of nondual primordial knowing is the conditio sine

qua non of Buddhist doxastic norms and practice; to deny it is to render vast regions of

Buddhist discourse about the path and its telos both unintelligible and pointless . Klong chen

pa provides a number of examples in the Theg mchog mdzod, of which the following

reference to the Yogacara/tantric idea of fundamental transformation (gnas 'gyur : asraya­

paravrtti, o-parivrtti) serves our purpose:

Among esoteric scriptures , the Vajrasikharamahaguhyayogatantra337 explains fundamental transformation (gnas 'gyur) in passages such as [the following] : "The five elements of conscious perception are, in their pure state, the nature of the five modes of primordial knowing ." If it were an entity 'mind ' that realized buddhahood, then [concepts such as] "what is to be purified" and "fundamental transformation" would be quite pointless .338

337 P no. 0 1 1 3 : 1 62b2-30 Ib8; D no . 0480 : 274a5-274a5 .

338 Theg mchog mdzod: 1 046.3 . . See edited text under "Texts and Translations".

130

Klong chen pa will extend this same argument to other Buddhist soteriological

models including, as we have seen, the "cessation of mind doctrine". In all these, Klong

chen pa argues, nondual primordial knowing is the point of the path, both in discourse and

praxis . Elsewhere in the Theg rnchog rndzod, Klong chen pa contends that even the term rna

rig pa - ignorance or unawareness - does not make sense without the idea of rig pa . On this

account, rig pa constitutes the basis of the negation (dgag gzhi) in the negative term rna rig

pa . Thus, rig pa (vidya) is by definition a condition for the possibility of rna rig pa (avidya)

by virtue of an asymmetrical entailment relation that cannot be reversed without resulting in

absurdity : "when mind ceases [is negated] , then the basis [i .e . mind] along with its quality,

rna rig pa [ignorance] , also ceases [is negated] . But rig pa [open awareness] does not cease

[is not negated] . Why? Because the basis of the negation [in the negative term rna rig pa] is

rig pa [open awareness] . If rig pa were also to be non-existent, then please consider : with

regard to what would there be a negation? Here by negating rna rig pa [ignorance] along

with its quality, serns [mind] , rig pa [open awareness] unfolds as primordial knowing. , ,339

Klong chen pa will argue for the existence of primordial knowing in much the same

way that Nagarjuna (MMK, 24) argued for the indispensability of emptiness - i.e. the lack of

inherent, independent existence in phenomena - as a precondition for conditioned,

transitory, dependently risen, phenomena, the Buddhist path notwithstanding . To repudiate

emptiness on the grounds that, if true, it would render the path impossible is like sawing the

branch one sits upon or, following an analogy used by Nagarjuna (MMK, 24. 15 ) , like the

herdsman who accuses someone of stealing a horse, forgetting to count the one he himself is

riding on. The point here is that the hersdman ' s accusation is misdirected - emptiness , the

lack of inherent existence, is a necessary condition for any kind of change, spiritual progress

and realization included. It is what the opponent who argues against it must already assume

in order to even mount his argument !

(b) The second prong of Klong chen pa' s arguments draws on an experience-directed

transcendental argument that seeks to articulate primordial knowing as the implicit

condition for what derives , and deviates , from it. In clarifying the 'primordiality ' of

339 For the full argument as it is developed by Klong chen pa in his Theg mchog mdzod: 1 042. 1 f. , the reader is referred to '"Texts and Translations" : 308 f .

13 1

primordial knowing, its primacy over duallstic mind, Klong chen pa will understand it as a

kind of background of relevance and intelligibility. His account is similar, in illuminating

ways, to the kind of transcendental derivations Martin Heidegger employs in Being and

Time to situate discursive operations such as reflecting, theorizing, deliberating, and

explaining within a background understanding (what he sometimes called preunderstanding)

that pervades our primary engagement with the world .

Now clearly Klong chen pa was not initiating a ground-breaking assault on

epistemological foundations in the way Heidegger was, for this type of critique already had

a long history in Indian Buddhism, most devastatingly in the Madhyamaka philosophy. But

what is strikingly original in the works of Klong chen pa and his rDzogs chen sources is

how this return to pretheoretical immediacy, this dedicative receptivity to the originally

unimpeded flux and fullness of lived experience, inspired a global reconfiguration of the

entire Buddhist path around the guiding topos of primordial knowing and its existential

disclosure . Soteriology is here seen as aletheiology - the understanding of truth as

unconcealment, elicited in contemplative praxis, articulated in concepts , and sustained by

the reciprocity between the two .

Experience-directed arguments about the conditions of possibility are carried in

rDzogs chen uses of the term 'primordial ' (ye), as seen, for example, in glosses on the term

ye shes . ' Primordial ' does not here mean temporally prior . Neither does it mean genetically

earlier or historically more primitive. What then is the primordiality that belongs to

primordial knowing? It characterizes an ever-present mode of comportment that comes

before, but also as a condition of, what derives and diverges from it (sems) . It is what one

attends from when one attends to experience, before its becoming reflexively constituted as

a self to whom experience is thought to belong. But primordiality also belongs to that of

which primordial knowing is always and already aware . Klong chen pa clarifies this context­

content relation of primordiality in an elucidation of ye shes given in his Theg mchog mdzod:

1 ) The essence of primordial knowing abides primordially as the factor of knowing that is personally realized intuitive awareness . . .

132

2) The etymology [of primordial knowing] is the realization and understanding (shes pa) of what has been there primordially (ye nas) .340

Or as the author states in his Zab don snying po :

The reason for applying the term [ye shes] is as follows : it is primordial knowing (ye shes) because it knows (shes pa) the ground as it is, [the ground] which is the meaning of primordial (ye) . 341

Needless to say, primordial knowing can only be fully realized in the absence of what

obstructs and obscures it . It is what remains when all that it is not - the hypostates and

discursive elaborations of dualistic thought - has fallen away.

A final instance of Klong chen pa ' s use of indispensability arguments taken from the

Theg mchog mdzod, one that combines concept-directed and experience-directed

formulations , concerns the concept of sangs rgyas (Skt . buddha) and the experience it

describes . 'Buddhahood ' is interpreted on the basis of the two components of the Tibetan

compound as a state in which all that obscures and obstructs awakening has cleared (sangs)

allowing for the flourishing (rgyas) of inborn qualities . On this understanding, sangs rgyas

by definition implies the dissipation of dualistic mind as a precondition for the full

disclosure of primordial knowing. In terms of the experience-directed argument, the modes

of lived experience that enable us to speak of a ground of purification (dag gzhi), something

to be purified (dag bya) , a process of purification (dag byed) , and the goal of purification

(dag 'bras) - in short, the entire aletheiological framework - presuppose a primordial

condition of awareness as their background of salience and intelligibility . Now, if this

dependence relation were reversed such that buddhahood derives from mind, buddhahood

would be subject to the same qualifications as mind - cognitive distortion, dualism,

transience and karmic conditioning . In the context of a section of the Theg mchog mdzod

dedicated to invalidating erroneous lines of thought (gol lugs) by means of reasoning, Klong

chen pa argues :

340 Theg mchog mdzod: 1 07 1 .3 f. : . . . ye shes kyi ngo bo ni so so rang gi rig pa ye nas mkhyen char gnas pa ste l . . . nges tshig n i ye nas gnas p a ' i don rtogs shing shes p a stel l

341 2ab don snying po in 2ab mo yang tig vol . 1 : 453 .4 f : sgra 'jug pa 'i rgyu mtshan nil ye yi don gzhi ji bzhin pa 'i shes pa yin pas na ye shes soi l

l 33

If you construe the triad of buddhahood, the path and goal as deriving from mind, then because this very mind, the basis of [your] construal, is mingled with subject and object, it logically follows that your ground, path and goal are entirely bound up with subject and object as well . If so claimed, there is the absurd consequence that one does not realize buddhahood and, even if one did, it would be of a perverse kind given that it would not be free from subject and object. Further, just as mind amasses a variety of latent tendencies and karma, it logically follows that ground, path and goal do so as well . If so claimed, there is the fallacious consequence that these [latter] are in error.

One could respond to this by arguing back [as follows] : If there were no mind, then there could not be any buddhahood on account of it either, for you too must accept that buddha is characterized as having a mind that undergoes purification. Reply : It is not the case that one is or isn 't a buddha by virtue of [dualistic] mind being present or absent. But it is due to the presence or absence of primordial knowing belonging to dharmakaya . Let us grant it true that one is characterized as a buddha (sangs rgyas) by virtue of the errors of mind having been cleared away (sangs) . But it is not definitive [that buddhahood only implies a cleansed mind] because there is still buddhahood that consists in the spontaneously present ground. Thus [this cleansed mind] is not the actual true [buddhahood] either . And although that which should be purified may have been cleared away (sangs) , that [mind] to be purified which has been cleared away is not [itself] the buddha . And thus buddhahood does not derive from mind.342

Klong chen pa ' s adversary views mind as a necessary condition for buddhahood,

with the implication that one can think or reason one ' s way to enlightenment. But this

makes as little sense as saying that clouds are a necessary condition for a cloudless sky. It

elides the separation between what is cleared and what is revealed. From a rDzogs chen

perspective, mind is manifestly dualistic . As we have seen, its two modes, apprending

subject-oriented mind ( 'dzin pa yul can gyi sems) and apprehended object-oriented mind

(gzung ba yul gyi sems) , together engender the sense we have of being a self-contained

subject over against the world as a totality of independently existing objects .

It should be clear from the foregoing arguments that the disclosure of primordial

knowing involves a quite radical departure from the customary, whether this occurs

gradually as a progressive familiarization with what is at first only dimly sensed, or abruptly

in experiences which disrupt and break through "our ordinary sense of being in the world,

342 Theg mchog mdzod: 1 045 . 1 f.. See edited text under "Texts and Translations" .

134

with its familiar objects, activities and points of reference . , ,343 Seen in this light,

indispensability arguments play the propaedeutic role of intimating the perpetual but elusive

presence of primordial awareness while indicating its radical distinctness from the habitual,

and all this by way of preparation for engaging in the varied rDzogs chen contemplative

practices344 which aim at realizing it directly.

Our foregoing inquiry into the difference between unconditioned and conditioned

modes of awareness leads unavoidably to further questions concerning the constitutive

sources of moral-spiritual awakening and delusion, the origins of freedom (grol ba) and

errancy ( ,khrul pa) within the context of human reality . It is to these questions , addressed in

the context of the rDzogs chen problem of the ground (gzhi) , that we now turn our attention.

343 Charles Taylor 2007 : 5 .

344 Most relevant in this regard are those belonging to the Breakthrough (khregs chad) teachings which occasion the collapse of dualistic mind and simultaneous disclosure of primordial knowing.

135

Part III The Problem of the Ground: The Kun gzhilChos sku Distinction

4 I The Ground in Early rDzogs chen (8th to 1 1 th c.)

§ 1 . B ackground

What is the background of mental activity and of its cessation? Stated otherwise,

what does one attend from when one attends to objects and what remains when such

attending ceases? One traditional answer to this question common to Madhyamaka and

various Tibetan contemplative traditions is 'nothing ' - thoughts come from nowhere,

remain nowhere and go nowhere . This is offered as an insight amenable to personal

verification in certain rDzogs chen and Mahamudra instructions on recognizing the unborn

nature of Mind. The fact nonetheless remains that ' thought ' and 'no thought ' , appearance

and emptiness , only make sense against a background, an ongoing stream of experience that

is constitutive of sentient existence . Such considerations make intelligible why classical

rDzogs chen analyses of dualistic mind and primordial knowing are typically preceded by

an elucidation of their respective ' grounds ' , the all-ground (kun gzhi) and ground proper

(gzhi) . If the rDzogs chen problem of knowledge outlined in the two preceding chapters is

concerned with articulating the conditions of nondual primordial awareness , the problem of

the ground investigated in this chapter and the next concerns the conditions of a primordial

mode of being, one ' s existential condition (yin lugs) . rDzogs chen exegesis from the Royal

Dynastic Period (6 1 0-9 10) onward underscores the fundamental inseparability of being and

awareness in their most ontologically primitive condition. In classical rDzogs chen,

dharmakaya is described as the undefiled (dri med) primordial ground (ye gzhi) of the open

awareness (rig pa) and freedom (grol ba) that characterize a buddha whereas the all-ground

is the defiled basis of ignorance (ma rig pa) and error ( 'khrul pa) that characterize a sentient

being. Thus, the all-ground and dharmakaya are the discernable sources of the two

concurrent modalities of cognition - reflective-representational and prereflective nonrepres-

136

entational - that are co-present in the psychic life of an individual . As the Klang drug pa ' i

rgyud states :

The source of mind is the all-ground. Why? Because the all-ground gathers all objects of representational thought and because it is conceived of as mental . The source of primordial knowing is the dharmakaya . Why? Because dharmakaya is not subject to any reflective thought patterns (dran rtag) and because it lacks any thought that grasps objects as being other . 345

Thus, while classical rDzogs chen works emphasize the fundamental indivisibility of

being and awareness (sku dang ye shes 'du bral med) , it also draws attention to how these

two are distinct from the conditioned all-ground and dualistic mind. It is important to

reiterate that the distinction drawn between these two grounds does not imply a dichotomy

between two discrete classes of phenomena but rather a priority relation between founding

and founded (rten/brten) phenomena within a unitary experiential dimension. On this

understanding, dharmakaya as the ground of natural freedom (grol gzhi) is primary and

invariant whereas the all-ground as ground of error ( ,khrul gzhi) is parasitic and transient,

yet both belong to the single continuum of human reality . Given its founded and ancillary

character, the all-ground is considered an adventitious , transient epiphenomenon346 that

dissolves into the dharmakaya, like mist in the sky, upon realization.

We can discern in this classical rDzogs chen articulation of the distinction between

two grounds (gzhi/kun gzhi) the kind of hybridization and juxtaposition of classical

Y ogacara and Tathagatagarbha viewpoints that one also encounters in late Indian Y ogacara

discourses and that exerted a considerable influence on Chinese and Tibetan Buddhist

traditions as scholars sought to reconcile these distinct streams of Indian Buddhist thought .

An important doctrinal context for these divergent viewpoints (some of which will be taken

up later in this chapter) was the old Indian Buddhist controversy over whether there was an

order of knowing and being more fundamental than the alayavijfiiina . But we can also detect

345 Theg mchog mdzod vol. 1 : 1 022.5 f. : See edited text under "Texts and Translations" .

346 To this extent, rDzogs chen is in agreement with gSar rna orders that view the alayavijfiana as being essentially unreal or only conventionally and nominally true. That said, the alayavijfiana, like dualistic mind, is considered to be a temporary and adventitious structure (a substrate of the emotions and thoughts it engenders), and therefore a suitable obj ect of analysis for those on the path. It is through understanding the genesis and nature of the complex workings of the all-ground and dualistic mind that one approaches the undifferentiated Ground, and Mind itself, from which they emanate.

137

in the above articulation of two grounds an even more formative, if less well known,

cultural current of distinctly rDzogs chen ground conceptions that was already widespread

in Mahayoga (mal 'byor chen po) and Mind Series (sems sdelsems phyogs) literature of the

Royal Dynastic Period. This strain of thought reflects a disclosive tantric-Tathagatagarbha

model of spiritual awakening that rejects , or considers only provisional (drang don), certain

Yogacara ideas of fundamental transformation (asraya-paravrtti, o-parivrtti) that assumed

goal-realization to consist in a modification of mind or altered state of cognition . It will be

seen that some of the more interesting rDzogs chen philosophical reflections on the ground

occur at the confluence of these three currents of Buddhist thought.

The present chapter investigates how and why the all-groundldharmakaya (kun gzhil

chos sku) distinction came to assume the importance it did in classical rDzogs chen. Why

did texts of this tradition from the 12th onward present and defend a radical distinction

between the ground itself (gzhi) or dharmakaya and the all-ground (kun gzhi) , viewing the

former as originally pure (ka dag) and unconditioned and the latter as the source of all that

is defiled and conditioned? Why and on the basis of what antecedent Buddhist traditions and

scriptures did rNying rna sources underscore this distinction when earlier rDzogs chen

sources tended to give it little explicit attention or to emphasize unity rather than difference?

To address these questions , it is necessary to trace key developments in rDzogs chen ground

discourses from the Royal Dynastic to classical periods (8th to 14th centuries) in order to gain

a sense of how ground formulations evolved in response to the challenges of ( 1 ) reconciling

different Indian Buddhist ground theories regarding the sources of error and awakening, (2)

describing and explaining contemplative states that by their very nature elude description

and categorization and (3) addressing certain polemical critiques posed by other traditions .

§2 . Two Dimensions of the Ground Problem

Scholars working with primary sources belonging to the Tibetan rDzogs chen

traditions sooner or later find themselves in a dense thicket of concepts centering around the

ubiquitous idea of a fundamental ground (gzhi) . Whether in exegetical contexts of

exposition or in polemical contexts given to either criticizing or defending the idea and its

provenance , a complex tangle of terms and interpretations have been advanced with the

138

objective of clarifying its nature and significance. Along with terminology explicitly

refering to an unconditioned ground (gzhi) - variously described as a primordial ground (ye

gzhi) , initial ground (thog ma 'i gzhi), original ground (gdod ma ' i gzhi) , primordially pure

ground (gdod ma 'i dag pa 'i gzhi), common ground (spyi ' i gzhi) , single ground (gzhi gcig

pa), the ground as is it is (gzhi bzhin pa), grandmother ground (spyi mo 'i gzhi) , ground­

mother (gzhi ma) , freedom ground (grol gzhi) - one also encounters a host of cognate terms

associated with the idea of an all-ground (kun gzhi) , some denoting a genuine, primordial

all-ground (don gyi kun gzhi, gzhi don gyi kun gzhi or ye don gyi kun gzhi) , others referring

to a conditioned all-ground (rkyen gyi kun gzhi) , an all-ground of myriad latent tendencies

(bag chags sna tshogs pa 'i kun gzhi) . A closer look at these terms within their doctrinal

contexts reveals an uneasy rapprochement between the above-mentioned strains of Indian

Buddhism marked by increasing tensions throughout the period of their assmilation in Tibet.

The earliest rDzogs chen ground discourses from the Royal Dynastic Period are

dominated by this tradition ' s own conceptions of an invariant and unconditioned ground

(gzhi) or all-ground (kun gzhi) that are closely associated with three constellations of core

soteriological ideas : ( 1 ) the nature of Mind (sems nyid, ye shes, byang chub [kyiJ sems) , (2)

the nature of reality (chos nyid, de kho na nyid, de bzhin nyid) and (3) buddha nature (with a

conspicuous preference for rDzogs chen *bodhigarbha : byang chub snying po ideas in the

pre-classical period, as will be explained below) . From as early as the ninth century, there is

growing evidence of an effort to reconcile these rDzogs chen ' ground' discourses with the

conception of a changing, conditioned all-ground (kun gzhi) that draws heavily on the

Yogacara idea of substratum consciousness alayavijiiana (Tib. kun gzhi ' i mam par shes pa),

an idea originally posited to account for the genesis and continuity of conditioned becoming

and samsaric existence.347

Notwithstanding their terminological correspondences, it is clear from the early

rDzogs chen literature that that these rDzogs chen and Indian sutric ground discourses have

quite different histories , problem sets and soteriological models . To get a sense of how

different, and even incompatible, these ground discourses can be, consider the following

347 The most authoritative source on this doctrine remains Schmithausen 1 987, a detailed reconstruction of the origin and early development of alayavijiiana based on meticulous historical-philological research. See also Waldron 2003 .

139

comments made by the 14th century Upper 'Brug pa (stod 'brug) bKa' brgyud master 'Ba ' ra

ba rGyal mtshan dpal bzang:

Now, the term ' ground ' is considered in some systems to be something like a field. This ground, it is claimed, is where things ripen individually in accordance with what has been planted, like barley, wheat, lentils and so on. But this entails the fallacy of [assuming] the ground and results [lit . ' fruits ' ] to be two different things because when we take this ground which produces things as a field, then the resulting barley and lentils are different from the field's soil . On this point, Chos rje Rin po che [Yang dgon pa] has claimed that what is termed ' ground ' is spontanously present as the actual basis of all experiences summed up by sarpsara, nirval).a and the path, and [that this] ground abides naturally . It [nonetheless] assumes different individual guises when it comes into contact with particular conditions and [can therefore] manifest as anything whatsoever . As an example, it is held to be similar to a crystal ball .348 When this crystal comes into contact with a condition such as [something] painted [red] , it turns red, or, when it comes in contact with indigo, it turns blue . But even if it appears to turn red, the crystal has not changed in essence . And even if it seems to turn blue, the crystal remains unchanged. So, the crystal may turn various colours but it does not in essence turn into something else . In the same way, Mind may go astray into the painful experiences of the hot and cold hells , but it has not for so much as a moment changed in essence and turned into something evil . Even when buddhahood occurs as a result of realization, the essence of Mind has not for a moment changed into something good. It is not that Mind in itself realizes or fails to realize [anything] . In Mind, there is neither good and evil nor anything that becomes differentiated.349

'Ba ' ra ba here draws attention to a long-standing conceptual tension that had become all too

conspicuous within rNying rna and bKa' brgyud circles by the fourteenth century . Can the

idea of goal-realization as the re-cognition of a fundamental ground that is identified as the

uncontrived nature of Mind and Reality be reconciled with those (Sautrantika and early

348 See also 'Ba ' ra ba Gsung 'bum, vol. 5: 247 f.: which cites this analogy from a SalJlPutitantra commentary entitled Sambuti rgyud 'grel chen dri ma medpa 'i 'od in the bsTan 'gyur.

349 Ngo sprod bdun ma 'i 'grel pa Man ngag rin po che 'i sgron me, in Rje 'Ba ' ra ba chen po rGyal mtshan dpal bzang gi bka ' 'bum, vol. 1 1 : 2 1 1 .2 f. : de yang gzhi zhes pa 'ga ' re 'i lugs kyis zhing Ita bu cig gzhi yin lal nas dang gro sran la sogs pa gang btab pa bzhin so sor smin pa cig la gzhir bzhed de l gzhi 'bras tha dad du gyur pa 'i skyon yod ste l skyed byed kyi gzhi zhing yin kyangl 'bras bu nas dang sran la sogs pa zhing sa dang tha dad du 'gyur ba 'i phyir rol l I 'dir chos rje rin po che 'i bzhed pasl gzhi zhes pa 'khor 'das lam gyis bsdus pa 'i chos thams cad kyi dngos gzhir Ihun gyis grub cing gzhi gzhag tu gnas te l rkyen gang dangphrad pa 'i rang gzugs ston cing spyirb yang 'char ba ste l dpe shel sgong Ita bu cig la bzhed del shel de nyid tshos la sogs pa 'i rkyen dang phrad na dmar por 'gro zingl rams dang phrad na sngon por 'gro yangl dmar por song yang ngo bo she! las 'gyur ba me� sngon por yong yang shes las 'gyur ba me� de bzhin du kha dog sna tshogs su 'gyur yang ngo bo shes las 'gyur ba med pa bzhin dul sems 'di 'khrul pas dmyal ba tsha grang gi sduga bsngal myong yang sems kyi ngo bo las 'gyur ba 'i ngan du skad cig kyang ma yongsl rtogs te 'bras bu sangs rgyas pa 'i dus na 'angl sems kyi ngo bo las 'gyur ba 'i skad cig kyang bzang du song ba med cingl sems kho rang rtogs ma rtogs min pa sems la bzang ngan nam tha dad du song ba med de l l atext has bsdug; btext has spyir

140

Yogacara) models that construed goal-realization as a kind of maturation or fruition that

results from specific causes and conditions? The metaphor of a productive ground (skyed

byed kyi gzhi) likened to a field is here deemed inadequate to capture the unchanging nature

of Mind as such, an experiential dimension that, like a crystal ball , remains invariant

through the myriad transformations it appears to undergo . The former model works with the

idea of a developmental ground in which causes (hetu) of bondage or liberation mature into

their respective results (phala), these causes and results being fundamentally different from

the ground itself. Alternatively, the latter model - as developed in hybridized Yogacara­

Tathagatagarbha texts such as the Ratnagotravibhaga, Dharmadharmatavibhaga , and

Mahayanasarhgraha as well as a great many tantric and siddha scriptures - features an

invariant ' ground ' , i .e . the incorruptible nature of Mind and Reality, that remains just as is

even while being (mis)taken for saqlsara or nirval,la.

It should be noted that the idea that mind is originally and naturally luminous

(prabhasvaracitta) but temporarily obscured by adventitious defilements has been a

recurrent, though by no means homogeneously formulated, preoccupation of Buddhist

thought since the time of the Pali Canon350, its earliest known expression occuring in

Aflguttaranikaya 1 .6 :

o bhiksus, this mind I S luminous , but it i s indeed defiled by adventitious defilements . 35 1

The issue of whether and in what sense mind can be considered naturally luminous was

already the subject of intense debate within early Sarvastivada schools , as Eli Franco has

shown in his analysis of portions of the so-called Spitzer Manuscript352, believed to be the

oldest philosophical manuscript in Sanskrit (dated to the Ku�ana period 3 rd c . CE) . The

350 See Seyfort Ruegg 1 969: 4 1 2-437 for a detailed survey of the ' luminous mind' (prabhiisvaracitta) idea with many examples of its occurence in Indian Buddhist literature. See Anguttaranikiiya vol. I : p. 1 0 . See also Wangchuk 2007: 207.

35 1 pabhassaram idalJ1 bhikkhave cittalJ1l talJ1 ca kho iigantukehi upakkilesehi upakkilitthaml l

352 See Franco 2000: 98 . . See also Franco 200 1 : 2 .

141

concept of luminous mind was in any case by this time quite widely accepted353 amongst

early Buddhist sects and one finds the metaphor of a crystal which only appears to change

colours against different backgrounds occasionally used to illustrate the idea that the nature

of Mind remains unmodified despite its temporary 'colourations ' by adventitious (tigantuka)

defilements .354 On this interpretation, soteriology is a matter of clearing away adventitious

defilements so that originally pure mind can reveal itself as it is . All this points toward

Tathagatagarbha system, reflecting a strain of thought that could at times diverge from the

Y ogacara view that mind is thoroughly contaminated by conditioning factors and therefore

needs to be fundamentally transformed (tisraya-partivrtti, o-parivrtti) to be liberated.355

Much depended on how the doctrine of transformation was understood, whether as a

process of modification or elimination.

In this regard, it is important to recognize that this idea of transformation, as Sakuma

has indicated in his study of tiSrayapartivrtti, was employed within two contrasting models :

replacement and elimination.356 Within the replacement model, as presented in the

Srtivakabhiimi, an old basis of badness or malaise (dau�tulya, dau�thiilya)357 is replaced by a

353 Among Buddhist schools who accepted prabhiisvaracitta are the Theravada, Vaibha�ika, Vatslputrlya, Andhaka, Mahasarpghika and Vibhajyavada. See Lamotte 1 962: 53 , 1 75 , 238 ; Seyfort Ruegg 1 969: 4 1 2, Takasaki 1 966 : 34 , n. 57 ; and Wangchuk 2007: 207.

354 This view is summarized by Franco 1 997: 86 : "Just as a crystal is coloured by the colour of the obj ect it covers, similarly pure cognition, when defiled by desire, is called "accompanied by desire" (sariiga), and later on becomes liberated : sariigaf(l cittmrz vimuccati." The Sautrantikas and Vaibha�ikas rejected this view, claiming that mind is not originally pure but is, on the contrary, originally sullied by karma and kle§as. Lamotte 1 962 : 238 .

3 5 5 According to Franco ( 1 997 : 87), the iisraya-pariivrttil" -parivrtti and prabhiisvaracitta models are both found in Y ogacara texts but are seldom associated with each other. On the other hand, the two models are closely associated within Tathagatagarbha exegesis. For his arguments and discussion of relevant sources, see Franco 1 997 : 87 f.. On the association of iisraya-pariivrttir-parivrtti and prabhiisvaracitta in the Ratnagotravibhiiga and Vyiikhyii, see Seyfort Ruegg 1 969: 4 1 9-24 . On their relationship, the author states : "C'est en relation avec la luminosite naturelle de la Pensee et de la purete du tathiigatadhiitu au point de vue de sa connexion avec Ie plan du Fruit que la RG VV fait etat de la transmutation de la Base psychique, cette iisrayapariivrtti, correspondant ainsi a l ' epuisement des impuretes ." In this connection, Franco ( 1 997: 88) pertinently poses the question of "whether the doctrine of prabhiisvaracitta in Y ogacara appears only in Maitreyanatha texts (and of course in commentaries thereon), and if so, whether this could be explained by the fact that Maitreyanatha and his tradition were strongly influenced by Tathagatagarbha ideas."

3 56 Sakuma 1 990; Franco 1 997 : 84 f .

357 SeyfOli Ruegg 1 969 (439) translates dau$tulya (=gnas ngan len) as ' la Turbulence ' , Davidson 1 988 ( 1 77 f.) as ' hindrances ' (and elsewhere ' baseness') , and Schimthausen 1 987 (vol. I : 66) as 'badness ' . Schmithausen discusses many connotations of the term which include badness or wickedness (klesa-pak$yam), unwieldiness (karmm:tyatii), heaviness ( *gurutva= lci ba nyid), stiffness (middhakrtam iisrayajiiqyam), incapacitation or lack of controllability (ak$amatii), and unease or misery (dau$tulya-du/:lkha). The idea here is that unsatisfactoriness permeates human

142

new basis of ease (prasrabdhi) . In the elimination model, as presented in the

Bodhisattvabhumi, the basis of badness is eliminated without replacement. It is clear that an

elimination model underlies the Tathagatagarbha view that goal-realization depends not on

modifying a defiled state of being (e .g . alayavijfiana) from 'worse ' to 'better ' but rather of

clearing it away entirely - on the assumption that it is not constitutive anyhow but

thoroughly adventitious and derivative - so that a primordial mode of being (tathata) which

it has temporarily obscured can reveal itself. All this confirms that the tension between what

I call developmental (causal) and disclosive (acausal) models of awakening that so often

surfaces in the rDzogs chen problematics of knowledge, ground and path we are

investigating has a long and complex history in Indian Buddhism . At the heart of these

contrasting models and metaphorics was the soteriological problem of how to accommodate

a view of karmic ally affected consciousness within a disclosive view that gives primacy to a

primordial unconditioned mode of consciousness that remains unaffected by karmic

conditioning and causal production.

To better understand this tension, it is necessary to briefly sketch these conflicting

soteriological models and the problems of reconciliation that their confluence in Tibet

provoked. Our focus will be limited to specifying the range of phenomena (within differing

views of mind) each model was intended to characterize and some of the problems these

elicited. The assessment of these systemic problems also requires a brief consideration of

buddha nature views that come to prominence during the later stages of Y ogacara and early

stages of tantra in India and strongly influenced developments in China and Tibet. The stage

will then be set for tracing a conceptual genealogy of the ground in the rDzogs chen

tradition that looks at how its adherents sought to reconcile these opposing currents within a

dialectical view of consciousness .

§ 3 . The Yogacara Model : Scope and Limitations

The Y ogacara eightfold model of mind has proven a most fruitful and influential

conceptual scheme for accounting for the genesis and possible transcendence of dualistic

existence to such an extent that it is perceived and felt most fundamentally as a situation of affliction, suffering, degradation, malaise and powerlessness. It has the effect of hindering, physically and mentally, a yogin ' s abil ity to attain his goal (Davidson 1 988, 1 77) .

143

experience . The origin and development of the tilayavijfilina idea have been well­

documented and need not concern us here .358 A useful summary of this development is

offered by mChims ston BIo bzang grags pa ( 1 299- 1 375) in his commentary on the

Abhidharmakosa :

The two Sravaka schools [Vaibha�ika and Sautrantika] maintain a six-fold ensemble of consciousness (mam shes tshogs drug) . The two Acarya brothers [Vasubandhu and AsaIiga] , however, maintain an eightfold ensemble [which expands the six to include] : ( 1 ) a substratum consciousness (tilayavijfiana) that grasps in a non-explicit yet continuous manner by objectifying all referents , outer and inner, the environing world and its inhabitants ; and (2) an emotionally tainted ego-mind (kli�tamanas) that is subject to the aspect of grasping [and believing in] an "I" (ngar 'dzin pa ' i mam pa can) by objectifying this [substratum consciousnes] itself.359

Our interest in the alayavijfiana model in the present context is confined to determining its

explanatory force and limitations . What range of phenomena did it seek to account for?

Recent scholarship has identified a number of problems of continuity that the alayavijfiana

idea attempted to resolve and that were thought to be inadequately explained in the

Abhidhammic view of mind. Primary among these were the continuities of various elements

of s arpsaric existence including consciousness (vijfiana) , feelings (vedana) , vitality (ayus) ,

personal identity (ahalJlkara, asmimana) , corporeality (namanlpa) , latent or latent

tendencies (anusaya, vasana), and the relation between actions and results (karmaphala) .360

Most vexing was the problem of accounting for the continuity of consciousness , personal

identity and karmic maturation (positive and negative) after periods of unconsciousness or

during the transition from one rebirth to the next.

Against this background, the conception of a largely unconscious substratum

consciousness gradually took shape within the Abhidharma tradition in order to account for

the various continuities that play a consitutive role in sarpsaric existence, not least of which

is the phenomenon of dualistic karmic ally-conditioned consciousness . To account for the

358 See above note 347.

359 Chos mngon pa gsal byed Legs par bshad pa 'i rgya mtsho : fa! . 27a2 f. : . . . nyan thos sde ba gnyis rnam shes tshogs drug tu 'dod lal slob dpon sku mched ni dmigs pa phyi nang snod bcud thams cad la dmigs nas rnam pa mi gsal zhing ma chad par 'dzin pa 'i kun gzhi 'i rnam shes dangl de nyid la dmigs nas ngar 'dzin pa 'i rnam pa can gyi nyon yid de tshogs brgyad bzhed soi l

360 Schmithausen 1 987.

144

genesis and persistence of karmic and 'affective conditioning both within this life and

beyond, the Abhidhammic analysis of six modes of conscious perception gave way

increasingly to an analysis of the ongoing sedimentation of latent tendencies from previous

experience that condition consciousness and structure perception in terms of self and other,

' I ' and 'mine ' . One subsequently sees a number of more or less ad hoc attempts in the

Abhidharma system to account for the influence of past experience on the present . These

included the realist Sarvastavadin theory of possession (prapti) that posited a dharma called

priipti ("obtaining", "acquisition") that acts as a kind of metaphysical glue binding karmic

inheritance to a particular mental stream361 and the non-realist Sautrantika theory of seeds

(bfja) that introduced the "explicitly metaphorical notion (prajfiapti-dharma) of seeds (bfja)

to represent both the latent afflicitions and accumulation of karmic potential within the

mental stream., ,362

However, it is in the Y ogacara system that one encounters the first systematic attempt

to account for this ongoing sedimentation of experience . The Y ogacara analysis of latent

tendencies , literally "perfuming" (viisana : bag chags), sought to explicate in a more

methodical and thoroughgoing fashion those unconscious constitutive processes that remain

largely inaccessible for direct apprehension but which nonetheless influence consciousness

at every moment. On this view, consciousness can never be wholly accessible to direct

reflection, for it is deeply influenced by the latent traces of previous experience .

Consciousness, in other words, lives in the medium o f its own history. 363 It i s karmically­

affected insofar as it operates in the light of the past and in anticipation of the future and

does so, by and large, under the influence of its own sedimented habits , presuppositions and

inclinations.

361 See Burton 2004 : 90,

362 Waldron 2003 : 73 .

363 According to Husser! , "The Ego always lives in the medium of its 'history' ; all its earl ier lived experiences have sunk down, but they have aftereffects in tendencies, sudden ideas, transformations or assimilations of earlier lived experiences, and from such assimilations new formations are merged together, etc." See Husser! 1 9 89, 350 . The growing emphasis within the Abhidharma-Yogacara systems on the constitutive role of previous experience on the present can be fruitfully compared to developments within Husser! ' s phenomenology from a static phenomenology concerned with invariant formal structures of experience such as the correlational (noetic-noematic) structure of intentionality toward a genetic phenomenology concerned with the genesis of intentional experience in time and with how it is shaped by previous experience (sedimentation) . On this distinction, see Steinbock 1 995 ; Zahavi 1 999 : 207 f. ; Thompson 2007: 28 £ .

145

With the alayavijfiana-vasana model, the Y ogacara tradition was able to account for

those largely unconscious constitutive processes that condition and structure dualistic mind

(citta) . And while the alayavijfiana idea could account for the possibility of conditioned

becoming and dual cognition, it required an accompanying soteriological model to specify

why their cessation should result in anything other or more than a sheer absence of

cognition. From a rNying rna perspective, a soteriological view premised solely on the

cessation of the mind (cittanirodha) and the alayavijfiana could be thought to lend itself to

various types of cognitive suicide, some of which were sketched in the previous chapter. It

is entirely plausible that the late Yogacara, and also tantric , models of transformation

mentioned earlier developed precisely to fill this explanatory gap . In any event, it is clear, as

will be shown, that rDzogs chen disclosive models developed in response to a similar

challenge and that they found in Tathagatagarbha discourses a common ground . The

objective was in each case to (A) articulate an unconditioned nondual mode of being and

awareness that is prior to and a precondition of the neutral or afflictive alayavijfiana and (B)

provide a soteriological model to account for the relationship and possible transition

between these two .

It is in light of this twofold desideratum that there arose from the sixth century

onward various doctrinal innovations , some internal to and others external to the Y ogacara

system, that sought in various ways to expand the classical Y ogacara picture of mind to

include a more fundamental nondual mode of being and awareness . Later developments in

the Y ogacara system reflect a growing attempt to reconcile alayavijfiana and

tathagatagarbha models , whether this was attempted through systems of identification or

differentiation .

§4. Toward a Primordially Unaffected Ground of Consciousness

Just as the classical Yogacara required a conception of karmic ally-affected

consciousness to account for the genesis and continuity of conditioned existence, so the later

Buddhist soteriological systems in India, China and Tibet turned increasingly toward a

conception of a deeper layer of primordially unaffected consciousness to account for the

possibility of freedom from conditioned existence . We see here, as in the previous chapter,

146

an example of transcendental argumentation (of the form 'for y to be possible x must be the

case ' ) forming a chain of indispensibility criteria that are established not with the aim of

providing an incorrigible account of reality but of discovering richer and more

encompassing orders of description. The changing descriptions and explanations of

consciousness as we move from Abhidhamma through Y ogacara and on to Tathagatagarbha

and Mantrayana discourses seem to reflect this movement toward richer and broader

articulations.

The question of what to do with the iilayavijfiiina model in the face of the growing

influence of late Y ogacara, Tathagatagarbha and tantric doctrines emphasizing an

unconditioned nondual mode of consciousness led to different systems of reconciliation in

India, China and Tibet . These can be roughly divided into : ( 1 ) systems of identification in

which iilayavijfiiina is elevated into a monistic principle, a common source of all

phenomena, sarp.saric and nirvfu:1ic phenomena alike, that is at times associated with buddha

nature, and (2) systems of differentiation which sought to maintain and explain a

fundamental distinction between the iilayavijfiiina and an unconditioned absolute variously

described in terms of buddha nature, the nature of Mind (jfiiina) or the nature of Reality

(dharmadhiitu) . Each system attempted in its own way to specify the relationship (identity

or difference) between conditioned and unconditioned modes of consciousness and to chart

the transition between them in soteriological terms.

Identification: Identification strategies typically involved doctrinal transformations

whereby the iilayavijfiiina of classical Y ogacara conceived primarily as the source of all

sarp.saric phenomena was reinterpreted as a common ' all-ground ' that is the source of

sarp.saric and nirvaI.J.ic phenomena, a ground of pollution (saf!lkleia : kun nas nyon mongs) as

well as purification (vyavadiina : mam par byang ba) . The most striking and controversial

instance of this monistic trend was the Lalikiivatiirasutra ' s identification of the iilayavijfiiina

with tathiigatagarbha.364 A much-quoted passage from the now-lost Mahiiyiiniibhidharma-

364 On this interpretation and some of its Tibetan advocates such as the bKa' brgyud scholars 'Gos 10 tsa ba gZhon nu dpal and 'Ba' ra ba rGyal mtshan dpal bzang, see Mathes 2008 : 1 8 , 1 1 7 and 464 n. 6 1 2 . On the basis of this identification of the alayavijPiana with the tathagatagarbha, the Lankavatarasiltra interprets asrayaparlivrtti as the transformation or purification of the seventh consciousness (manas) which liberates the pure alayavijPiana. See Lai 1 977: 67 £ .

147

sutra was also at times used as scriptural support for an absolutized verSIOn of the

alayavijiiana :

The beginningless element (dhatu) Is the basis of all phenomena Because it exists , [it allows for] all forms of life As well as the attainment of nirvana.365

The semantic ambiguity of the term dhatu in this passage meant, in effect, that it could be

used to legitimize either tathagatagarbha or alayavijiiana doctrines as the context

demanded.366 The irony here, as as Ronald Davidson has observed, is that the author of the

passage was likely a partisan of neither of these theories but "merely wished to delineate a

rudimentary form of an imperishable element which was soteriological in nature, yet acted

as the basis for the stream of consciousness of an individual in bondage . , ,367 In this regard,

the term dhatu generally signifies ' element' and was associated in particular with ' space ' ,

that element considered fundamental to the other four basic elements (mahabhuta) . But it

was also employed as a shorthand for buddhadhatu or tathagatadhatu which were early and

widespread Indian buddha nature concepts . Seyfort Ruegg 1 969 has drawn attention to a

number of 'doctrinal contexts wherein dhatu was used to bridge nascent alayavijiiana (gotra,

bfja) and tathagatagarbha theories .368 It does not require much conjecture to see how this

365 Although no longer extant, this important sutra is quoted in the RGVv. The passage in question found at RGVv 72. 1 3 - 1 4 reads as follows : anadikaliko dhatul:z sarvadharmasamasrayal:zl tasmin sati gatil:z sarva nirva(ladhigamo 'pi cal l See also RGVv I . l 55 (J l . l 52) See Takasaki 1 966 : 290. The Mahayanabhidharmasutra has also been quoted in the Mahayanasarrlgrahabhaiiya (tr. by Paramartha, Taisho Edition of the Chinese Tripitaka, XXXI, no. 1 595 : 1 57a) and the TrilJ1sikabha$)la (Skt., ed. par Sylvain Levi : p. 37) . The Tibetan translations of RVVv have dbyings instead of khams (both being accepted translations of dhatu).

366 See Davidson 1 985 : 1 02 and notes 80 and 8 1 for examples. On the term dhatu, see n. 368 below.

367 Davidson 1 98 5 : J 02.

368 Seyfort Ruegg ( 1 969 : 494 f.) has commented that the term dhatu is among the most complex and difficult terms in Buddhist thought. He also noted its semantic affiliations with nascent alayaviji'iana and tathagatabargha concepts. See A bhidharmasamuccaya (p. 1 5), for example, where dhatu is characterized as the ' seed of all phenomena' (sarvadharmabija), an identification with connects Sautrantika bija theory with Tathagatagarbha dhatu (gotra) conceptions. The Bodhisattvabhumi establishes semantic equivalences between dhatu and the concepts bija, gotra, adhara, nisraya, hetu and so forth. In the Ratnagotravibhaga, the term dhatu (translated in Tibetan as khams ' space or dbyings ' expanse' ) is used more often than garbha in reference to buddha nature. See Seyfort Ruegg 1 969 : 262 f . . The author notes, however, that " . . . qu'il existe un certain flottement dans I ' emploi du mot dhatu, et que ce mot n 'est pas un synonyme exact de tathagatagarbha, encore que les deux termes s 'emploient souvent comme des equivalents." (26 1 n. 1 ) . He elsewhere comments that " . . . while the tathagatagarbha is said [in RGV] to exist in all sentient beings without exception, the tathagatadhatu on the other hand is present not only on the level of ordinary beings but also, evidently, on the level of buddha hood itself." (Seyfort Ruegg 1 989: 1 9).

148

idea of a fundamental element (dhatu) or seed of all phenomena (sarvadharmabfja) could at

times be identified with the idea of a fundamental ground (iilaya) that is the source not only

of sarpsaric phenomena, but nirval).ic phenomena as well . This tendency toward semantic

amalgamation of dhiitu and alaya is further attested by a passage quoted by Klong chen pa

and that he attributes to the 'Jam dpal ye shes dri ma med pa 'i mdo that closely resembles

the previous quotation except that dhiitu has here been replaced by alaya (kun [gyi] gzhi) :

The all-ground (kun gzhi) is the ground of all (kun gyi gzhi) . It is the ground of sarpsara and nirval).a, And is also the ground of purification. 369

Such passages point to a certain ambivalence in the use of buddha nature and ground

concepts that would, in some instances, give way to the full identification of iiZayavijfiiina

and tathiigatagarbha, such as we find in the above-mentioned Lmikiivatiirasiltra passage. On

balance, however, this monistic trend seemed to find more detractors than supporters

amongst Buddhist scholars in India. 370

In China, such an identification was endorsed by certain Chinese Y ogacara scholars

such as Hui-yiian who drew scriptural support from GUl).abhadra ' s recensions of the

SrfmiiZiidevf and Lmikiivatiira sutras37 1 , even though Hui-yiian ' s own teacher Paramartha

explicitly rejected such an identification. The rapprochement between these systems in

China has much to do with their close historical association and more specifically to the fact

that principal texts of both systems were translated at around the same time and by the same

Buddhist teachers . 372 In Tibet, the tendency toward the identification of iiZayavijfiiina and

369 Quoted in Sems nyid ngal gsa 'grel, voU : 27 1 .3 f: kun gzhi kun gyi gzhi yin te l 'khar dang my a ngan 'das pa dangl rnam par byang ba 'i gzhi ma yinl l

370 Consider the following example: "In the section of the Tarkajvala devoted to Sravakayana teachings it is . . . pointed out that the all-pervasiveness of the tathagatagarbha and also the Vijfianavadin's adanavijnana (=alayavijnana) has been taught for the sake of certain persons who have not freed themselves from the dogmatic postulation of a self (atmagraha) ." Seyfort Ruegg 1 989 : 40.

371 See Paul 1 984: 5 1 .

372 According to Paul ( 1 984: 6-7), " [s] ince Tathagatagarbha literature was translated at the same time as Yogacara and by the same masters, these two types of thought became closely linked in the minds oftheir Chinese audience . . . Paramartha' s ideas, particularly his concept of amalavijnana or "pure consciousness," have often been regarded as an amalgam of Yogacara and Tathagatagarbha, because of the philosohical interfusion begun in India and the historical association ofthe two doctrines from the outset in China."

149

tathiigatagarbha seems to have garnered ' more criticism than support, whether it was

explicitly rejected as bad theorizing or explained away as a rhetorical ruse to lure . the

spiritually immature .373

Now, the close association between buddha nature and the all-ground (kun gzhi) in

early (8th to 12th c . ) rDzogs chen exegesis is attributable to their virtual synonymity as

descriptors of the unconditioned absolute . However, when the Yogacara iilayavijfiiina enters

the picture, as it does increasingly from the 9th century onward, it is invariably contrasted

with the absolute kun gzhi (along the lines of the above quotation of 'Ba ' ra ba) and

relegated to the conventional level of transient, conditioned phenomena, that are destroyed

upon realization. But this unavoidably begs the question of what this rDzogs chen kun gzhi

(iilaya) concept may have originally owed to Yogacara. More study and careful analysis of

the earliest rDzogs chen sources is required to gain a clearer sense of the textual origins and

lines of transmission of the rDzogs chen kun gzhi idea and to determine whether it perhaps

began as an abolutized version of the Y ogacara iilayavijfiiina that was , like a great many

other rDzogs chen terms borrowed from Mahayana exegesis (e .g . jfiiina, smrti, abhipriiya

etc . ) , sublimated or even apotheosized in order to suit the quite different landscape of tantric

and rDzogs chen soteriology .

Differentiation: Another line of response to the encounter between Tathagatagarbha

and Y ogacara currents of thought was to sharpen or radicalize a difference between the

conditioned iilayavijfiiina and unconditioned absolute. According to certain Y ogacara­

Tathagatagarbha works such as the Ratnagotravibhiiga and Dharmadharmatiivibhiiga

ascribed Maitreya-Asailga, the iilayavijfiiina is identified as the basis of all defilement and

needs to be fundamentally transformed (iisraya-pariivrtti, o-parivrtti) or purified away for

the realization of suchness or thatness to occur. The idea that there is a mode of

consciousness more fundamental than iilayavijfiiina is implicit in the distinction between

iilayavijfiiina and supramundane mind (lokottaracitta : 'jigs rten las 'das pa 'i sems) that is

373 As an example of the latter, ' Jigs med gling pa states in rDzogs pa chen po Kun tu bzang po ye shes klong gi rgyud, in 'Jigs gling gsung 'bum vol. 1 2 : 66. 1 £ : "This [alaya] is shown in the lower [vehicles] to be the nature of * sugatagarbha but this is for the sake of guiding those among the spiritually immature who are consumed by doubt about the stainless dharmadhatu. 'og rna rnams su 'di nyid bde gshegs snying po 'i rang bzhin du bstan pa nil re zhig chos dbyings dri med la the tshom za ba 'i byis pa rnam drang ba 'i slad du ' 01 1

150

developed in Mahiiyiinasarrzgraha 1.45-48 .374 Sthiramati draws a similar distinction between

iilayavijfiiina and the supramundane jfiiina (lokkottarajfiiina : jigs rten las ' das pa 'i ye shes)

which overturns or replaces it (pariivrtti) in his commentary on Trirrzsikii 29-30.375 We may

recall that in India and Tibet, the distinction between dual consciousness (vijfiiina) and

primordial knowing (jfiiina) and transformation of the former into the latter were hallmarks

of Yoganiruttara tantras (bla na med pa 'i rgyud) as systematized in Tibetan gSar rna tantric

traditions such as the Zab mo nang don system of the third Karmapa Rang byung rdo rje

( 1 284- 1 339) .376

As a general observation, we can note that the Indian and Tibetan sutric and tantric

models of transformation tended to either ( 1 ) distinguish between two modes of the all­

ground - viz . a defiled mode that is the basis of sarp.saric existence and an undefiled mode

that is the basis of awakening or (2) introduce a ninth consciousness or ninth ground beyond

the iilayavijfiiina . ( 1 ) B imodal all-ground schemes became widespread in emerging Tibet

Buddhist orders during the second diffusion of Buddhism in Tibet. Examples are various

bKa ' brgyud distinctions between pure and impure all-grounds (e .g . dri ma med pa ' i kun

gzhi/ dri ma ' i kun gzhi) , the Jo nang distinction between all-grounds based on primordial

knowing and ordinary knowing (kun gzhi ye shes/ kun gzhi mam shes)377 and various rNying

rna Mahayoga/Sems sde distinctions (some of which will be investigated in due course)

between genuine and conditioned all-grounds (e .g . don gyi kun gzhi/ rkyen gyi kun gzhi) .

Systems of transformation positing a ninth factor beyond the iilayavijfiiina378 were

elaborated in those above-mentioned works attributed to Maitreya-Asanga that considered

nirvikalpajfiiina , dharmakiiya or dharmatii to specify a mode of being or awareness distinct

from but also a precondition of the iilayavijfiiina . This line of thought had a considerable

influence in Tibet and China as we see reflected in the works of early figures such as

374 Davidson 1 985 : 2 1 5 and Mathes 2008 : 58 . That supramundane mind and aJayavijnana are characterized in this passage as being 'unfamiliar' (rna 'dris pa) with one another suggests a radical difference between the two.

375 Vijnaptirnatratasiddhi (Levi 1 925), p. 44; Davidson 1985 : 2 1 8 and n. 28 .

376 See above 24-5 .

377 See Stearns 1 999: 49-52 and discussion of doctrinal context by Mathes 2008 : 56-7.

378 It is of interest to note that the term aJaya without vijnana is already being used in the Ghanavyuha to denote the different Bodhisattva levels. See Seyfort Ruegg 1 973 : 35 and Mathes 2008 : 442, n. 297.

15 1

Paramartha in China and Ye shes sde in Tibet. The point emphasized in these systems is not

that the unconditioned absolute is simply the result (phiila) of the transformation of

iilayavijiiiina , but is rather that pre-existing factor (iilaya) which remains when this

conditioned and conditioning substrate has been purified out of existence . We have seen, for

example, that rDzogs chen sNying thig thinkers at times considered the idea of

transformation of basis (gnas 'gyur : iiSraya-pariivrtti, o-parivrtti) to be of merely

provisional meaning (i .e . in need of further interpretation) and employed with the implicit

intention (idem dgongs) of guiding beings in accordance with their varying interests and

degrees of understanding.379 Their reasoning can be summarized this way : If human reality

is , in its most ontologically primitive condition, spontaneously present and unconditioned,

then its realization requires no production or modification by means of causes and

conditions .

In China, the idea of an originally and naturally stainless mode of consciousness

beyond the iilayavijiiiina gained popularity in the sixth century due to the influence of the

Indian Yogacara monk and translator Paramartha (499-569) . 380 Paramartha posited a ninth,

immaculate consciousness (amalavijiiiina) which is unaffected by the conditioning

influences of the iiZayavijiiiina (the karmic ' seeds ' and their ' fruits ' of attachments and

aversions) and which is closely associated with the absolute (parini$panna) and suchness

(tathatii) . According to Paramartha, this amalavijiiiina is invariant and undefiled (aniisrava)

in contrast to the iilayavijiiiina which is transient and defiled (siisrava) . While the iilaya is

the source of afflictive emotions and badness (dau$tulya) , the amala is the abiding source of

nonconceptual primordial knowing (nirvikaipajiiiina) and saintly activity . For Paramartha,

the fundamental transformation (iiSraya-pariivrtti, o-parivrtti) of iilayavijiiiina entails its

complete elimination, the result of which is the recovery of pure consciousness

(amalavijiiiina) .38 1

379 See above p. 24 et passim. 380 On the life and teachings of Paramartha, see Frauwallner 1 95 1 , SeyfOli Ruegg 1 969 : 439 f., 1 09 f., and Paul 1 984.

3 8 1 The fact that Paramartha at times employs the term amalavijPiCina to translate Cisraya-paravrttilparivrtti only confuses the issue.

152

According to Paul Demieville, the issue of whether the iilayavijiliina or amalavijiliina

should be regarded as the basis of consciousness and the world itself was already the subject

of intense doctrinal disputes in China before Paramartha ' s arrival , and had led to two

distinct schools of thought. 382 Bodhiruci ' s school maintained that the foundation of all

cognition is the iilayavijiliina, a view presented in the MahiiyiinasaTpgraha . Ratnamati ' s

school, on the other hand, made the same claim for the tathatii, thus betraying its allegiance

to the tradition of the Mahiiyiinasutriila1Jlkiira . The point of divergence was whether the

iilaya[vijiliina] was considered (a la Bodhiruci) to be the ultimate neutral basis of human

reality or (a la Ratnamati) to be a derivative and conditioned substratum that must be

fundamentally transformed if goal-realization, understood as the recovery of an

unconditioned invariant mode of being, is to occur . Ratnamati ' s school and the late

Y ogacara exegesis of Asailga provided doctrinal support for Paramartha' s controversial

claim that the foundation of all cognition is not the iilayavijiliina but the amalavijiliina . By

the seventh century, the controversy gradually subsided under the authority of Xuanzang

who came down on the side of Bodhiruci in holding the iilayavijiliina to be fundamental . 383

Erich Frauwallner has pointed to numerous Indian antecedents of this controversy

that are symptomatic of an underlying tension that could not be so neatly divided along

sectarian lines?84 Despite attempts by the Chinese schools to trace their views to Indian

antecedents in the schools of Dharmapala (iilayavijiliina) and Sthiramati (amalavijiliina), an

analysis of their works does not render support for such clear affiliations but rather indicates

dialectical tensions of a more systemic and perennial nature . As a case in point, Frauwallner

cites the following summary of a tension between developmental and disclosive

soteriological models by Sthiramati himself in his Madhyiintavibhiigatfkii (my translation) :

The dharmakiiya of the buddhas consists in the transformation of the basis in that all obstructions are eliminated and the seeds of the uncontaminated dharmas [i .e . , buddha qualities] that function as their counteragent are accumulated; it has power over all phenomena and is without the iilayavijiliina . . .

382 See Demieville 1 929. On these two Yogaclira streams of thought, see Frauwallner 1 95 1 , Ueda 1 967, and Paul 1 984.

383 My account of the Chinese controversy is based on Frauwallner 1 95 1 : 148 .

3 84 See Frauwallner 1 95 1 .

153

Others, on the other hand, say that it is only the dhannadhtitu, completely purified through the removal of all adventitious defilements , that is called the dharmaktiya, i .e . , the embodiment (ktiya) of the nature of the phenomena (dharmatti) .385

B oth views construe the transformation of basis as entailing the elimination of tilayavijfitina,

but they interpret goal-realization quite differently. The first views it developmentally, as

involving the accumulation of seeds of uncontaminated buddha qualities that serve to

counteract obscurations (i .e . seeds of contaminated phenomena) leading to their eventual

elimination . The second views it disclosively, as revealing the dharmadhtitu, that which

embodies the very nature of things (dharma[tti]ktiya) , when the adventitious defilements that

shroud it are purified away.386

Paramartha ' s view of mind seemed to have gained little traction in Tibet, though it

became available to scholars early on through its critique by the Korean monk Wonch 'tik in

his commentary on the Sa'!1dhinirmocana that was translated from Chinese into Tibetan

(under the title dGongs 'grel gyi 'grel chen) during the Tang dynasty in Dunhuang by Chos

grub (Chinese : Facheng) .387 Paramartha' s analysis of mind and his controversial concept of

immaculate consciousness (amalavijfitina : dri ma med pa ' i rnam [par] shes [paD appear to

have met mainly with a critical reception in Tibet, particularly at the hands of dGe lugs pa

scholars such as Tsong kha pa388 and a number of his later commentators such as ' Jam

dbyangs bZhad pa' i rdo rje ( 1 648- 1 72 1/ 22)389, Gung thang dKon mchog bstan pa ' i sgron

3 85 Sthiramati, Madhyantavibhagatlka, Exposition systematique du Yogacaravijnaptivada, ed. par Susumu Yamaguchi, Nagoya 1 934 : p. 1 9 1 , 4 f.: sarvavarmJapraha(lat tatpratipah;anasravadharmabijapracayac casrayaparavrttyatmakab sarvadharmavasavartf analaya iti buddhanam dharmakiiyabl . . . anye tu ni/:lSe$agantuka­malapagamat suvisuddho dharmadhatur eva dharmatakayo dharmakiiya iti var(layantil l

386 This view, as Frauwallner notes, interprets the expression dharmakiiya as deriving from dharmatakaya ( , embodi­ment of the nature of phenomena') by dropping the suffix ta.

3 87 In Tibetan: dGongs 'grel gyi 'grel chen, P K no. 5 5 1 7, D no. no. 40 1 6.

3 88 Yid dang kun gzhi 'i dka ' ba 'i gnas rgya cher 'grel pa. P K no. 6 1 49 : 1 73 -95 . See also Tsong kha pa gsung 'bum (Bkra' shis Ihun po ed.) vol. 27 ( 1 977) : 356-474. For an annotated translation, see Sparham 1 993 . Nagao summarizes Tsong kha pa's views on Paramartha' s amalavijnana theory in Chftkan to Yuishiki : 4 1 9-2 1 .

3 89 Grub mtha ' rnam bshad rang gzhan Grub mtha ' kun dang zab don mchog tu gsal ba kun bzang zhing gi nyi ma lung rigs rgya mtsho skye dgu 'i re ba kun skongs. See Collected Works (gsung 'bum) of 'Jam dbyangs bzhad pa 'i rdo rje (South India? : 1 995), vol. 1 5 : 590.3 .

154

me ( 1762- 1 823)390, Blo bzang 'Jam dbyangs ( 1 8th C . )391 and Blo bzang Dam chos rgya mtsho

( 1 865- 1 9 1 7i92 • While Tsong kha pa explicitly defends alayavijiiana as valid doctrine in this

early Yid dang kun gzhi 'i dka ' ba ' i gnas rgya cher 'grel pa, he rejects Paramartha' s

introduction of a ninth consciousness on the rationale that if there were a fundamental (gtso

bo) consciousness other than the alayavijiiana it would be a permanent entity (rtag pa ' i

dngos po : nityabhava) .393 However, given that entities (dngos po) are by nature

impermanent (mi rtag pa), the concept of amalavijiiana is self-contradictory and in any case

unverifiable . Thus the dGe lugs pa repudiate amalavijiiana on the same grounds that they

reject positive views of tathagatagarbha, namely that it represents a metaphysical postulate,

a reified abstraction that cannot withstand critical assessment.

The Tibetan reception of Indian Buddhism was marked from the outset by the kind of

doctrinal tensions between developmental and disc10sive paradigms whose lines of

influence in India and China I have been tracing . In assessing the dissemination of the

disc10sive paradigm in Tibet, it is crucial to factor in the paramount influence of Indian

tantric and siddha traditions during the period of assimilation. Evidence of tensions between

these different models and doctrines within early rDzogs chen is reflected in a passage from

the Sems nyid bsdus pa 'i sgron ma attributed to Vimalamitra (8th c . ) . In the first of the nine

instructions which demonstrates the nature of bodhicitta (byang chub sems kyi rang bzhin

bstan pa) , the text introduces a clear demarcation between the kun gzhi which is identified as

a shorthand for alaya v ijiiana , regarded as the adulterated sphere of dualistic mind, and

dharmakaya which is identified with the ground itself (gzhi) and associated with open

awareness (rig pa) and primordial knowing (ye shes) :

390 Yid dang kun gzhi 'i dka ' gnas rnam par bshad pa mKhas pa 'i jug ngog. See The Collected Works (gsung 'bum) ofGung thang dKon mchog bstan pa 'i sgron me (Lhasa: 2000), vol. 2: 279-406.

391 Yid dang kun gzhi 'i rtsa 'grel gyi dka' gnas gsal byed nyi zla zung jug. See The Collected Works (gsung 'bum) of Ke 'u tshan sprul sku Blo bzang jam dbyans smon lam (Dharmsala: LTWA, 1 984), vol . 1 : 1 87 - 260.

392 rNam rig pa 'i lugs kyi yid dang kun gzhi 'i don cung zad bshad pa Ngo mtshar gzugs brgya 'char ba 'i me long. See Collected works of a Gefug master, Rongga Lozang Damchoe Gyatso (1865-191 7) from Kham (New Delhi : 1 975), vol. 1 : 1 87- 1 98.

393 Tsong kha pa gsung 'bum, vol . 27 : 468.5 f. : tshogs brgyad dag las sogs pa yi l gtso bo rnam shes yod gyur nal rtag pa 'i dngos por 'gyur ba 'i phyirl tshogs dgur 'dod fa sgrub byed medf I

155

The iiIayavijfiiina is [sometimes] referred to as ' all-ground ' (iiIaya : kun gzhi) . It is called ' all-ground ' because it serves as the ground of all phenomena. Since all sentient being are pervaded by dharmakiiya, this [too] is labelled ' all-ground ' . Discursive concepts and signs are also labelled ' all-ground ' . So the mixing up of the concepts and latent tendencies with dharmakiiya is what is [erroneously] called ' all­ground' . Now, it is said that "the ' all-ground' is the ground of all [saf!1saric phenomena] , but is not the ground of purification" .394 Thus, where iiIayavijfiiina is present, phenomena are present . But in the undefiled dharmakiiya, not even the name of iiIayavijfiiina exists . Due to its purity, for a tathiigata, the iiIayavijfiiina dissipates into the ground, so not even the name is possible. In this regard, the all-ground is associated with latent tendencies [whereas] dharmakiiya is free from latent tendencies . As for the nature of [dualistic] mind, it is called 'mind ' inasmuch as it is not free from latent tendencies . The dharmakiiya is called open awareness (rig pa) inasmuch as it consists in the awareness of emptiness . Moreover, there arises a knowing that ascertains this great emptiness and clarity . Remaining in this state is called 'primordial knowing ' (ye shes) .395

• Ye shes sde ' s Eighth Century Synthesis of Late Y ogacara and Tathagatagarbha Views

It is important to recognize that Vimalamitra ' s demarcation between kun gzhi and

chos sku, radical though it may seem at first glance, appears less so when we take into

account the characteristic blend of late Y ogacara, Tathagatagarbha, and tantric (most

notably, Mahayoga) viewpoints that defined the intellectual landscape of 8th century Tibet. A

clear example of the influence of late Yogacara views emphasizing the differentiation

between the tathiigatagarbha and iilayavijfiiina (kun gzhi) within a disclosive paradigm of

goal-realization is found in an eighth century treatise by the renowned scholar-translator Ye

shes sde entitled ITa ba 'i khyad par (Distinction of Views) that is probably the first

394 Interestingly, this unattributed quotation is diametrically opposed to the previously-quoted statement attributed to the 'Jam dpaf ye shes dri rna med pa 'i mdo which reads "The all-ground (kun gzhi) is the ground of all (kun gyi gzhi) . I It is the ground of sarpsara and nirval)a, I And is afso the ground of purification." As a sNying thig exponent, Vimalamitra is here emphasizing the radical differentiation between conditioned and unconditioned 'grounds ' of experience, the afayavijilana and dharmakiiya, and their respective modes of awareness, citta andjilana.

395 Bi rna snying thig vol. 2: 1 68 .5 f. : [byang chub sems kyi rang bzhin bstan pa nil l ] kun gzhi 'i rnam par shes pa de fa kun gzhi zhes bya '0 1 chos kun gyi gzhir gyur pas na kun gzhi zhes bya'o l sems can kun fa chos skus khyab par gnas pa fa kun gzhir ming btagsl rnam par rtog mtshan rna fa yang kun gzhir ming btagsl chos sku dang rnam rtog bag chags 'dres pa kun gzhi zhes bya '0 1 de yang kun gzhi kun gyi gzhi yin te l rnam par byang ba 'i gzhi rna yinl ces gsungs sol kun gzhi 'i rnam par shes pa yod pa 'i sa na chos yod de l chos sku dri rna med pa 'i sa na kun gzhi 'i rnam par shes pa ming yang med dol rnam dag des ni de bzhin gshegs pa fa kun gzhi 'i rnam shes gzhi fa sangs te ming yang mi srid dol de bas na kun gzhi ni bag chags dang bcas pa 'ol chos sku ni bag chags dang braf ba 'ol sems kyi rang bzhin ni bag chags dang rna braf ba fa sems zhes bya ' 01 de nyid chos sku stong par rig pa fa rig pa zhes bya '0 1 de yang stong gsaf chen por nges shes skyes te l de 'ang fa gnas pa ni ye shes zhes bya 'o i l

156

independent Tibetan treatise on Mahayana Buddhist philosophy. 396 Ye shes sde ' s crucial

role in laying the groundwork for the Tibetan assimilation of Buddhism during the Royal

Dynastic Period and his exemplary translations of various texts contained in the bsTan 'gyur

and rNying ma rgyud 'bum have been noted by a number of contemporary Buddhologists . 397

While the influence of his own doctrinal positions on the earliest Tibetan Buddhist

communities remains largely undetermined (it is noteworthy that the rNying rna pas count

him among their early lineage holders), his central role in the Tibetan reception and

promulgation of Indian Buddhism would suggest that his views were endorsed and shared

by many of his contemporaries , not least of all representatives of the fledgling rDzogs chen

traditions .

In underscoring the distinctiveness of Mahayana, Ye shes sde notes that "amongst

the many sutras such as the noble Samadhiraja are found statements such as ' all sentient

beings are endowed with tathagatagarbha ' and ' all sentient beings will become buddhas

because none among them is not a [suitable] vessel ' . , ,398 When this tathagatagarbha is not

clearly evident it is known as alaya[vijfiana] (kun gzhi), and when it is clear, it is called

dharmakaya .399 Each of these technical terms is carefully defined in his text. Kun gzhi rnam

par shes pa, Ye shes sde explains, is specified as kun gzhi because it is the ' ground ' of the

seeds of all phenomena virtuous , non-virtuous and neutra1 .4OO And "since this is of the nature

of consciousness, it is also called a rnam par shes pa . , ,4Dl 'All-ground' (kun gzhi : aZaya) is

another word for 'mind ' (sems : citta), explains Ye shes sde, because it builds up latent

396 D No. 4360 : 228a7-228a7. A different redaction ofthe work was retrieved from the caves at Dunhuang, on which see Seyfort Ruegg 1 98 1 .

397 See Seyfort Ruegg 1 9 8 1 , Snellgrove 1 987, Makransky 1 997.

398 lTa ba 'i khyad par 434.4 f.: . . . 'phags pa ting nge 'dzin rgyal po la sogs pa mdo sde mang po las sems can thams cad ni de bzhin gshegs pa 'i snying po can yin no zhes 'byung ba dangl sems can thams cad sangs rgyas su 'gyur te l snod ma yin pa gang yang med dol zhes 'byung ba la sogs pa . . .

399 A supporting quotation from the 'Phags pa [P : 'phags] dung phreng g i mdo reads (ibid. 436.4 f.) : de bzhin gshegs pa 'i snying po gsal bar ma gyur pa 'i tshe ni kun gzhi zhes bya 'ol gsal bar gyur pa de 'i tshe ni chos sku zhes bya 'ol l 400 lTa ba 'i khyad par 446.3 f.: kun gzhi rnam par shes pa ni dge ba dangl mi dge ba dang lung du ma bstan pa 'i chos thams cad kyi sa bon gyi gzhi yin pas kun gzhi 'ol Compare with the observation of Rang byung rdo rj e that kun gzhi when used independently of rnam par shes pa can in some instances refer to dharmadhiitu. See chapter five below, 1 78 . 401 lTa ba 'i khyad par: 446.4: shes pa 'i rang bzhin yin pas rnam par shes pa '0 1 1

157

tendencies that are virtuous , non-virtuous and neutral .402 As for the term dharmakiiya,

dharma here refers to the tathiigatagarbha that is one ' s beginningless spiritual affiliation

(rigs) because it is the very nature of all sentient beings . Through becoming obscured by

what is inauthentic , it constitutes something defiled. But at the time of becoming free from

error through former abandonments of connections to [these obscurations] , it is present as

one ' s very nature. This being present as one ' s nature is known as dharmakiiya.403

Ye shes sde elsewhere explains that since dharmakiiya is the source (rtsa) or ground

(gzhi) in that it is not a composite phenomena and is devoid of variable epistemic qualities ,

i t is ever-lasting .404 I t i s also described as inconceivable (bsam gyis mi khyab) , unchanging

( 'gyur ba med pa) , and nonconceptualized (rnam par mi rtog pa) . "Dharmakiiya is not

something having physical form [but] is the very nature of nonconceptual primordial

knowing (nirvikalpajfiiina) . It encompasses all knowable things . As the source of all

qualities such as the greatnesses of a buddha (sangs rgyas kyi che ba) and samiidhis is is

known as tathatii and as utterly purified iilayavijfiiina . , ,405

It is of course crucial to distinguish Ye shes sde ' s specification of kun gzhi as a

shorthand for the Yogacara iilayavijfiiina - the source of error and defilement - from the

rDzogs chen understanding of kun [gyi] gzhi, also widespread from the 8th century onward,

as the undefiled unconditioned ground that is none other than the awakened mind

(bodhicitta) . The two conceptions are diametrically opposed. The problem of how to relate

and/or reconcile these contrasting all-grounds posed a significant challenge to rDzogs chen

authors in the centuries to follow. The emerging doctrinal formulations reflect a dialectical

402 ITa ba 'i khyad par: 446.4 f. : kun gzhi ni ming gcig tun sems zhes kyang bya stel dge ba dang mi dge ba dang lung du ma bstan pa 'i bag chags sogs pa 'i phyir rol l

403 ITa ba 'i khyad par: 436.6 f : don bsdus pa zhes bya ba 'i bstan bcos las kyang chos sku zhes bya ba lal chos [D : chas] ni thog ma med pa nas rigs su gyur pa de bzhin gshegs pa 'i snying po la bya ste l sems can thams cad kyi rang bzhin nol de ni yang dag pa ma yin pas bsgribs pas dri ma can du gyur te l gang gi tshe sbyor ba sngon du btang nas 'khrul pa dang bral ba de 'i tshe rang bzhin du gyur rol rang bzhin du gyur ba de ni chos kyi sku zhes bshad dol l

404 ITa ba 'i khyad par: 443 . 1 f : chos kyi sku ni 'dus byas kyi chos ma yin zhing mtshan ma tha dad pa med la rtsa ba dang gzhi yin pas rtag pa '0 1 1 405 ITa ba 'i khyad par: 435 .5 f : de la chos ki sku ni rnam par mi rtog pa 'i ye shes kyi rang bzhin gzugs can ma yin pal shes bya thams cad du khyab pal sangs rgyas kyi che ba nyid ting nge 'dzin la sogs pa yon tan thams cad kyi 'byung gnas de bzhin nyid dangl kun gzhi rnam par shes pa rnam par dag pa la bya '0 1 1

1 5 8

syncretism born out of the attempt to reconcile late Y ogacara, Tathagatagarbha and tantric

streams of thought in a way that could accommodate their resulting tensions .

Before turning to rDzogs chen views of the ground it is worth pausing to consider

just how much of Ye shes sde ' s summary of what he considered the essentials of Mahayana

philosophy to be adopted by Tibet ' s first ordained Buddhists corresponds to the key

doctrinal elements of the emerging rDzogs chen tradition, particularly as these become

systematized in the classical period. These include inter alia ( 1 ) the sharp distinction

between (conditioned, defiled) kun gzhi and (unconditioned, undefiled) chos sku which Ye

shes sde moreover specifies as ground (gzhi) ; (2) the understanding of kun gzhi as

synonymous with dualistic mind (serns) ; (3) the definition of chos sku in terms of nondual

primordial knowing (nirvikalpajfiiina), i .e . as inaccessible to thematic reflection and rational

inference; (4) the identification of tathiigatagarbha with dharrnakiiya and, by extension,

with nirvikalpajfiiina when these are purified of the karmic traces of the iilayavijfiiina4{)6; and

(5) the distinction (developed in the concluding passage of his text) between rna rig pa and

rig pa.407 It is evident that many of the Mahayana sources quoted or cited by Ye shes sde

that express these doctrinal points - particularly works ascribed to AsaIiga-Maitreya - are

also the ones favoured by rNying rna exegetes such as Klong chen rab 'byams pa during the

classical period of doctrinal synthesis when the focus had turned to elucidating the

underlying continuity of Mahayana, Vajrayana and rDzogs chen systems . In any event , it is

clear that Ye shes sde, in establishing a doctrinal framework for the Tibetan assimilation of

Indian Buddhism, emphasized Mahayana themes and ideals that paralleled and, in certain

cases foreshadowed, developments in the classical rDzogs chen traditions .

406 See ITa ba 'j khyadpar: 447. l .

407 ITa b a 'j khyad par: 455.4 f : "It i s not the case that when ignorance ceases, there i s simply nothing. Nor i s it the case that dependent origination will continue. Rather, when the trend toward pollution (saf!Jklesa) ceases, the trend toward purification (vyavadana) [naturally] occurs. For example, when a sick person has taken medicine, then as his i l lness and debilitations vanish, he regains health and long life. So also when ignorance ceases, open awareness dawns. [Then all goals of the Buddhist vehicles are progressively realized] ." ma rig pa 'gags pas ci 'ang med pa 'gyur ba 'ang ma yinl rten cing 'breI bar 'byung bar 'gyur ba 'ang ma yin gyil kun nas nyon mongs pa 'i phyogs 'gags nasi rnam par byang ba 'j phyogs su 'gyur tel dper na sman bcud kyis len bya ba zos nasi che thung ba dang nad rnams med par gyur nasi tshe ring ba dang nad med pa rnyed par 'gyur ba bzhjn dul ma rig pa 'gags te rig pa byung nasl · · ·

159

§5 . Conceptual History of the Ground in Early rDzogs chen

5 . 1 Soteriological Context of the Ground

Ye shes sde ' s LTa ba ' i khyad par may well be the first Tibetan-authored treatise to

specify the deployment of the Tibetan kun gzhi as a shorthand for the Y ogacara

iiLayavijiiiina. In any case, such specification may have at this time been deemed necessary

to avoid confusion with contemporary Mahayoga/rDzogs chen conceptions of an absolute

kun gzhi that were also prevalent by the eighth century . To gain a sense of what is

distinctive about the early rDzogs chen understanding of kun gzhi and gzhi, it is necessary at

the outset to consider these concepts in light of their soteriological context. We can then turn

to the specific problems their later confrontation with Y ogacara interpretations provoked. In

assessing their soteriological relevance, it is worth recalling that the principal classical

distinctions between kun gzhi/chos sku and sems/ye shes were introduced in a class of

scriptures known as the 'Esoteric Guidance Genre ' (man ngag gi sde) that claimed to base

themselves on oral transmissions (snyan brgyud) traced to a circle of early, mostly Indian,

masters who lived during the Royal Dynastic Period. Fundamental to these transmissions

were certain esoteric instructions (man ngag) given by a qualified master to bring a student

face to face with the nature of Mind (sems nyid) or primordial knowing (ve shes) , a process

otherwise known as ascertaining the ground (gzhi gtan La dbab pa) .408 1t is interesting to note

that this same pedagogical method of direct introduction to Mind (sems nyid ngo sprod)

which appears to have been widespread and relatively uncontroversial in the period of early

rDzogs chen also formed the cornerstone of the Indian siddha traditions from which the later

gSar rna bKa' brgyud and Sa skya orders claimed descent. I say 'uncontroversial ' because

this method would become a subject of heated debate and a source of sectarian rivalry

during the new translation period when certain non-gradual Mahamudra teachings

associated with sGam po pa bSod nams rin chen ( 1079- 1 1 53) were criticized by Sa skya

408 In classical rDzogs chen works, such instructions are collectively terms khregs chad or breakthrough teachings.

160

Pm;u;lita ( 1 1 82- 1 25 1 ) as being 'foreign ' -influenced Tibetan innovations (rang bzo) that had

little to do with the graded Indian tantric systems.409

In rDzogs chen, the ground one ascertains through direct introduction is known as

the ground' s abiding condition (gzhi ' i gnas lugs) . It is further identified with luminosity ( ' od

gsal) , buddha nature (bde gshegs snying po), and dharmatdhatu (ehos dbyings) . It is said to

be unfabricated (rna be os pa) and empty (stong pa nyid) but at the same time lucid (gsal ba)

and replete with the expressive energy of inborn qualities (yon tan rtsal rdzogs) . The

primary function of the esoteric guidance teachings, then, is to enable the aspirant to directly

recognize the ground that is open awareness (rig pa) , and to become progressively familiar

with this condition until it becomes an enduring reality, whereupon the inherent qualities

and capabilities manifest unimpededly for the benefit of others .4!O

In tantras and oral instructions of the period, the 'ground' already figures as the first

of three basic soteriological categories : ground (gzhi) , path (lam) and fruition ( 'bras bu), or

409 According to Sa PaJ), the direct introduction circumvented, or at least rendered superfluous, the traditional Indian Mantrayfma systems which generally viewed Mahamudra as the fruition (phafa) of a graded sequence of tantric initiations and stages of practice and conforming in this way to Mahayana gradualist models of the Buddhist path. At the centre of the ensuing controversy was Sa paD ' s influential critique of the "Present-day Mahamudra" or "Neo­Mahamudra" systems put forward in his sDom gsum rab dbye, Thub pa 'i dgongs pa rab tu gsal ba and sKye bu dam pa rnams fa spring ba 'i yi ge. Sa PaD's critique was mainly directed at some of the non-gradual Mahamudra teachings of sGam po pa bSod nams rin chen emphasizing an 'all at once' path of directly realizing one ' s natural mind that stood in stark contrast to the type of gradual path sGam po pa had so carefully delineated in his Lam rim thar rgyan. Sa paJ) repudiated these non-gradual discourses on the grounds that ( 1 ) they were being taught independently ofthe Tantric system of mudriis elaborated by Naropa and transmitted in Tibet by his disciple Mar pa, that (2) they represented newly introduced doctrinal innovations of questionable (i .e . , non-Indian) provenance and that (3) they advocated an erroneous nonconceptual, non-gradual approach to goal-realization. See Jackson 1 994a and Seyfort Ruegg 1 989. In this connection, it is important to note that the majority of Mahamudra teachings attributed to Indian siddhas such as Saraha and Tilopa were decidedly non-gradual in character, advocating as they did a wide range of unmediated, spontaneous styles of meditation and instruction. They were also frequently taught independently of the tantric system of four mudriis and their associated initiations. It is clear, then, that Tibetan masters such as Mi la ras pa and sGam po pa based themselves upon antinomian approaches to Mahamudra that were well-developed in Indian siddha circles by the time of the early Tibetan bKa' brgyud masters. There is l ittle doubt, however, that the Tibetan adepts did far more than faithfully preserve the teachings of their Indi an masters . By internalizing, interpreting and systematizing these siddha teachings in new ways, the early bKa' brgyud masters and their successors expanded what were probably fairly marginal Indian Buddhist tantric movements into vital mainstreams of the ascendant bKa' brgyud orders. Thus, whatever the non-Indian influences on sGam po pa's varied discourses on Mahamudra, it is in the teachings of the Indian siddhas and their Tibetan successors (such as Mar pa and Mi la ras pa) that we find the major source of inspiration for sGam po pa' s own non-gradual Mahamudra instructions. On the history and transmission of indian Mahamudra according to Tibetan authors, see Mathes 20 1 1 .

4 1 0 In this sense, the rDzogs chen approach can be seen as both sudden (insofar as the direct recognition of mind occurs 'all at once' ) and gradual (insofar as the familiarization with this state generally takes time) . sNying thig sources mention only two individuals in the history of rDzogs chen, dGa' rab rdo rje and Seng ge dbang phyug, for whom direct recognition and remaining continuously in the state of rig pa occurred at the same time.

161

ground, nature (rang bzhin) and fruition, or ground, cause (rgyu) and fruition. These

categories are in some cases referred to as the three aspects of tantra, literally three

continuities (rgyud gsum) , to which a fourth, ' compilation tantra' ( ' dus pa 'i rgyud) is

occasionally added. A relatively early example of this four-fold classification is found in the

Ye shes gsang ba bshad pa 'i rgyud contained the early Zur tantra collection Bai ro rgyud

'bum which states :

' Tantra' i s explained as fourfold : ground tantra and path tantra, fruition tantra and compilation tantra. There is nothing whatsoever not comprised within these [categories] . ' Ground' is like the essence of the sun and 'path ' is like the sky; ' fruition ' is like the wish-granting jewel and ' summary ' is like the ocean. 41 1

Another text ascribed to Vairocana included in the bsTan 'gyur entitled Rin p o che ' i rtsod

pa ' i 'khor 10 employs the ground, path and goal triad as an interpretive schema for

elaborating on a number of central rDzogs chen topics such as errancy ( ,khrul pa) and

spontaneity (Ihun grub ) .412

The locus classicus for the three continuities is often said to be the supplemental

tantra (uttaratantra) of the Guhyasamaja41 3, i .e . the eighteenth chapter appended to the root

text, wherein ' ground ' is presented as the first of three aspects of a single stream or

continuum (rgyunlrgyud) .414 One must note, however, that the tantra ' s categories of ground

(gzhi), nature (rang bzhin) and inalienableness (mi 'phrog pa) and its definitions of these are

difficult to reconcile with the well-known Tibetan categories of ground, path and goal . For

example, the tantra defines ground as ' stratagem ' /'method' (thabs : upaya) , a definition that

41 1Bg vol. 3 , 5 . 5 f : rgyud ces bya ba gzhi ru bshadj gzhi y i rgyud dang lam gyi rgyudj 'bras bu 'i rgyud dang 'dus pa 'i rgyudj 'di ru ma 'dus gang yang medj gzhi ni nyi ma 'i snying po lal la ni nam mkha ' Ita bur bdel 'bras bu yid bzhin nor bu lal 'dus pa rgya mtsho Ita bu '01 1

41 2 D vol. 204, 422.4 f and 432.4 f respectively.

41 3 According to colophonic information appended to this text in different editions of the rNying ma rgyud 'bum, the Guhyasami:ija mulatantra was translated by Vimalamitra and sKa ba dpal brtsegs circa Sth century, whereas the appended uttaratantra (Ch. I S) known in Tibetan as gSang 'dus rgyud phyi ma ("Later Guhyasami:ija" ) was translated later by Buddhaguhya and 'Brog mi dpal ye shes. See Mayer 2004, 1 3 0 n. 4. On Buddhaguhya (Tib. Sangs rgyas gsang ba), see n. 4 1 9 .

41 4gSang ba 'dus pa rgyud, Tb vol. I S, 944.4 f : ' " ' Tantra' is known as a stream. This stream has three aspects distinguished as ground, the nature corresponding to that, and inalienableness. The nature aspect is the cause factor, while inalienableness is the goal . 'Ground' is known as ' stratagem/method ' .These three summarize what is meant by ' stream ' ." rgyud ni rgyun zhes bya bar gragsl rgyun de rnam pa gsum 'gyur te l gzhi dang de bzhin rang bzhin dangl mi 'phrogs pa yis rab phye bal rnam pa rang bzhin rgyu yin te l de bzhin mi 'phrogs 'bras bu '0 1 gzhi n i thabs shes bya ba ste l gsum gyis rgyun gyi don bsdus pa '0 1 1

162

does not square with the Tibetan rDzogs chen understanding of ground as being essentially

unconditioned, unmodified and empty.415 According to the rDzogs chen understanding,

stratagems (thabs) are included under the rubric of the path as means of familiarizing

oneself with this unconditioned ground. A similar interpretive scheme consisting of ground,

cause and goal (gzhi, rgyu, 'bras bu) is adpoted by gNubs chen Sangs rgyas ye shes in his

commentary on the dGongs 'dus pa 'i mdo (late 9th c .) , root tantra of the Anuyoga class , to

characterize the three yogas of action, action-performance and non-action which he employs

as interpretive categories for organizing the subject matter of the tantra. They are then

compared to seeds, farming activities, and reaping the fruits of one ' s labour.4 16 I mention

these early rDzogs chen examples only because the basic rubrics of ground, path and goal

served as a prototype for more elaborate soteriological schemes417 widely used from the 1 4th

c . onward by Klong chen rab 'byams pa and his successors to structure the essentials

Buddhist thought and practice.41 8

415 Rog bande Shes rab 'od's ( 1 1 66- 1 244) bsTan pa 'i sgron me ( 1 63 .6 f.) gives a quite different construal of the Guhyasamiija passage, bringing it more into line with the rDzogs chen understanding : 'Tantra has three aspects classified as ground, the nature of that, and inalienableness. The nature of that ground is cause. To not be alienated [from] that is the goal." rgyud ni rnam pa gsum 'gyur te l gzhi dang de yi rang bzhin dangl mi phrog pa yi rab phye bal gzhi de rang bzhin rgyu yin te l de bzhin mi phrog 'bras bu '0 1 1 Yet another version of the passage is given by Rang byung rdo rje in his auto-commentary to the Zab mo nang don where ' connection' ( 'brei ba) replaces ' continuum/stream' (rgyun) as the defining feature of 'tantra' . Zab mo nang don gyi 'grel pa, Rang byung rdo rje gsung 'bum vol. 7, 3 66. 1 f : rgyud ces bya ba 'brei ba 'i doni 'brei ba la yang rnam gsum ste l gzhi dang rang bzhin 'bras bu dangl mi 'phrogs pa yis phye ba nyid] gzhi dang rang bzhin rgyu yin te l de bzhin mi 'phrog 'bras bu '0 1 1

416 In h i s Mun pa ' i go cha (vol. I , 8 .2 f.) gNubs chen states that the three successive yogas of action (bya ba ' i rnal 'byor), action performance (bya ba byed pa 'i rnal 'byor) and non-action (bya ba med pa 'i mal 'byor) can be understood in terms of ground, cause and goal. bya ba 'i rnal 'byor dangl bya ba byed pa 'i rnal 'byor dangl bya ba med pa 'i rnal 'byor rol de 'i don ni gzhi dangl rgyu dangl 'bras bur ston tel l . . . de dag ni dpe sa bon dangl so nam gyi bya ba dangl 'bad pas brnga btsas byas pa 'i 'bras kyi phung po Ita bu '0 1 1

417 Rang byung rdo rje has commented on the relationship between the variously formulated categories of ground, path and goal and the three types of aspirant famously articulated in Ratnagotravibhiiga 1 .47, viz. the impure (ordinary beings), partly pure partly impure (bodhisattvas on the path), and pure ( Tathiigatas) . Zab mo nang don gyi 'gre! pa, Rang byung rdo rje gsung 'bum vol. 7 , 3 77.5 f. : de la gnas skabs rnam pa gsum du 'gyur te ma dag pa dang bcas pa sems can gyi gnas skabs dangl ma dag pa dang dag pa gnyis ka Idan pa byang chub sems dpa ' lam pa 'i gnas skabs dangl shin tu rnam par dag pa de bzhin gshegs pa 'i gnas skabs te l de Itar rnam pa gsum po 'di la ming gi tha snyad kyi rnam grangs sui gzhi dang lam dang 'bras bu dangl gzhi rgyud dang thabs rgyud dang 'bras bu 'i rgyud gsum dangl gzhi dngos po 'i gnas lugs dang lam gyi rim pa dang 'bras bu skye ba 'i rim pa zhes bya ba la sogs pa sngon gyi mkhas grub rnams kyis gsungs soi l

418 Chapter six discusses a number of rNying rna soteriological schemes and their impliciations.

163

5 .2 A Typology of the Ground in early rDzogs chen

How was this primordial ground or all-ground understood in early rDzogs chen?

Given its central place in rDzogs chen soteriology, it is not suprising that the ground was

closely associated with the three main constellations of core soteriological ideas that define

early rDzogs chen exegesis : (a) the nature of Mind (sems nyid, ye shes, rig pa, byang chub

[kyiJ sems) , (b) the nature of Reality (de bzhin pa, de kho na nyid, chos nyid, chos dbyings)

and (c) buddha nature (de bzhin/bde bar gshegs pa 'i snying po, byang chub snying po) . What

is common to these otherwise disparate gnoseological , ontological and buddhological

conceptions is their reference to human reality in its most originary condition. While

detailed treatment of these categories would far exceed the scope of this thesis, I will

provide a brief synopsis of each with a focus on doctrinal developments distinctive of early

rDzogs chen that have hitherto received little attention in contemporary scholarship .

(a) Ground as the Nature of Mind

In the sBas pa 'i rgum chung, an early rDzogs chen text recovered at Dunhuang

attributed to Sangs rgyas sbas pa (Buddhagupta419) , an identification is already made

between the ground (gzhi ma) and Mind as such (sems nyid) :

Mind as such is the sky[-likeJ expanse [of] awakening, It is the ground for realizing awakening. Mind as such which is itself without ground or root Is not found by searching for it, just like space.420

419 Karmay identifies the author as Buddhagupta (Tib. Sangs rgyas sbas pa) who is not to be confused with the earlier Buddhaguhya (Tib. Sangs rgyas gsang ba) , an 8th c. Indian authority on Yogatantras who was instrumental in the early translation and transmission of Yoga, Kriya and Carya tantras in Tibet at the behest of king Khri srong Ide'u btsan (742-797). On Buddhaguhya, see Karmay 1 988, 62 f. , and Germano 2002, 229 f.. The traditional identification of Buddhaguhya and Buddhagupta is problematic. As evidence for Buddhagupta' s authorship of the sBas pa 'i rgum chung, Karmay cites gNubs chen' s discussion of the teachings and teaching methods of one Sangs rgyas sbas pa in the Mahayoga section of his bSam gtan mig sgron. It is also worth pointing out that gNubs chen in a later section of the same work identifies Buddhagupta CBu dha kug ta) as the chief proponent of a class of rDzogs chen teachings emphasizing freedom from deliberate activity (bya btsal dang bral ba) (see Table E on 1 67) . Buddhagupta is included in lists of early rDzogs chen masters and is credited with co -translating (with Vimalamitra, LfJavajra and others) a number of works on Miiyajala (sGyu 'phrul drwa ba) tantras belonging to the rNying rna Mahayoga class that are included in the Peking bsTan ' gyur. See Karmay 1 988 , 62 f; Kapstein 2008, 28 1 f..

420 sBas pa 'i rgum chung, IOL 594 Ch.73 . III .2 1 , fol . I b.4 f : The full passage including linear notes reads: sems nyid (kun gzhi chos nyid) nam ka [mkha '] byang chub dbyings (bdus drangs) I byang chub sgrub pa 'i gzhi (btsal sems dang bral ba) ma yinl gzhi rtsa myed pa 'i sems nyid la (thog ma dang tha ma dang dbu ma dang mtha ' myod [myedJ do) 1 btsal bas myi rnyed nam mkha ' 'dral (mye 'is [yis] chu gsodpa dang 'dral ri dags [dvags] smug [smigs] rgyu snyog pal l ) . Note here that sems nyid is glossed as kun gzhi chos nyid. A translation of the passage including

164

An interlinear note further clarifies Mind as such as denoting the nature of the all-ground

(kun gzhi chos nyid) .42 1 Elsewhere among early rDzogs chen scripture the term ' self­

occuring primordial knowing as the all-ground ' kun gzhi rang byung ye shes is employed to

characterize the nature of the mind of awakening (byang chub sems kyi rang bzhin) .422

In this literature, the locutions ground (gzhi) or ground of all (kun [gyi] gzhi) are used

synonymously with and frequently in combination with 'mind of/as awakening ' (byang chub

kyi sems), arguably the most important and influential idea/ideal in early rDzogs chen

discourses . The conjunction kun gzhi byang chub [kyiJ sems ' awakened mind that is the

ground of all ' is attested in several of the early rNying rna tantras423 assigned to the Mind

Genre (sems sde or sems phyogs as it was designated in the early period) and invites

comparison with the appositional compound rig pa byang chub kyi sems which we discussed

earlier . Fairly typical in this regard is the statement from the Srog gi 'khor lo , one of the

early corpus of eighteen Sems sde ' tantras '424:

The uncontrived mind of awakening, the ground of all [in which appearances] are non-existent, is natural luminosity . Since the environing world and its inhabitants are

interlinear notes would read: "Mind as such (the very nature of the ground of all) is the sky[ -like] expanse [of! awakening (gathering [all] together) . ] It is the ground for realizing awakening (that eludes the searching mind) . ] Mind as such being without ground o r root (without beginning and end, centre and periphery) ] Is not found by searching, j ust l ike space. (Like [trying] to kill water by means of fire [or like] deer chasing after a mirage) ."

4 2 1 In an interesting contemporary Tibetan commentary on this text, the sBas pa 'i rgum chung gi tshig 'grel, Namkhai Norbu identifies kun gzhi chos nyid as a semantic equivalent (don gcig) of don gyi kun gzhi which he contrasts with bag chags sna tshogs kyi kun gzhi. See Norbu 1 984, p. 1 87-8. From a chronological standpoint, it should perhaps be noted that the specification of a genuine all-ground (don gyi kun gzhi) that is distinguished from a conditioned ground is not attested in works prior to the Period of Fragmentation.

422 Byang chub sems rdo rje 'od 'phro 'i brgyud kyi rim pa, Bg vol. 4, 1 46.4.

423 The occurrence of this term in two of the eighteen sems sde tantras, the rTse mo byung rgyal and rMad du byung ba, and their commentaries, is discussed below, 1 86 and n. 487.

424 There is evidence to suggest that this corpus of eighteen tantras (rgyud bco brgyad) that was known to early rDzogs chen adherents consisted of translations of one corpus among a number of recensions that were current in India during this period. The existence of Indian originals would also account for a similar corpus of tantras in China dating to the same period. See Germano 2002 (23 1 ) who cites an unpublished paper presented by Eastman 1 98 1 . It is worth noting that the many Tibetan texts bearing the titles of the works that traditionally make up the rgyud bco brgyad that one finds in the rNying ma rgyud 'bum and Bai ro rgyud 'bum often vary considerably from one another in length and content. This suggests the possibilities of (a) different recensions of the Indian corpus of texts translated into Tibetan and/or (b) the later addition and interpolation of material into earlier Tibetan translations.

165

without exception fully awakened, there have never been any to train. Since everything without exception is buddhahood, it is the great way of the Tathagatas .425

Other related synonyms of the ground include well known rDzogs chen technical terms

Mind as such (sems nyid) , the nature of Mind (sems kyi rang bzhin, sems kyi chos nyid) , self­

occuring primordial knowing (rang byung ye shes) , open awareness (rig pa) , as well as an

early neologism of gNubs Sangs rgyas ye shes : the awakened mind of self-awareness (rang

rig pa 'i byang chub kyi sems) .

The relationship between ground and Mind as such is further clarified in the 'Phrul

gyi me long (Mirror of Manifestation) of gNyags JiUinakumara: "The ground is the very

nature of Mind (sems kyi chos nyid) ," states gNyag, "it is the way things are in the myriad

ways they are, Reality itself as it is ascertained, indistinguishable in buddhas and sentient

beings . , ,426 This type of presentation is widely adopted in classical rNying rna exegesis

where the idea of the ground, whether discussed as a soteriological c ategory (gzhi - lam -

'bras bu) or as one of the eleven adamantine topics (rdo rje 'i gnas) of the sNying thig

system, is identified with the nature of Mind (sems nyid), primordial knowing (ye shes) and

open awareness (rig pa) .

(b) Ground as the Nature of Reality

Just as early rDzogs chen ground concepts are associated with the nature of Mind

they are likewise associated with what this mode of cognition opens onto, the nature of

Reality - tathata, dharmadhatu, dharmakaya . In several Dunhuang rDzogs chen

manuscripts, the ground (gzhi, gzhi ma) or ground of all (kun gzhi) is used in conjunction

with ji bzhin pa ( ' suchness ' , literally 'just as is ' , ' the way things are ') and de kho na nyid

( ' thatness ' ) . An interlinear note to the sEas pa 'i rgum chung glosses kun gzhi as the utterly

pure expanse of space (mkha ' dbyings mam par dag pa) .427 It may be recalled that the

425 See for example, Srog gi 'khor 10, Bg vol. 1 : 307. 1 f.: med pa kun gzhi byang chub kyi sems ma bcos rang bzhin gyi 'od gsal ba yin te l snod bcud ma Ius par byang chub pas da gdod sbyang du gang yang med pa'ol thams cad ma Ius pa sangs rgyas pas bde gshegs pa 'i lam chen pol l

426 Ibid. : 977.2 f.: gzhi la nges pa bzhin de kho na ji snyed pa 'i ji bzhin pa sems kyi chos nyid sangs rgyas sems can dbyer med pa lal l

427 sBas pa 'i rgum chung IOL 594 Ch. 73 - 1 1 -2 1 : fol . 1 a.5 : kun gzhi mkha ' dbyings rnam par dag pa 'i ngo bstan pa· · · 1 1

166

Dunhuang commentary on the Rig pa 'i khu byug had also characterized suchness as "the

ground producing all that is good" (legs pa thams cad skyed pa 'i gzhi) .428

By the late 9th to early 10th centuries , a period that coincides with the Period of

Fragmentation or so-called dark period in Tibetan history, ' ground' (gzhi) had become a

cover term for all the defining elements of rDzogs chen itself. In his bSam gtan mig sgron,

gNubs chen identifies nine views of rDzogs chen that were prevalent at the time of its

composition (late 9th_ early 10th c . ) . These provide some idea of the spectrum of early

rDzogs chen views on the nature of Reality prevalent during the early period. As these have

been presented and discussed by Samten Karmay, I will summarize them here in a table

along with the early rDzogs chen teachers429 with whom the views are associated in

interlinear notes to the bSam gtan mig sgron:

Table E: rDzogs chen views and proponents according to bSam gtan mig sgron

10th c. rDzogs chen Views ([ta ba)

1 . Free from [any] frames of reference (gza ' gtad danR bral ba 'i Ita ba)

2. A great state of spontaneity (lhun Ryi Rrub pa 'i ngang chen par ba)

3. Supreme principle (bdaR nyid chen po)

4. Self-occuring primordial knowing (rang bvunR Ri ye shes)

5. Free from deliberative activity (bva btsal dang bral ba)

6. Great bliss (bde ba chen po)

7. Non-duality (Rnyis su med pa)

8 . Single great sphere (thig Ie chen po ciR)

9. Suchness as ground of all phenomena (chos thams cad gzhi ji bzhin pa)

428 See Karmay 1 988 : 57 .

Proponents of Views

Maharaja of 0Miyana and Vimalamitra (0 rRyan rna ha ra tsa danR vi rna mi tra)

Vajraprabha (dga ' rab rdo rje)

Vairocana (be ro tsa na)

dGe slong rna Kun dga' rna (dRe slonR rna kun dRa ' rna) Buddhagupta ( 'bu dha kUR ta)

Kukkuraja and Snsiqlha (ku ku ra tsa dang shi ri seng ha)

Maiijusnmitra ( 'jam dpal shes Rnyen)

Sras thu bo Ha ti Ra dza has ti (Rajahasti) (InRas [?] thu bo ra tsa nvas sti)

dGa' rab rdo rje, rGyal po 'Da' he na ta, and gNubs chen (dga ' rab rdo rje dang rgyal po 'da ' he na ta 10 'i bzhedl ban chunR ranR Ri 'dod byanR kyanR vin/)

429 Assuming that "Maharaja of O<,i<,iiyana" (0 rgyan rna ha ra tsa) refers to the Lha'i mkhan po rna ha ra included in rDzogs chen lineage listings, all these teachers are attested in the teaching lineage (snyan brgyud) of early rDzogs chen masters presented in the Pm; sgrub rnams kyi thugs bcud snying gi nyi rna, the first text of the Bai ro rgyud 'bum and likely a prototype for later lists. On this text and its importance, see Kapstein 2008.

167

Each of these views is discussed at length in the bSam gtan mig sgron. It is of interest

that gNubs chen singles out only the ninth - "the view of suchness as the ground of all

phenomena" (chos thams cad gzhi ji bzhin par Zta ba) - as the position favoured by gNubs

chen himself, dGga' rab rdo rje (identified by tradition as the first human teacher of rDzogs

chen) and rGyal po 'Da' he na tao Among all the views, gNubs chen explains, this view of

the naturally present ground of all phenomena, the very being of existent entities , is least

mistaken insofar as it is implicit in all the other rDzogs chen views: "Here, the view of

suchness as the ground of all phenomena (gzhi ji bzhin pa) is particularly unmistaken. Why?

Because the very thatness of all existent entities is in itself uncontrived and unfalsified .

Therefore it is called the Atiyoga Great Perfection. , ,43o

Commenting on a passage from the rNnal 'byor grub pa 'i lung Kun 'dus rig pa ' i

mdo43 1 , an early text classed as Anuyoga, that reads "Because the ground is suchness (lit .

"just as is"), it is uncontrived" (gzhi ji bzhin pa 'i phyir ma bcos pa ' 0) , gNubs chen explains

that "the point here is that suchness is [defined] with regard to reality itself because it

alludes in a merely figurative way to something inconceivable . , ,432 Thus, the simple reality

of the ground (gzhi ' i don tsam) is claimed to be inexpressible (brjod du med pa) by thought

and language and is in this sense nameless (ming med) .433 The ground is inherently

nonconceptual, gNubs chen continues , even if we introduce dualistic concepts to

differentiate between saf!lsara and bodhi, between immature sentient beings obscured by

adventitious clouds of false conceptions and buddhas for whom such adventitious have been

430 bSam gtan mig sgron: 375 .5 f. : de la chos thams cad gzhiji bzhin par Ita ba nil khyad par du 'ang ma nor ba stel de 'i phyir zhe nal dngos po rnams kyi de kho na nyid kha na ma bcos ma bslad pa nyid pas a ti yo ga rdzogs pa chen po 'ol l

43 1 The text ' s full title is De bzhin gshegs pa thams cad kyi thugs gsang ba 'i ye shes don gyi snying po rdo rje bkod pa 'i rgyud rNal 'byor grub pa'i lung Kun 'dus rig pa'i mdo Theg pa chen po mngon par rtogs pa chos kyi rnam grangs rnam par bkod pa zhes bya ba 'i mdo. This is one of the so-called five (or later four) so-called root tantras of Anuyoga corpus and is said to be the root tantra (rtsa rgyud) for which the dGongs 'dus pa 'i mdo (another of the four) was an explanatory tantra (bshad rgyud). These works were included in the bsTan 'gyur. The Kun 'dus rig pa 'i mdo is found in P . no. 0452 : 8 1 b3 -276b4; D . no. 0829 : 290a7-290a7.

432 bSam gtan mig sgron : 3 85 .6 : don des naji bzhin de kho na nyid lasl blo dvags tsam du bsam gyis mi khyab pa 'i chos su grags pa 'i phyirl l

433 These are two ofthe seventy descriptions of rDzogs chen gNubs chen discusses in the bSam gtan mig sgron.

168

purified away.434 Thus, in response to the question posed in the Kun 'dus rig pa ' i mdo of

whether "the ground that is named is ultimately nonconceptual?", gNubs chen responds that

the simple reality of the ground utterly confounds representation and concludes with a

consideration of the unavoidable aporias this viewpoint entails :

When it comes to conceptualizing the nonconceptual, it is actually [as if] one ' s capacity to use language had not yet developed. But that is not all : insofar a s the Reality of things just as they are (ji bzhin pa de kho na nyid) is without causes and conditions, it has no origin whatsover . Because it is spontaneously present it does not itself depend on anything . Yet because it is free from any basis , it is itself foundationless (gnas med pa) and groundless (gzhi med pa) . Since in being foundationless , it does not cease in any way, it is not a nihilistic [extreme] . But since its nature is ascertained as being without permanence, it is [also] not an eternalistic [extreme] .435

The attempt to understand the ' ground' inescapably comes up against the limits of thought

and language . We are confronted with the quixotic prospect of naming what is unameable

and conceiving the nonconceptual, all in an attempt to understand an abiding ground that is

nonetheless groundless in the dual senses of being unceasing and impermanent. With this

characterization of the ground as transcending the limits of thought and language, and the

extremes of nihilism and eternalism, gNubs chen sets the stage for sNying thig formulations

of the ground as both empty and radiant, originally pure yet spontaneously present .

(c) The Ground as Buddha Nature

Pre-classical rDzogs chen sources (8th to 1 1 th c . ) predate the period of intensive

buddha nature exegesis and debate that followed the ascendancy of new (gsar ma) Tibetan

religious schools from the 1 1 th onward and the translation of important buddha nature

siistras such as the Ratnagotravibhiiga . It is nonetheless evident that Mahayana

434 bSam gtan mig sgron: 387.5 £: gzhi'i don tsam du yang mi rtogl mom par mi rtog lags sol de ci 'i phyir zhe nal gzhi'i don tsam zhig ni 'di zhes sangs rgyas nyid kyis btsal yang mi rnyed dol de bas na glo bur gyi rtog pa dangj mi rtog pa la sangs rgyas dangl sems can zhes btags par zad kyil de bzhin nyid de la ni sangs rgyas dangl sems can du cung zad kyang med dol 'on tang na byis pa rnams ni glo bur gyi sprin gyis sgrib pa lal glo bur gyi chos dag byed du med cingl 'khor ba dangl byang chub gnyis su rtogpar byed dol Text in bold is from the Kun 'dus rigpa 'i mdo.

435 bSam gtan mig sgron 388 .3 f. : rni rtog pa la rtog pa ni don la brda ' shed rna bye ba '0 1 de yang rna zad de l ji bzhin pa de kho na nyid de ni rgyu rkyen rned la gang du yang thogs pa rned de l lhun gyis grub pa 'i phyirl gang la 'ang rag rna las pal de ni rten dang bral ba 'i phyirl gnas rned pa gzhi rned pa 'i phyirl rten rned pa gang du 'ang ma 'gags pasl chad par rna yin pal ther zug rned de rang bzhin nges pas rtag pa rned pal l . . .

169

tathiigatagarbha theories were well known in 8th century Tibet since it is a subject found in

early translations of many important siltras and in a few independent Tibetan treatises . 436

We have already drawn attention to one such treatise, Ye shes sde ' s ITa ba ' i khyad par.

Another is the Thabs shes sgron ma of the rDzogs chen author dPal dbyangs (8th c .) , one of

the original seven monks (sad mi mi bdun) ordained by Santarak�ita and the second Tibetan

abbot of bSam yas monastery .437 In this short text covering the essentials of Mahayana from

the standpoint of realizing the nature of Mind, dPal dbyangs explicitly identifies buddha

nature with the nature of Mind. According to dPal dbyangs, *sugatagarbha, the nature of

Mind, appears individually as the self-grasping mind streams of sentient beings while its

very nature remains one with the dharmakiiya of the victorious ones .438

The term bde bar gshegs pa 'i snying po (*sugatagarbha439) , a synonymn of de bzhin

gshegs pa ' i snying po (tathiigatagarbha) , also occurs in many tantras of the period.440 It IS

found in many early rDzogs chen texts such as the Srog gi 'khor 1044\ Byang chub sems bde

ba ' i myu gu442, *Guhyagarbha443, and dGongs 'dus pa 'i mdo444. All belong to the formative

436 Wangchuk 2005 has commented that almost all of the Indian sources on tathiigatagarbha noted by Seyfort Ruegg 1 973 are contained in the early !Dan dkar ma catalogue. Ye shes sde (8th c.) is thus able to quote or cite many ofthese in his lTa ba 'i khyad par.

437 On dPal dbyangs, see Tucci 1 980 : 5 f; Snellgrove 1 987, vol . 2 : 430 f.. See also 1 70 and 33 n. 6 1 and 86 n. 220 above.

438 D fol . 3 85a. l f; See also NyKs vol. 82: 1 052.2 f: bde gshegs snying pa sems kyi rang bzhin lal yun ring dus nas rmangs pa 'i sems can rnamsl bdag tu 'dzin pa 'i sems rgyud sa sar snangl rang bzhin nyid ni rgyal ba 'i chas skur gcigl l · 439 Seyfort Ruegg ( 1 973 : 68) notes that the Sanskrit equivalent is not attested in any Buddhist Sanskrit works.

440 See Wangchuk 2005 .

441 Srag gi 'khar la, Tk vol. 1 : 446 .3 f : khams gsum brtags na 'khar ba my a ngan meJ" phyags char brtses na bde gshegs snying pa yinl kun gyi rang bzhin 'ja ' tshan snang bzhin meJ" In Tb vol. I , the second line reads : phyags char 'char ba rtses na bde gshegs snying pa yinl The passage as found quoted in the bSam gtan mig sgran of gNubs Sangs rgyas ye shes is : khams gsum brtags na 'khar ba my a ngan meJ" phyags char gtsen na bde gshegs snying pa mini I . This reading (min not yin) is corroborated by a commentary on this tantra found in the bKa ' ma shin tu rgyas pa (NyKs, vol. 1 0 3 : 248.3 f) : phyags char gces na bde gshegs snying pa min i kun gyi rang bzhin 'ja ' tshan snang bzhin meJ" I " If evaluated in a partial manner [commentary: "i .e. by way of epistemological means of valid cognition"], it is not the *sugatagarbha. The nature of all is rainbow[-like] , apparent yet nothing." The term bde gshegs snying pa is not found in the version of Srag gi 'khar la contained in Bg vol. 1 : 305 . 5 : which appears to be an altogether different work, though the term snying pa byang chub, a semantic equavalent, occurs twice. See 307 .3 f and also 3 1 0.5 f which states : "Because the naturally occuring transcendent conqueror has always been the essence of ultimate reality, it is also called the awakening-quintessence that is inconceivable." rang byung gi bcam ldan 'das dan dam pa 'i nga ba ye nas yin pasl snying pa byang chub dgangs su med pa zhes kyang byal l

442 Tk vol. 1 : 449.7 f : lhun gyis grub pas che ba lal thams cad bde gshegs snying pa lasl rnam rtag las kyis 'khrul pa lal For identical passage in Tb see vol. I : 630.6 f .

170

Mahayoga tantric traditions and Sems sde ("Mind Genre") or, as it was sometimes called,

Sems phyogs ("Mind Orientation") tradition of rDzogs chen. The first two texts mentioned

are found among the corpus of eighteen tantras (rgyud beo brgyad) belonging to the Mind

Genre that are said to have been transmitted by Vairocana (8th c . ) . The *Guhyagarbha is the

root tantra (miilatantra) within the Miiyiijiila (sGyu 'phrul drwa ba) cycle and classified as

Mahayoga. The dGongs 'dus is eventually ( 14th c .) considered the root tantra of the Anuyoga

class445, though nowhere in the tantra itself or in the works of gNubs chen Sangs rgyas ye

shes, who is credited with assisting in its translation and authoring its first commentary, is

this identification made. Rather, the scope of the tantra is the Guhyamantra tradition as a

whole inclusive of Maha, Anu and Ati446 as these were known and practiced in mid-9th-mid-

1 0th century Tibet .447 It is thus apparent that Tathagatagarbha doctrine was already quite

widespread in Tibet by the eighth century, both in siltric and tantric sources , and that it

appears to have been accepted as an important and valid Buddhist doctrine that, at this time,

generated little controversy .

What intrigues us about these scattered references to tathiigatagarbha/sugatagarbha

in early rDzogs chen scripture is that these terms, the focus of so much theorizing in later

times , are here passed over with little notice. This undoubtedly has much to do with the

virtually unanimous Tibetan view that the tantric and siddha paths are superior to siltric , a

view reflecting the ascendancy and widespread influence of Indian Buddhist tantric models

and teachings at the time of assimilation. Despite the early propagation of late Mahayana

buddha nature doctrines in Tibet, our oldest rDzogs chen sources consecrate considerable

attention to buddha nature terms and ideas that do not appear to be linked in any discernable

way with siltric discourses . To be more specific , the authors of the Mahayoga/Sems sde

443 See below 1 76-7.

444 Tb vol. 1 6 : 3 1 . 1 , 1 46. 1 .

445 Rog Bande Shes rab 'od makes this assocition in his 1 3th century bsTan pa 'i sgron me.

446 The dGongs 'dus became the locus classicus for the well-known rNying rna classification of nine vehicles. While earlier nine-fold systems had been attempted in Dunhuang texts and elsewhere, the dGongs 'dus "may have been the first source to present them as they appear in the later tradition". See Dalton 2002 : 85 .

447 See Dalton 2002 : 3 1 8- 1 9 . Dalton notes the rtsa lung practices which became a hallmark of later rDzogs chen characterizations of Anuyoga are given only passing notice in the dGongs 'dus.

17 1

scriptures as well as their early Tibetan commentators , gNubs chen and Rong zorn pa in

particular, evidently preferred to use the terms byang chub [kyiJ snying p0448 ( , quintessence

of awakening ' ; *bodhigarbha449) and snying po byang chub450, and occasionally byang chub

kyi sems snying po ( , quintessence of mind of awakening ' ) or snying po byang chub kyi sems,

terms likely favoured because of their close associations with the all-important concept

bodhicitta and because of the tantric/rDzogs chen identification of buddha nature with this

bodhicitta45 1 •

448 The term occurs frequently in the rTse mo byung rgyal, Tk vol. 1 : 434.4, 43 5 .5 (ye nas lhun grub byang chub snying po), 437.7, 439.6, 440.4, 440.6. Among the very numerous occurences of the term in Sems sde works, see Khyung chen ldings pa, Tk vol. I : 422.5 ; Khyung che ldings pa 'i 'grel pa, NyKs vol. 1 03 : 22.2; dGongs 'dus pa 'i mdo, Tb vol. 1 6 : 4 1 5 . 1 ; Byang chub sems 'khor 10 rdo rje, Tk vol. 2: 309.4, 3 1 0.4, Nam mkha'i mtha' dang mnyam pa'i rgyud chen po, Bg vol. 1 : 1 82 . 1 , 1 97.4, 237 .3 , 26 l . l . Occurences of the term in gNubs chen' s works include rTse mo byung rgyal 'grel pa: 205 .5 , 207; Mun pa 'i go cha vol. 2: 50.6, 55 . 1 ; bSam gtan mig sgron : 394.4. The term is discussed by Rong zom pa in his Theg chen tshul 'jug, Rong zong gsung 'bum vol. 1 : 503 .9 where, in the context of specifying deviations (gol sa) from bodhigarbha, he characterizes it as ( l ) free from all characterisics of appearance (503 . 1 8), (2) unmodified by extraneous influences (503 .24), and (3) unproduced by causes and conditions (504. 1 4) . See also his rGyud rgyal gsang ba snying po dkon cog 'grel: 1 27 . 1 3 (discussed below). The term is also found in the seventeen Atiyoga tantras of the sNying thig system, as for example in Kun tu bzang po thugs kyi me long, Ati vol. 1 : 258 . 1 and 260.5 where this * bodhigarbha is said to be without obscurations or deviations : byang chub snying po gol dang sgrib pa med pa lal l The six occurences ofthe term in this tantra include the formulations byang chub don gyi snying po (Ati vol . 1 : 250.2) and byang chub snying po 'i sku (ibid. 263 . 1 ) . See also Rig pa rang shar, Ati vol. 1 : 472.5 f where *bodhigarbha is held to be equal to all buddhas and linked with unchanging and unerring bodhicitta which totally pervades living beings 'gyur med byang chub sems la 'khrul pa ga fa yodl 'khrul med byang chub sems ni 'gro ba yongs la khyab l byang chub snying po sangs rgyas kun dang mnyaml l 449 The term * bodhigarbha is not attested in Indian Buddhist texts though byang chub [kyi] snying po is used to render the Sanskrit bodhimwuja, a widely used term referring to the ' seat of enlightenment' , both as an actual or metaphorical place a buddha attained awakening (e.g. Bodhgaya). See Mahavyutpatti no. 4 1 1 4. Given their quite different contexts, it seems unlikely that these two uses of byang chub snying po have any genetic connection. 450See for examples : Srog gi 'khor 10, Bg vol. I : 305 . 5: 307.3 : 3 1 0 .5 ; Mi nub rgyal mtshan, Tk vol . 1 : 425 . 3 ; beom Idan 'das lung thams cad kyi rang bzhin, Bg vol. 2: 232 .3 ; Nam mkha'i mtha' dang mnyam pa 'i rgyud chen po, Bg vol . 1 : 241 .4, 276 .5 . See also Khyung che ldings pa 'i 'grel pa, NyKs vol. 1 03 : 22.5 , where snyingpo byang chub i s identified with the [tathagata]garba vainly sought after in different Buddhist teachings and 26 .5 where ye snying po byang chub pa is explained according to the Nam mkha ' che (i .e. Mi nub rgyal mtshan). An interlinear note the sBas pa 'i rgum chung. IOL 594 Ch.73 - 1 1 -2 1 fol . l a. 1 uses the abbreviated form nying byang chub which Namkai Norbu glosses as ye gzhi snying po byang chub kyi sons in his commentary. See Norbu 1 984: 1 1 6 . gNubs chen often employs snying po byang chub as, for example, in rTse mo byung rgyal 'grel pa: 1 86.6, 207.6, bSam gtan mig sgron : 395 . 3 . The term snying po byang chub (kyi sems) occurs frequently in gNubs chen 's Mun pa 'i go cha, as for example vol. 1 : 244 .5 , 245.6, pt. 2 : 50.3 . Rong zom pa also uses the term interchangeably with byang chub snying po, as in Theg chen tshul 'jug: 503 . 1 5 , 509. 1 4.

45 1 On this idea and its importance in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, see Wangchuk 2007. It would appear that * bodhigarbha concepts remained in vogue in rDzogs chen traditions well into the eleventh century, after which time they were steadily eclipsed by the sLitric variants. This undoubtedly had much to do with the widespread appeal of the Ratnagotravibhaga and the saliency of its disclosive path model to the important hermeneutical problem of bridging sLitric and tantric conceptions of the path (on which see chapter s ix below) .

172

In the dGongs 'dus, for example, bde gshegs snying po occurs as but one in a series

of terms for buddha nature that includes ye nas snying po ( 'primordial quintessence , )452

snying po byang chub ( ' awakening-quintessence ' )453 , kun gyi snying po ( ' quintessence of

all , )454, rdo rje snying po ( ' adamantine quintessence , )455 , gsang ba dam pa snying po

( ' quintessence of secret authenticity , )456, terms that variously describe an implicit

unconditioned mode of being (dharmakaya) and awareness (ve shes chen po) that eludes the

appropriations of objectifying cognition. Significantly, gNubs chen ' s commentary on the

relevant section of chapter nineteen does not so much as mention the term bde gshegs snying

po or even quote the line in which it occurs, though he does elaborate each of the other

terms (except ye nas snying po) listed above.457 In his bSam gtan mig sgron, we are told that

the quintessence of awakening (byang chub kyi snying po) is the true purport (dgongs pa

dam pa) of all the buddhas, where ' true purport ' refers to ineffable suchness, the nature of

everything.458 All this points to the conclusion that certain buddha nature conceptions were a

matter of considerable interest to early rDzogs chen author though less as a matter of

defining or defending a particular line of interpretation based on Mahayana buddha nature

discourses (as was later increasingly the case) than as a way of conveying by means of

terminology specific to the rDzogs chen system the nature of Mind or awakened state itself.

This brings us to the question of why these *bodhigarbha terms were favoured over

their traditional Mahayana counterparts in the early period . One consideration that helps

explain the prevalence of and obvious preference for *bodhigarbha concepts in pre-classical

rDzogs chen exegesis is brought to our attention by Rong zorn Chos kyi bzang po (b . 1 1th c . )

452 T b vol. 1 6 : 1 45 .4.

453 Tb vol. 1 6 : 1 45 .7 .

454 Tb vol . 16 : 1 46.2.

455 Tb vol. 1 6 : 1 46.6 .

456 Tb vol . 1 6 : 1 46.7 .

457 See Mun pa 'i go cha vol . 1 : 244.5 f. .

458bSam gtan mig sgron : 394.4 f.: byang chub kyi snying po nil sangs rgyas kun gyi dgongs pa dam pa la bya 'ol l . . . dgongs pa dam pa zhes gang la byal l " . thams cad kyi rang bzhin rang lags pa de kho na nyid dol l " . thams cad kyi rang bzhin gsang sngags bya byal l " . thams cae! kyi rang bzhin gang lags pa de nil gang gis kyang ma mthongl mi rtogb spyod yul du ma gyurl smrar med pal brjod pa las 'das pal bsam du med pal bsam gyis mi khyab pal l " . atext has thad; btext has rtogs

173

in his commentary on *Guhyagarbha 2 . 15, a passage containing the only instance of the

term bde bar gshegs pa 'i snying po in the tantra. There Rong zorn distinguishes , with

characteristic perspicacity, the two contrasting paradigms of interpreting buddha nature and

the terminology specific to each:

In this context, the term *sugatagarbha is widely known in ordinary [scriptures] which claim that all sentient beings possess the cause of awakening [and] are endowed with the seed of incorruptability . According to the profound [scriptures] , it is called the ' quintessence of awakening ' (*bodhigarbha) because the very nature of Mind is awakening . This being the case, it appears as bondage [deriving] from it and also appears as freedom due to its inherent power. It is thus revealed in this way due to the fact that one has not yet seen the Reality devoid of bondage and freedom .459

In other words, the so-called 'profound scriptures ' (a category which, for Rong zorn,

included siitric and tantric scriptures) regard buddha nature not as a germinal potential that

is made to mature through appropriate causes and conditions (the causal-developmental

model) but rather as the awakened mind (bodhicitta) itself which is already fully present but

temporarily shrouded by adventitious obscurations that need to be cleared away (the goal­

disclosive model) .

In his groundbreaking work on early rDzogs chen, Samten Karmay commented that

in early Great Perfection texts "no reference is made to bde gshegs snying po in connection

with the Primordial Basis . , ,460 However, two commentaries of gNubs chen that have since

become available explicitly identify this primordial ground with *bodhigarbha which we

have established, with confirmation from Rong zorn pa, as the early rDzogs chen alternative

to the sUtric bde bar gshegs pa 'i snying po. Commenting on a passage from the rTse rno

byung rgyal that declares that *bodhigarbha that is nondual and without self is not found as

any Reality other than the unity of primordial knowing and its expanse, gNubs chen explains

that since the ground that is the awakening-quintessence (snying po byang chub kyi gzhi) is

459 rGyud rgyal gSang ba snying po dkon cog 'grel, 1 27. 1 3 f. : de la bde bar gshegs pa 'i snying po zhes bya ba nil thun rnong du grags pa serns can rnarns byang chub kyi rgyu can zag rned kyi sa bon dang ldan pa '0 1 zhes 'dod dol zab rno ltar na serns kyi rang bzhin nyid byang chub yin pas byang chub kyi snying po '0 1 de ltar yin pa las bcings par snang zhing de 'i dbang gis grol bar yang snang ste l beings grol rned pa 'i don rna rnthong bas de bstan pa phyirl l 460 Karmay 1 988 : 1 84.

174

simply one ' s self-awareness (rang rig pa) � the phenomena of goal-realization are not to be

discovered elsewhere.461

In the fifty-fifth chapter of his lengthy commentary on the dGongs 'dus, a chapter

largely devoted to the idea of the all-ground (kun gzhi) , gNubs chen explicitly identifies this

all-ground with buddha nature . In several instances, such as the following, he describes the

quintessence of awakening that is the ground of all (kun gzhi byang chub kyi snying po),

using examples and characterizations reminiscent of standard buddha nature discourses :

The ground and root of all inborn qualities belonging to dharmakaya of the perfectly realized buddha - i .e . the quintessence of awakening (*bodhigarbha) that is the ground of all - is that very nature which is associated with ignorance. Thus, just as the root of a lotus flower is planted firmly in a swamp, so the root of great awakening is present in this cyclical existence itself. So also the errancy of the all-ground stems from the two aspects of co-emergent ignorance .462

gNubs chen goes on to specify that the very source of buddha-qualities is at the same time

the source of spiritual darkness : "The nature of spiritual darkness is the awakened mind as

self-awareness (rang rig pa byang chub sems) , because its essence is difficult to realize

given that it lies very deep and is [consequently] difficult to fathom. , ,463 Nonetheless , he

adds, one cannot ascertain this quintessence of awakening by means of arduous procedures

of rational inference (bios dpag) . Since *bodhigarbha is realized very swiftly, it is also not

arrived at through progressive striving (brtsoi bgrod) .464 Beings remain blind to their own

46 1 rTse mo byung rgyal gyi 'grel pa: 207.4 f. : bdag med gnyis med byang chub snying po lasl dbyings dang ye shes mnyam shyor ma gtogs pal chos nyid chos tshol chos mam gzllan na medi i zhes pal de ltar bdag nyid chen po 'i rnam pa 'ang mi rnyed pas tha dad pa mi rnyed pa 'i snying po byang chub kyi gzhi de l tha snyad du go mjal byed pa tsam lasl ngo bos rang rig pa byang chub snying pos 'bras bu 'i chos gzhan nas gnyer bas 'bras bu rnams mi thob stel rtsa ba gnas su lung ngan 'khyams pa 'i phyir rol l Bolded text is from rTse mo byung rgyal.

462 See Mun pa 'i go cha vol. 2: ch. 55, 50.6 f. : yang dag par rdzogs pa'i sangs rgyas kyi chos kyi sku 'i yon tan gyi gzhi dang rtsa ba kun gzhi byang chub kyi snying po rna rig pa dang bcas pa'i ngo de nyid yin pasl dper me tog padma 'i rtsa ba 'dam la zug pa ltarl byang chub chen po 'i rtsa ba 'ang 'khor ba nyid la yod pa ' 0 1 des kun gzhi 'khrul pa yang lhan Gig skyes pa 'i rna rig pa gnyis las byung ba ' 0 1 1 The two aspects of co-emergent ignorance are later specified as that which has polluting emotions and that which is without polluting emotions (still present on the l oth bhumi) .

463 Mun pa 'i go cha vol. 2 : 5 1 .4 f.: . . . mun pa 'i rang bzhin rang rig pa byang chub sems shin tu gting dpag dka ' bas ngo bo rtogs par dka ' ba 'i phyirl l

464 Mun pa 'i go cha vol . 2 : 48.4 f.: blo dpag par dka ' bas nges par rna shesl byang chub snying po shin tu myur bas rtsol bgrod kyis rna slebs pa ' 01 1

175

fundamental nature because of deeply rooted ignorance that persists up to the tenth spiritual

level .

Even in bodhisattvas on tenth spiritual level, there is still the innate ignorance which is without polluting emotions such that the great root (rtsa ba chen po) remains unseen. It thus remains obscured up to the tenth level and the obscurations are present in greater and lesser, subtler and coarser degrees in each and every person so long as their minds arise in the states associated with dwelling on these levels .465

gNubs chen goes on to explain that the nature of Reality that is the ground or *bodhigarbha

remains unseen because it is empty and therefore beyond the scope of the reifying mind. In

language reminiscent of buddha nature discourses, he concludes that self-awareness is fully

disclosed only at the time of spiritual awakening, though it has been present all along as an

implicit knowing that, paradoxically, makes possible all explicit acts of knowing while itself

remaining unknown. It is, in gNubs chen ' s words, like the eye that cannot see itself.

Klong chen pa will later trace this relationship between the ground and buddha

nature to the Mayajala tantric cycle where buddha nature is characterized as the ground of

possibility of errancy as well as freedom, even if it cannot be a direct source of the former .

One early source of such an interpretation is the previously-noted passage from the Byang

sems bde ba ' i myu gu that reads : thams cad bde gshegs snying po las I mam rtog las kyis

'khrul pa la I "From the *sugatagarbha [present in] all things , One goes astray due to

divisive conceptualizing and karma". Now, these lines closely resemble and suggest a

different reading of the two oft-quoted lines on *sugatagarbha from the *Guhyagarbha

(2 . 1 5) e ma 'o bde gshegs snying po las I rang gi mam rtog las kyi sprul l "E rna ho I From the

*sugatagarbha I Individual divisive conceptualizing manifests due to karma. , ,466 Here, it is

conceivable that the term sprul was mistaken for 'khrul (a near homophone distinguished

only by the aspirated initial consonant of the latter term) . Indeed Klong chen pa 's numerous

quotations of this *Guhyagarbha passage (e .g. in Sems ye dris lan, Grub mtha ' mdzod, Yid

bzhin mdzod, Sems nyid ngal gso 'grel) render sprul ( 'manifest ' , ' emanate ' ) as 'khrul ( ' err ' ,

465 Ibid. 5 1 . 6 : . . . sa bcu pa 'i byang chub sems dpa ' la 'ang kun nas nyon mongs pa med pa 'i fhan cig skyes p a 'i ma rig pa yod pasl rtsa ba chen po ma mthong bas sa bcu man chad fa sgrib cingl sa fa gnas pa 'i skabs sems skyes pa yan chad du rang rang la sgrib tshab che chung phra rags yod pa 'al l 466 See critical edition in DOlj e 1987 : 1 88 .

176

' go astray ' ) , though not in his commentary the Phyogs cu mun sel which retains sprul . His

commentary on the passage in question, however, accommodates both readings , suggesting

that errancy ( ,khrul) and the ensuing phenomenal manifestation (sprul) derive from a

common ground, buddha nature :

"E ma ho I " expresses the very nature of kindness . Errancy Ckhrul pa) has derived from the dimension of the *sugatagarbha , one ' s primordial abiding condition, luminous Mind as such. Here, *sugatagarbha refers to luminous Mind as such which abides as the very essence of the three kiiyas which are inseparably united . . . In the sGyu 'phrul rgyas pa467 its meaning is the actual all-ground that is unconditioned ( ' dus ma byas don gyi kun gzhi) :

It is not the all-ground of divisive conceptualizing, But the genuine ground that is without intrinsic nature . That is called the expanse of phenomena, Primordial knowing of suchness .

When errancy occurs due to any given conditions, since divisive concepts of individual sentient beings occur of their own accord, this great city of sarpsara manifests like a self-appearing dream by virtue of causally efficacious karma. , ,468

The passage is also cited in the author ' s Yid bzhin mdzod 'grel where *sugatagarbha is

identified as the ground (gzhi) , more specifically the genuine all-ground as one ' s abiding

condition (gnas lugs don gyi kun gzhi) , from which sarpsara and nirvaDa emerge469 and to

which the aspirant seeks to return. The all-ground in question is here qualified as the de

facto or actual all-ground (don gyi kun gzhi) to distinguish it from the conditioned all-ground

(rkyen gyi kun gzhi) of causal production, the Yogacara iilayavijfiiina .

Looking back on our reconstruction of some early developments in rDzogs chen

ground theories in Tibet, we can see that the Y ogacara concept of iilayavijfiiina was known

467 This refers to the sGyu phrul brgyad bcu pa in 82 chapters which is found in Tk vol. 1 4 : 67 .6-3 1 7. I have so far been unable to locate this quotation in it.

468 Phyogs bcu mun sel in NyKs vol . 68 : 1 1 8 .6 : brtse ba 'i rang bzhin gyis e ma ho brjod nasi gdod ma 'i gnas lugs sems nyid 'ad gsal ba bde gshegs snying po 'i ngang las 'khrul lo l de 'ang bde gshegs snying po ni sems nyid 'ad gsal ba sku gsum 'du 'bral med pa 'i ngo bor gnas pa de nyid yin te l l . . . sgyu phrul rgyas pa lasl rnam rtog kun gzhi ma yin pal rang bzhin med pa don gyi gzhil de ni chos kyi dbyings zhes byal de bzhin nyid kyi ye shes soi l zhes pa dangl 'dus ma byas don gyi kun gzhi 'i don nyicf" I . . . rkyen gang gis 'khrul na sems can rang rang gi rnam par rtog pa rang shar du byung bas rgyas byas pa 'i las kyis 'khor ba 'i grong khyer chen po 'di rang snang rmi lam ltar sprul soi l

469 Yid bzhin mdzod 'grel: 1 5 1 . 1 1 .3 : gang las 'khrul pa 'i gzhi nyid dang par bshad pal l thog ma 'i 'ad gsal bde gshegs snying po nyicf" don gyi kun gzhi rang bzhin 'dus ma byasl ye nas rnam dag nyi mkha ' Ita bu lal ma rig pa 'i bag chags g.yos pas nal sems can rnams 'khrul pa nyid dol l

177

to Tibetans from at least as early as the 8th c . and was at times denoted simply by the

shorthand kun gzhi . But we also pointed out that this iiZayavijfiiina was generally given a

negative evaluation by rDzogs chen writers in a manner commensurate with those late

hybridized Yogacara-Tathagatagarbha texts that described iiZayavijfiiina as a defiled mode of

consciousness that must be purified, transformed or transcended if one is to realize

buddhahood.470 By contrast, the early rDzogs chen idea of a primordially pure kun gzhi was

accorded a positive evaluation and identified with buddha nature, the nature of Mind, and

nature of Reality . It must be acknowledged that the line between these grounds was not

always clear . Even by the fourteenth century, the third Karmapa Rang byung rdo rje still

deemed it necessary to point out that the term kun gzhi (alaya) when it is used independently

of rnam par shes pa (vijfiiina) is not necessarily a shorthand for kun gzhi rnam par shes pa

(iiZayavijfiiina) but "can also refer to suchness" (tathatii : de bzhin nyid) .47 1 Another potential

source of confusion was the long-standing proclivity among rDzogs chen scholars to try to

accommodate conditions of freedom and errancy within a single common ground conceived

as the source of both delusion and awakening, sarp.sara and nirval}.a. Classical authors who

were heir to this tangle of different and at times conflicting ground conceptions recognized

the need for clearer formulations and sharper distinctions .

470 Tibetan doxographical works distinguish within the false aspectarian (Nirakaravadins) branch of Cittamatrins those who claim that the iilayavijniina is impure and that error is inherent in it and those who claim it is pure (epistemically undifferentiated and karmically neutral) and that error is instead inherent in the manovijniina. See for example treatments by Klong chen pa in his Grub mtha ' mdzod, Sems nyid ngal gso 'gre!, Yid bzhin mdzod 'grel.

471 Zab mo nang don gyi 'grel pa, Rang byung rdo rje gsung �bum vol. 7 : 3 83 .2 : ' di yang kun gzhi zhes bya ba la rnam par shes pa 'i sgra ma smos na de bzhin nyid la yang kun gzhis brjod du rung ba 'i phyir rnam par shes pa smos soi l Klong chen pa also distinguishes iilaya from the iilayavijniina. See below 2 1 2 n. 54 1 for passage.

178

5 I Distinguishing the sNying thig Ground of Freedom (grol gzhi)

The rDzogs chen problem of the ground receives its most penetrating and systematic

philosophical treatment during the Period of Monastic Hegemony as the emerging rNying

rna order sought to forge a new cultural and institutional identity by defining its most

distinctive ideas and practices in relation to the broader currents of Indo-Tibetan Buddhist

soteriology. For classical rNying rna exegetes, increasing doctrinal tensions between rDzogs

chen and sutric views of the ground and their disclosive and developmental models of goal­

realization signaled the growing need to more rigorously elucidate the grounds of freedom

and errancy (grol gzhi, 'khrul gzhi) and clarify the relations of ontological priority between

them. If earlier rDzogs chen masters had articulated (and claimed to have experienced) a

ground more fundamental than the alayavijiiana, the onus was on the new generation of

scholars to specify the nature of this state and also argue for its acceptability within the

wider frames of Buddhist philosophy and soteriology.

§ 1 . Stages of Differentiating the Siltric and rDzogs chen Grounds

We are now in a position to address the problem of why classical rDzogs chen

sNying thig scriptures draw a sharp distinction between their own ideas of an unconditioned

ground or all-ground and the sutric conditioned all-ground when early sources were inclined

to focus on unity rather than difference . To understand this shift in perspective, it is

necessary to trace the growing separation between the two as rDzogs chen ground

discourses are confronted with earlier Y ogacara developmental ground models , and align

themselves increasingly with disclosive tantric and late Yogacararratagatagarbha

paradigms . We have seen that late Yogacara traditions in India, China and Tibet confronted

similar tensions in their encounter with the Tathagatagarbha system and sought to resolve

them through systems of identification (absolutizing the alayavijiiana) or differentiation (i .e .

between the alayavijiiana and the absolute as it was variously described) . The sNying thig

gzhi/kun gzhi distinction is best seen as an offshoot of this differentiation trend that was

radicalized in the classical period as undesired implications of identification became too

onerous to ignore . The result was a dialectical sycretism that could accommodate the

179

developmental ground model within the disClosive model while emphasizing their difference

in terms of priority relations of founding and founded, fundamental and derivative .

What I am calling the rDzogs chen problem of the ground crystallized around the

idea of a common ground (spyi gzhi) that is the source of both conditioned and

unconditioned phenomena, sarpsara and nirvaI).a. Now, the ground of early rDzogs chen is

viewed as unconditioned and invariant, remaining just as is despite the modifications it

appears to undergo . Yet it is at the same time considered a precondition of both pollution

and purification, a ground of errancy ( 'khrul gzhi) as well as freedom (grol gzhi) . This leads

unavoidably to the question of whether we should be talking here of two grounds or one. Is

the relation between the errancy ground and freedom ground one of identity or difference?

The problem of understanding the origin of errancy and its relationship to the ground

generated a host of related questions first posed in 8th_ 10th century texts and pursued with

great rigour and perspicuity by subsequent generations of rDzogs chen scholar-adepts . Does

errancy exist in the ground? Stated otherwise, does the ground have error as a constitutive

element? What are the essence, nature, and characteristics of delusion ( 'khrul pa)? Do

sentient beings and buddhas have a common ground? Or does the mind of a buddha (sangs

rgyas kyi thugs) differ fundamentally from the mind of a sentient being (sems can kyi sems)?

My aim in investigating such questions and their responses is to determine how

ongoing speculations concerning the ground and errancy led to a separation of the ground of

all (kun gzhi) sarpsaric and nirvaI).ic phenomena from the ground proper (gzhi nyid, ye gzhi,

grol gzhi) , a trend culminating in the radical sNying thig distinction between the ground and

all-ground. We can somewhat loosely identify three stages in this separation: ( 1 ) an

emphasis on identity from the Royal Dynastic Period (6 10-91 0) , (2) indications of

divergence during the ensuing Period of Fragmentation (9 10- 1 249) , and (3) increasing trend

toward differentiation during the Period of Monastic Hegemony ( 1249- 1705) onward. If

these ' stages ' reflect differences of degree more than kind (it is instructive to observe all

three perspectives represented in the works of gNubs chen, for example) , the purpose in

highlighting them is to indicate a general trend toward more nuanced distinctions between

the grounds of freedom and error during this period.

180

1 . 1 Identity : Ground as Common Source of Sarp.sara and Nirva:Q.a

rDzogs chen texts from the 8th to 9th centurIes typically maintain that sentient beings

and buddhas , sarp.sara and nirval).a, share a common ground. We read the following in a

Mahayoga text discovered at Dunhuang:

Because that which manifests either as saqlsaric or nirviil).ic phenomena depending on whether it is realized or not realized, is nondual, it is called the single ground or single principle.472

The idea that saqlsara and nirval).a, sentient beings and buddhas, share a common ground but

differ depending on whether or not this ground is directly realized (rtogs) appears to have

been an important theme in the oral teachings of the earliest rDzogs chen masters . In the Rin

po che 'phags lam bkod pa 'i rgyud, a tantra recording answers given by Srlsiqlha to various

questions , the master is asked whether buddhas and sentient beings are the same or

different . He replies :

In the ground that is primordially pure, there is no duality between the state of buddha and sentient being. Buddhas who realize this very ground dwell as authentic embodiments and primordial knowing (sku dang ye shes) . Sentient beings who do not realize it dwell as ordinary bodies and latent tendencies (Ius dang bag chags) . Thus there is no fundamental difference between buddha and sentient being in ground realization. But during the time of the path, they manifest differently . Take as an example the medicine camphor . It is the best of medicines if one knows [how to] administer it, but a danger to one ' s life if one does not know [how to] . So too , if one recognizes the all-ground (kun gzhi) , emtpy yet radiant, it is real buddhahood, but if one does not recognize it, it is the cause of saqlsara. Although its true essence is without error, [error] nonetheless occurs due to the coordination of four conditions473. For example, although there is no mistaken [qualities] such as yellowness in the essence of a conch shell, it appears as yellow to a man with defective [eyesight] . 474

472 IOL Tib J 454, Ch.82.II . l : 1 . 1 03 : rtogs ma rtogs kyi khyad par gyis 'khor ba dang my a ngan las 'das pa 'i chos su snang bas gnyis myed del gzhi gcig pa 'am don gcig pa zhes byal l On this incomplete Mahayoga commentary that contains proto-rDzogs chen terms and viewpoints, see van Shaik 2008 and Dalton and van Shaik 2006 : 1 96-7 .

473 These are not specified in the text but are likely the traditional four conditions (rgyu 'i rkyen, dmigs rkyen, bdag po 'i rkyen, de ma thag rkyen) as they are used to elaborate the process of errancy ( 'khrul pa) in rDzogs chen works.

474 Tb vol. 1 : 849 .5 ; Tk vol. 4 : 1 62 .2 : gdod nas dag pa 'i gzhi nyid lal sangs rgyas dang nia sems can gnyisl gnyis su yod pa ma yin te l gzhi nyid rtogs pa 'i sangs rgyas nil sku dang ye shes nyid du gnasl de ma rtogs pa 'i sems can nil Ius dang bag chags nyid du gnasl de yib sangs rgyas sems can gnyisl gzhi rtogsC pa la tha dad medl lam pa 'i dus na so sor snangl dper na ga bur sman bzhin dul gtonl shes sman gyi mchog yin nol ma shes na ni srog gi bdudl de bzhin kun gzhi stong gsal yanpl rtogs na sangs rgyas dngos yin te l ma rtogs na ni 'khor ba 'i rgyuel don gyi ngo bo 'khrul med kyangl rkyen bzhi 'dzomsg pas 'khrul pa byungl dper na dung gi ngo bo lal ser po la sogs 'khrul med kyangl mi skyon can la ser bor snangl l aTkpa dang; bTk de 'i; cTb,Tk rtog; dTk stong; eTk rgyu; fTk gzhi; gTk 'joms

18 1

This passage takes kun gzhi to be synonymnous with the primordially pure ground (gdod

ma ' i dag pa 'i gzhi) , an invariant and unconditioned state that buddhas realize but sentient

beings fail to realize. gNyags Jiianakumara uses a similar medicinal metaphor to

demonstrate the inherently impartial character of Mind as such (root text italicized) :

"For example, like a medicine that embodies the nature of benefit or harm, " That is , like a single medicine that embodies the essence of either benefit or harm. "Its essence does not change into something different. " That is, since the mind does not gravitate either toward buddha or ordinary being (rgyal 'gro), the flaws of being so, not being so, or remaining indifferent do not obtain.475

gNyags advances a series of arguments to establish the nonduality (gnyis med) or

indivisibility (dbyer med) of the Mind of buddhas (sangs rgyas kyi thugs) and the mind of

sentient beings (sems can gyi sems) in response to what emerges time and again as a central

problem for early rDzogs chen authors : Are the minds of buddhas and sentient beings

fundamentally different or the same? gNyags considers seven absurdities that follow from

assuming a fundamental distinction between them:

Now, if the Mind (thugs) of a buddha and mind (sems) of a sentient being were different, it would follow that buddhas and sentient beings are fundamentally different . Their being [ 1 ] essentially different and [2] mutually exculsive implies that it would be [3] impossible to pursue one's spiritual aim, [4] it would be impossible to realize buddhahood, [5] it would be impossible to abandon afflictive emotions and purifiy obscurations; [6] There would consequently be no point in the buddhist teachings and [7] one would end up with the extreme of independent eternalities . 476

475 'Phrul gyi me long dgu skor kyi 'grel pa, NyKs, vol. 82 : 992. l f. : dpe sman nyidpllan gnod bdag gnas ltarl l ces pa sman cig kyang phan gnod gnyis ka 'i ngo bar gnas pa !tarl ngo bo Ilia dad 'gyur ba medl ces pa sems rgyal 'gro gang gi phyogs su ma gyur pasl yin min lung du ma bstan pa 'i skyon mi 'byung ngo l l l Root text in bold face. According to another early rDzogs chen master, Aro Ye shes 'byung gnas ( 1 0th c.): "Buddhas and sentient beings are of a single nature (rang bzhin gcig), but diverge due to the absence or presence of discursive concepts. So even if you happen to perceive the nature of reality, all the dichotomic thoughts are [still] a fetter of saqlsara. It is thus by way of dharmakaya, a self-awareness that is nonconceptual and beyond discursive thought, that one abandons conceptualizing and attains self-awareness." Theg pa chen po mal 'byor la 'jug pa 'i thabs, NyKs, vol . 59 : 3 5 . 1 : sangs rgyas sems can rang bzhin gcig mod kyil rnam rtog yod med dbang gis khyad zhugs pasl tha na chos nyid ngang la dmigs kyang rungl rnam rtog thams cad 'khor ba 'i chings ma ste l mi rtog bsam 'das rang rig chos sku pasl rnam rtog spang zhing rang rig thob bya 'i phyirl l

476 'Phrul gyi me long dgu skor kyi 'grel pa: 983 .2 : . . . sangs rgyas kyi thugs dang 'gro ba 'i sems tha dad na yangl sangs rgyas sems can gnyis rang bzhin tha dad du 'gyurl ngo bo tha dad du 'gyur bas 'breI pa med pas don byar mi btubl 'gro ba tshang rgyar mi btubl nyon mongs pa spangs zhing sgrib pa byang du mi btub rgyal bas bstan pa la dgos pa mea1 so sor rtag pa 'i mthar 'gyur ba dang bdun nol l I here take 'the extreme of independent etemalities ' (so

182

To view the minds of buddhas arid sentient beings as fundamentally different is to

construe them as having fixed natures . This hypostatization, as Nagarjuna had similarly

demonstrated in his critique of inherent natures (svabhiiva), precludes the possibility of any

form of spiritual realization, transformation or liberation, in short, any type of ' change ' that

would allow for the prospect of a sentient being ever becoming a buddha. This argument for

the indivisibility of the minds of buddhas and sentient beings, widely accepted in early

rDzogs chen writings that reflect Mahayoga and Sems sde views, will later be subject to

qualification, if not wholesale revision, within the emerging sNying thig traditions .

A pivotal figure in this differentiation trend is gNubs chen Sangs rgyas ye shes . His

tenth century discussions of the ground reflect a growing need to reconcile the

unconditioned but common ground (spyi gzhi) of rDzogs chen with the Y ogacara iilaya . In

some instances, gNubs chen explicitly emphasizes the indivisibility of the minds of sentient

beings and buddhas, as in the 55th chapter of his commentary on the dGongs 'dus (Mun pa ' i

go cha) where he sets out to clarify how the fundamental bodhicitta (rtsa ba byang chub kyi

sems) i s the root or source (rtsa)477 of both error and awakening and to demonstrate the

means by which it can be known: "Though the natures of the Mind (thugs) of a buddha and

mind (sems) of a sentient being are nominally distinguished, they are essentially indivisible .

So , it is due to this root [bodhicitta] being realized or not realized that it manifests as buddha

(light) and sentient being (darkness) . , ,478

The association of bodhicittalbodhigarbha with light and the description of

conditioned existence as a realm of darkness are both drawn from the root tantra (dGongs

'dus pa ' i mdo) . There it states that "one should understand the realm of spiritual darkness as

sor rtag pa 'i mthar) to refer to the assumption that the minds of buddhas and sentient beings are fixed (permanent) natures that exist independently of one another, precluding any possibility of a sentient being becoming a buddha.

477 This follows the complex hermeneutical structure of the dGongs 'dus which divides the text into three yogas (rnal 'byor), three doors (sgo), and three keys (Ide), each key in turn having: 6 branches (yan lag), 4 sUtras (mdo) and 3 roots (rtsa). The fifty-fifth chapter consitutes the doctrinal heart of the tantra and deals with the realization of the second of the three roots, the root of ' awakening' , viz. the all-ground, and the elimination of spiritual darkness that results from non-realization of this ground. On the thematic structure of the tantra, see Dalton 2002 : 303 .

478 Mun pa 'i go cha vol. 2, ch. 5 5 : 46.3 f. : sangs rgyas dang sems can gyi thugs dang sems kyi chos nyid tha snyad so so yang ngo bos dbyer med pa de '0 1 de yang rtogs ma rtogs kyi rtsa bas (snang) sangs rgyas dang (mun) sems can du snang ba 'ol See corresponding passage in tantra Tb vol. 1 6 : 4 1 4.4 f..

183

paired with purity in order to negate attachment to seeking this reality elsewhere . , ,479 As

gNubs chen explains, the realm of darkness (associated in the commentary with

ignorance48o) and quintessence of awakening, although present in different guises , are

essentially indivisible .48 1 The aim of the chapter, therefore, is to understand the origin,

nature, essence and characteristics of this spiritual darkness in order to dispel it.

1 .2 Divergence: Conflicting Intepretations of Kun gzhi

It is in tracing the common source of spiritual darkness and the luminous

quintessence that gNubs chen runs up against the problem of reconciling the sutric and

rDzogs chen all-grounds . Before turning to gNubs chen ' s treatment of the problem, it is

important to understand why the distinction and reconciliation of these two senses of kun

gzhi had become a significant hermeneutical problem by the 10th century. We gain some

sense of the doctrinal context of this issue from Rong zorn Chos kyi bzang po in his 1 1 th

century defence of rDzogs chen, the Theg chen tshul 'jug (Entering the Way of the

Mahayana) :

From the standpoint of the lower vehicles , the defining characteristic of kun gzhi is that it subsists and matures as the essence of causes and results of all contaminated phenomena. It is therefore similar to a fruit tree and the ripening [of its fruits] . Since it is [also] merely the basis or foundation of all uncontaminated phenomena, it is like the presence of medicine in a pot of poison. From the standpoint of the higher

479Mun pa 'i go cha vol. 2, ch. 5 5 : 49.3 f. : de 'ang gzhan du tshol ba 'i shen pa dgag pa 'i phyirl mun pa 'i khams pa dag dang cha gcig tu shes par bya 'ol The theme of the juxtaposition of spiritual light and darkness and the association of the dGongs 'dus with Bru sha (currently the Gilgit-Baltistan region of northern Pakistan) which lay along the ancient Silk road suggest the possibility of Manichaean influence, a matter that warrants further investigation. It is known that by the middle of the 8th century, Manichaean communities were scattered throughout the Tarim basin and into Northern China. Their numbers and influence increased dramaticaIIy after the �owerful Uighur empire adopted Machichaeism as the state religion in 763 , an affiliation that would last until the l Ot century when Uighur rulers began to transfer their sponsorship to Buddhism. Prior to its introduction by the Uighurs, the presence of Manichaeism in Inner Asia was largely confined to communities of Sogdians who had fled the conquest of Transoxiana by Arabs in the 7th century. One may recaII that Sog po (SogdianiManchu-Mongolian) dPal gyi ye shes was an important figure in the transmission of early rDzogs chen, being one of the two main successors of gNyag Jfianakumara and a teacher of gNubs chen Sangs rgyas ye shes. On the Tibetan knowledge of Manichaeism during the Royal Dynastic Period, see Stein 1 980. On Manichaeism among the Sogdians and Uighurs, see Clark 1 997 : 83 - 123 ; Beckwith 2009: 148 et passim.

480 Ibid. 50 . 1 f.: de 'ang mun pa ni ma rig pa dang mtshungs pa 'i shes pa ste l l ; 50.4 mun pa 'i rtsa ba ma rig pa 'i sems kyang der 'dus soi l

48 1 Ibid. 49.3 f.: zhes pa ldog pa 'i tha dad yod kyang ngo bo mun pa 'i khams dang byang chub snying po dbyer med pa '0 zhes gsungs pa '0 1 1

184

vehicles, the defining characteristic of kun gzhi is said to be primordial bodhicitta . The latent tendencies for afflictive emotions and malaise (gnas ngan len = dau�?ulya) are but adventitious defilements like the patina on gold or mud covering precious jewels . It is not that the real nature [of bodhicitta as all-ground] is debased but only that its inborn qualities are not able to shine forth at all .482

From Rong zorn ' s Sems sde perspective which is largely in accord with the disclosive

standpoint of the Tathiigatagarbhasutra and Maitreya works , the lower vehicle idea of

iilaya[vijfiiina] is overextended inasmuch as it is made to accommodate not only all that is

perishable, defiling and debilitating in human existence but also for all that is lasting, pure

and liberative . For Rong zorn and many other classical scholars, the issue with this semantic

amalgamation, as with the controversial equation of iilayavijfiiina and tathiigatagarbha

proposed by the Lmikiivatiira, was that it blended two discourses descriptive of

fundamentally heterogenous strata within the experiential continuum, and thus elided the

priority relations between them. On this interpretation, as Rong zorn explains it, the all­

ground is comparable to a king' s treasury that contains not only priceless jewels but also

vile substances such as poisons .483 There is no relation here of ontological priority; rather, he

says , the conditioned and unconditioned, defiled and undefiled, are thrown together and

intermingle like medicine in a pot of poison. In the disclosive perspective, by contrast, the

all-ground which is identified as ever-abiding bodhicitta has ontologically primacy whereas

the myriad sources of defilement and malaise, are derivative and parasitic , having a merely

fictitious and adventitious character . Rong zorn pa concludes , however, by stating that :

All phenomena both white and black [i .e . virtuous and non-virtuous] are merely appearances of the iilayavijfiiina. But these appearances are appearances due to the power of latent tendencies of karmic predispositions such that, however things appear, they are not present as they really are . So when one realizes all phenomena

482 Theg chen tshul 'jug, in Rong zom gsung 'bum vol. 1 : 545.6 f. : theg pa 'og ma ba 'i tshul gyisl kun gzhi 'i mtshan nyid ni zag pa dang 'bras bu bcas pa 'i chos thams cad kyi rgyu dang 'bras bu 'i ngo bor gnas shing smin pa yin pasl shing thog dang 'dra lal zag pa med pa rnams kyi rten dang gnas tsam yin te l dug gi bum pa 'i nang na sman gnas pa Ita bu '0 1 zhes bshadj theg pa gong ma 'i tshul las nil kun gzhi 'i mtshan nyid gdod ma nas byang chub kyi sems zhes bya lal nyon mongs pa dang gnas ngan len gyi bag chags ni gloa bur gyi dri ma ste gser g.yas g.yogs pa 'ami nor bu rin po che 'dam du bsubs pa bzhin yon tan cung zad mi snang bar zad de l rang bzhin nyams par byas pa med dol l atext has blo 483 Theg chen tshul 'jug: 545.2.

185

as being of the nature of nirvaDa, one opens the king ' s royal treasury because at this time, even a monkey can take [what it wantsV84

The alayavijfiana , then, can be viewed as the source of all deluded appearances because it is

also and more fundamentally the source of karmic tendencies that influence how we come to

see things as other than they really are . It is important to bear in mind, however, that this

neutral , largely unthematized background out of which karmic tendencies and deluded

perceptions occur - the alayavijfiana itself - is thought to belong to or to be founded upon a

more primordial experiential dimension that is not simply indeterminate but wholly

unconditioned and empty. This line of thinking, as we will later see, finds its culmination in

the sNying thig idea of a luminous but empty primordial ground (ye gzhi) .

Given that gNubs chen was likely the first Tibetan thinker to clearly specify a ninth

ground beyond the Y ogacara alayavijfiana and to deal philosophically with the problem of

relating these lower siitric and rDzogs chen conceptions of kun gzhi, it is worth taking stock

of his contributions . The term kun gzhi occurs only twice in his bSam gtan mig sgron, once

in a quote from the rTse mo byung rgyal485 and once in the compound kun gzhi byang chub

kyi sems .486 In both cases , the rDzogs chen invariant all-ground is implied. It is in his

commentaries to the dGongs 'dus pa 'i mdo and rTse mo byung rgyal that gNubs chen brings

the Yogacara alayavijfiana into the equation and seeks to clarify its relationship to the

rDzogs chen kun gzhi . In his commentary to the rTse mo byung rgyal, an extremely

important Sems sde scripture for understanding the early rDzogs chen concept of kun

gzhi487, gNubs chen clearly identifies this kun gzhi as a ninth consciousness that is distinct

from the alayavijfiana . The term kun gzhi or its variant kun gyi gzhi occurs five times in the

484 Theg chen tshul 'jug: 546. 1 8 f. : mdor na gang ltar yang rung ste dkar nag gl chos thams cad kun gzhl rnam par shes pa 'l snang ba tsam yin lal snang ba de 'ang 'du byed kyl bag chags kyl dbang gls snang ba yin te l ji ltar snang ba de bzhin yod pa ma yin pasl chos thams cad rang bzhin gyi my a ngan las 'das par rtogs nal rgyal po 'i dkor mdzod kha phye ba yin te l de 'i tshe spre 'u yang bzung ba yin nol l

485 bSam gtan mig sgron : 334.4.

486 bSam gtan mig sgron: 2.2. For a discussion of this, see Karmay 1988 : 1 78 .

487 There are five occurences of kun gzhl or kun gyl gzhi in the tantra. See below. A commentary on the rMad du byung ba (another of the eighteen tantras) found in the Bai ro rgyud 'bum identifies kun gzhl byang chub kyl sems as the predominant meaning (mgo mjug gl don) of rDzogs chen Atiyoga (sems sde) : Bg vol. 1 : 303 .6 f.: mgo mjug gl don ji ltar ston nal kun gzhl byang chub kyi sems brdal ba chen po mi zad pa 'I klongl ye nas brjod pa 'I tha snyad dang bral bal l

186

tantra, one of these being in the compound kun gzhi rnam par shes, the standard Tibetan

translation of alayavijiiana but here intriguingly qualified as primordial dharmadhatu.488 In

one of the other instances, the utterly pure kun gzhi is identified as utterly pure primordial

knowing (ye shes rnam par dag [paD which in turn is utterly pure dharmadhatu .489 In yet

another instance, the kun gyi gzhi is the central principle of consciousness (rnam par shes

pa ' i gtso bo) in the same way that Samantabhadra is envisaged as the central principle of the

maIJgala around whom the subsidiary deities are arrayed. As gNubs chen explains "since

this ninth genuine all-ground that is the ground itself (gzhi don gyi kun gzhi dgu pa) is free

from concepts, it is the actual basis for the maIJgalas of the vehicles of cause and effect in all

their complexity. , ,49o The final two occurences of kun [gyi] gzhi are in a passage describing

rDzogs chen itself as the "ground of [all] knowing and objects of knowledge" (shes bya shes

byed kun gyi gzhi gyur pa) .491 The passage from the root tantra identifying the all-ground

with rDzogs chen itself reads as follows :

The rDzogs chen path, utterly free and without progression, Is the unborn expanse of Reality, spontaneously perfected without doing a thing . Since the categories of vehicles are all harmonious [in it] as skillful means, Distinctive qualities are an adornment of its total perfection . Like rivers arising from and returning to the vast expanse of the ocean, It is the treasury of Lords492 ritually empowered [to govern] the kingdom. It constitutes the ground of all knowing and objects of knowledge. Since this perfect ma1).gala of the transformed all-ground (kun gzhi gnas 'gyur) , Spans493 all of consciousness, being equal to space in its vastness, It is the expanse of great bliss, the commanding peak (rtse mo byung rgyal) .494

488 Tk vol. 1 : 43 8 . 1 : kun gzhi rnam par shes pa ye nas chos kyi dbyingsl It is evident from later passages in the tantra that the transformed ii!ayavijfiiina is here implied. See below.

489 Tk vol. 1 : 436.6 f : kun gzhi rnam dag ye shes rnam par dagl ye shes rnam dag chos dbyings rnam par dagl l

490 rTse mo byung rgya! 'gre! ba, in NyKs vol. 1 03 : 20 1 .3 f : . . . gzhi don gyi kun gzhi dgu pa rtog pa dang bra! ba nyid yin pas rgyu 'bras theg pa 'i dkyil 'khor ji snyed pa 'i dngos gzhi 'al l

491 rTse mo byung rgya! 'gre! ba: 20 1 . 3 f : . . . gzhi don gyi kun gzhi dgu pa rtog pa dang bra! ba nyid yin pas rgyu 'bras theg pa 'i dkyil 'khor ji snyed pa 'i dngos gzhi 'al l

492 gNubs chen ( 1 88 .3) takes " Lords" as referring to all the great universal ancestors (spyi mes chen po thams cad), a term also used as an epithet of rDzogs chen.

493 gdengs ka literally "the expanded hood of a cobra" probably derives from Indian mythology wherein the hood of a cobra is used figuratively to refer to something overarching and expansive.

187

rDzogs chen is considered the ground of all, explains gNubs chen, because "it constitutes

the source of the objects [of knowledge] and viewpoints of all vehicles which is pure in its

own right without having to reject any knowledge thereby gained. Having emerged all

together as the ninth consciousness that is without inherent nature, all [views and objects of

knowledge] are completely included within the spontaneous rDzogs chen without losing

their distinctness . , ,495

The qualification of the tantric all-ground as a fundamentally transformed all-ground

points to an important late Y ogacara precedent for the introduction . of a ninth all-ground.

Commenting on the rTse mo byung rgyal, gNubs chen specifies that the kun gzhi, kun gyi

gzhi, and kun gzhi mam shes in this tantra all refer to a tantric ground, a "ninth factor" or

"ninth consciousness" beyond and structurally prior to the conditioned and conditioning

iilayavijfiiina. It is in his commentary on the dGongs 'dus, however, that the nature of these

two types of kun gzhi and their relationship are clarified.

1 . 3 Difference : Clearly Distinguishing the Grounds

gNubs chen ' s distinction between the rDzogs chen and slitric ' grounds ' is based on a

lengthy section of the fifty-fifth chapter of the dGongs 'dus concerned with the realization of

the root (rtsa) of ' awakening ' , namely the unconditioned all-ground, and with the dispelling

of the spiritual darkness that prevails so long as it is not realized. Only the sections of this

chapter and gNubs chen ' s commentary directly relevant to the distinction between slitric

and rDzogs chen all-grounds concern us here .496 The root of awakening, the all-ground, is

elaborated by way of the hermeneutical categories of four discourses (mdo : sutra) : the

494 Tk vol. I : 433 .3 f. (corrected on basis of gNubs chen' s commentary): bgrod med rnam grol rdzogs pa chen po 'i laml byar med lhun rdzogs skye med chos kyi dbyingsal theg pa 'i rnam grangs thabs cha mnyam pab l ma 'dres chos rnams yong su rdzogs pa 'i rgyanl klongC yangs rgya mtsho chu bo 'i 'phro 'du bzhinl rgyal thabs spyi blugs dbang phyug rnams kyi mdzodl, shes bya shes byed kun gyi gzhir gyur pal kun gzhi gnas gyur rdzogs pa 'i dkyit 'khor nil rnam shes gdengs kad nam mkha ' rgyas mnyam pasl rtse mo byung rgyal bde ba chen po 'i dbyings l l "gNubs : skye ba med pa 'i dbyings; btext has snyam pas; Ctext has klung; dtext has gdeng ka

495 rTse rno byung rgyal 'grel pa : 1 89. 1 f. : theg pa kun gyi yul dang Ita ba rnams kyi rtsa bar gyur pa nil Ion pa 'i shes pa nyid ma spangs par rang sar dag pasl rang bzhin med pa 'i rnam par shes pa dgu pa rit gyi 'byung nas lhun grub rdzogs chen ma 'dres la yongs su rdzogs pa 'i khyon nil I .. · 496 This central chapter and gNubs chen' s commentary on it merit detailed study, not least of aJI because of the wealth of detail they provide on developments of rDzogs chen kun gzhi doctrines in 9th to 1 0lh century Tibet vis-a­vis prevailing Yogacara and tantric conceptions.

188

ground (gzhi) , objective reference (dmigs 'pa), appearance (snang ba) , and engagement ( 'jug

pa) .497 gNubs chen clarifies that these four refer to the alaya[vijfiana] , the kli�tamanas,

manovijfiiina and the five sensory modes of consciousness respectively.498 Of these, we will

consider the first. On the subject of the ground, the tantra begins by refuting what it takes to

be a mistaken view of this ground, and then describes the genuine ground:

The spiritually immature [VijfUinavadins] claim the ground is "like this" . They are preoccupied with the formless 'names ' (ming : nama)499 . It is this and only this non-existent realm That arises as the essence of all cognition . It appears as the objects that are the knowable. It is the cause giving rise to everything.

As for what is primordially unoriginated by nature, It is unfabricated, an all-embracing luminosity . It is unconditioned since it is devoid of causes and conditions Since it is uninterrupted, it [comprises] all objects . It arises together with the non-explicit [mode of] consciousness .5OO

In commenting on this passage, gNubs chen clearly distinguishes the alaya of the

Vijfianavadins - namely, as a ' store house ' retaining all karmic propensities as well as their

resultant actions , perceptions and conceptions and the source of all phenomena including

factors conducive to purification and pollution - from the naturally diaphanous and

unfabricated all-ground that is the acausal and essenceless nature of the former . The

Vijfianavadin alaya is the nature of spiritual darkness while the uncorrupted rDzogs chen

alaya is associated with primordial lucidity .

497 Tb vol. 1 6 : 4 1 8 .5 £ : gzhi 'i mdo dangl dmigs pa 'i mdo dangl snang ba 'i mdo dangl 'jugpa 'i mdo 'ol l

498 Mun pa 'i go cha vol. 2 : 57 .5 f. : . . . mdo bzhi nye bar bstan pa nil kun gzhi dangl nyon mongs pa can gyi yid dangl yid kyi rnam par shes pa dangl sgo Inga 'i rnam shes soi l

499 In other words, among the five psychophysical aggregates (skandhas) that constitute a person and that are known as niima-rupa ( 'name and form') in the chain of dependent arising (pratityasiimufpiida), the Vijfilinavlidins are preoccupied with those factors apart from corporeality (rupa) that comprise the conscious processes - vijiiiina, vedanii, samjiiii, and salJlSkiira. 500 Tb vol. 1 6 : 4 1 8 .6 £ : (corrected on basis of commentary) : gzhi 'i mdo ni 'di Ita ste l gzhi ni byis pa 'di Itar 'do� gzugs med ming la mngon zhen pal med pa 'i khams nyid de kho nal shes pa kun gyi ngo bor 'byungl shes bya nyid de yul du snangl thams cad 'byung bar byed pa 'i rgyul ye nas ngang gis ma skyes lal ma bcos yongs kyis' , od gsal bal rgyu rkyen med pas 'dus ma byasl yongs su ma chad yul kun lal shes pab mi gsal lhan Gig 'byungl l "text has yong gi; btext has la

189

Given that gNubs chen ' s analysis ofthe above passage offers what may well be the

first systematic distinction between the two grounds and introduces specific rDzogs chen

ground terminology that is used extensively, though by no means homogeneously, in later

formulations, it is worth quoting in full (interlinear interpolations in round brackets) :

In particular, this [passage] explains (the ground) as the nature of spiritual darkness . Here, the meaning i s that those (immature ones) such as the VijfUinavadins whose capacities are still undeveloped try to prove (their tenets regarding) the nature of kun gzhi by reasoning as follows . (They dwell in the formless [states] and) are [thus] preoccupied with the subtler aspects (i .e . are attached to those skandhas that make up the four 'names ' ) of what is a mere designation, 'names ' consisting in imagined qualities [taken as] defining characteristics of what is not concretely present due to the subtler aspects of its nature . And so the very essence of what they conceive is non-explicit [i .e . not clearly apparent] . Thus [the iilayavijfiiina) is named by analogy with the formless realm. It appears (as the essence of) all (mental factors comprising the six and eight) modes of cognition specifically based on karma. "It appears as the objects that are the knowable.! It is the cause giving rise to everything. " This refers to the all-ground. For example, just as a monk, through 'contemplation of the impure ' (asubhabhiivanii) , visualizes the sensory field as a pile of skeletons50l , so the all­ground as the source of all (knowable) objects , on account of error, appears as myriad external objects . And since it is comprised of all the seeds [as latent karmic tendencies,] it is the cause for the appearing of all pollution (kun nas nyon mongs) [but also] the foundation for purification (rnam par byang ba 'i rten) . Therefore it is called the ' actual all-ground of union ' (sbyor ba don gyi kun gzhi) .

As for the nature of the ' actual all-ground that is the ground itself' (gzhi don gyi kun gzhi) : if it is simply claimed that the actual all-ground of union errs on account of four conditions502, then it is not simply a global amalgamation due to negative

501 gNubs chen here repudiates one of the oldest defences of Buddhist idealism as presented in an early Mahayana sutra entitled PratyutpannabuddhasGlJ1mukhiivasthitasamiidhisutra or * Bhadrapiilasutra (translated into Chinese as early as 1 3 9 C.E.) . The third chapter of this sutra points out that a bodhisattva' s visualizations in meditation, be they the pure visions of buddhas or the decaying corpses and skeletons envisaged in contemplation of the impure (asubhabhiivanii : mi gtsang pa bsgoms pa), are similarily unreal, mere projections of the mind. A bodhisattva should extend this understanding of the unreality of visualizations to hold for all phenomena in order to realize that they are nothing but mind (cittam eva) . Schmithausen ( 1 976: 246 f.) discusses the significance of the this passage and presents evidence for establishing the * Bhadrapiilasutra as "the first text to enunciate the thesis of universal idealism and to express this by the term cittamiitra" (246-7). gNubs chen' s account suggests that mind 's reifications occur on the level of the all-ground of union but subside on the level of the actual all-ground that is the ground itself. This transcendence leaves no basis for subjective idealism.

502 These are not specified in the text.

190

influences in each individual like a straw hut or house503 • Since the beginning, [this actual all-ground] has by nature not arisen as any essence. Having not been fashioned by an creator (unfabricated) , it is all-embracing luminosity . It is the (unconditioned) state of non-origination, the very nature of phenomena free from causes and conditions .504

Here, if gNubs chen does not completely discount the Vijfianavada construal of the

all-ground as a storehouse wherein karmic propensities inhere and whence they give rise to

all objects and inclinations , he does relativize it as a superficial description of consciousness

that is confined to its operation within the three realms . This all -ground is in any case

wholly distinct from the unfabricated all-ground that is luminously clear and devoid of any

essence. We may recall that the extended *Guhyagarbha (sGyu 'phrul rgyas pa) had also

made reference to an unconditioned all-ground devoid of inherent nature (rang bzhin med

pa ' i kun gzhi) . We can also note that a distinction similar to gNubs chen ' s is found in the

longer of two tantras entitled rDzogs pa chen po Kun tu bzang po Ye shes gsal bar stan pa ' i

rgyud that are contained in the Bai ro rgyud 'bum and rNying rna rgyud 'bum.505 The account

in that tantra is similar but also less ambiguous insofar as only the pure and unconditioned

503 This would appear to be a criticism of the Yogacara depiction of the alayavijnana as a ' store-house ' containing karmic propensities.

504 Mun pa 'f ga cha vo!' 2: 58 .3 f.: de yang dan shed ma bye ba (byfs pa) rnam rig pa la sags pa kun gzhi 'i rang bzhin 'di ltar 'thad par ( 'dad pa) sgrub ste l (gzugs med pa 'i khams la gnas shing) rang bzhin cha phra bas dngas su mi snang ba 'i (gzugs med) mtshan nyid brtags pa 'i mtshan ma 'i ming (fa) tha snyad tsam la (ming bzhi 'i phung pa la zhen) cha phra bar (mngan) zhen cing rtag pa 'i nga ba gsal bar med pa de ni l gzugs med pa 'i khams dang cha mthun pas (gzugs med pas der na) bas te l las kyi khyad par gyi shes pa (drug dang brgyad sems byung thams cad kun gyi nga bar gyur) snang ba 'al shes bya nyid de yul du snangl thams cad 'byung bar byed pa 'i rgyul l zhes pa de Ita bu 'i kun gzhi de l dper dge slang mi gtsang pa bsgams pasl spyad yul rus pa 'f phung par snang ba Ita burl yul (shes bya nyid de) thams cad kyi yang rtsa kun gzhi 'khrul pasl phyi ral gyi yul sna tshags (su) par snang zhingl sa ban thams cad pa yin pas kun nas nyan mangs pa 'i chas rnams snang bar byed pa 'f rgyu rnam par byang ba 'i rten sbyar ba dan gyi kun gzhi 'al ye nas ngang gis ma skyes lal ma bcos yongs kyis 'od gsal bal rgyu rkyen med par 'dus ma byasl l zhes pa gzhi dan gyf kun gzhi 'i rang bzhin nil sbyar ba dan gyi kun gzhi rkyen bzhis 'khrul ba da tsam nal spyil ba 'am khang pa Ita bur rang re rnam pa gtses pas spyi 'dus bda ba tsam med del thag ma nas rang bzhfn (ngang gis) gyis nga ba (ma skyes) ma byung bal byed pa pas (ma bcas par) ma byas par yad gi 'da (rang) gsal bal rgyu rkyen bral ba'i chas nyid skyes ba med ( 'dus ma byas) pa'i ngang de 'al I have translated only those interlinear notes that help to clarifY the relevant passages. Lines from root tantra (in bold) are from Tb: 4 1 9.2.

505 See Tk vo!' 8 : 1 0 1 .6 f. : and Bg vo!' 3 : 22 1 f., which are essentially the same though the latter has fewer scribal errors. While the colophon of the Tk version simply notes that the tantra was translated by SrI Siqlha and gNubs Sangs rgyas ye shes, the colophon of the Bg version states that "people like me Sangs rgyas ye shes delighted the guru SrI Siqlha through faith and so this tantra appeared. It was not to be revealed to anyone but concealed as a treasure [to be recovered when appropriate conditions prevail] ." Bg vo!' 3 : 234.3 f.: bdag 'dra sangs rgyas ye shes kyisl gila ru shri sing ha lal dad pas mnyes byas rgyud 'di snangl su la 'ang byin gter du sbasl l . . . atext has ghu Both attributions are problematic given that gNubs chen probably lived about a century later than SrIsiqlha.

191

all-ground, a synonym of dharmakaya, is qu'alified as genuine (don gyi) , whereas the impure

all-ground is qualified as conditional (rkyen gyi) :

The all-ground is identified in terms of two [types] : A genuine all-ground of primordiality (ye nyid don gyi kun gzhi) and A conditional all-ground of union (sbyor ba rkyen gyi kun gzhi) . The conditional all-ground of union refers to All sentient beings given the Previous [accumulation of] latent tendencies and Subsequent [manifestation of] afflictive emotions and concepts . For example, it is like mixing soil and water, And the accumulation and retention of impurities . These three [aspects] mingle in the dharmakaya But they are not the dharmakaya .

The genuine all-ground of primordiality Is , for example, like the clarity of water when uncontaminated. The awareness which is not vitiated by Latent tendencies , concepts and emotions Is dharmakaya, self-emergent and devoid of apprehending subject. Awareness , by relaxing in its own natural condition, Is most happy in this open limpid state of knowing, A pain-free state of being non-attached.506

It is in this distinction between a genuine or de facto all-ground (don gyi kun gzhi)

and conditional all-ground (rkyen gyi kun gzhi) and related pre-classical distinctions that we

can perhaps identify the earliest sources for the classical rNying rna distinctions between ( 1 )

unconditioned and conditioned all-grounds presented in bridging works and (2) the more

radical and specifically sNying thig differentiation between the conditioned all-ground (kun

gzhi) in all its expressions and the ground proper (gzhi) or dharmakaya . Both systems seek

to accommodate Yogacara formulations of the alayavijfiana within the distinctly rDzogs

506 Bg vol. 3 : 230 . 1 f. ; Tk vol. 8: 1 09.3 £: kun gzhi gnyis kyi ngo nas bzung al ye nyid don gyi kun gzhi dangl sbyor ba rkyenb gyi kun gzhi gnyisl [sbvor ba rkyen gvi kun gzhi nil I t sems can thams cad yin pa te l sngar gyi bag chags dag dang nil phyis kyis nyon mongs rnam par rtogdl dper na sa dang chu 'dres lal rnyog mar e 'dzin pa dag dang 'thunfl de gsum dag dang chos skur 'dreSlI de ni chos sku ma yin te l ye nyid don gyi kun gzhi nil dperh chu rna

rnyogs na dangsi bzhinl bag chags rtolt pa nyon mongs kyi[sl l ma slad pa yik shes pa del 'dzin med rang shar chos kyi sku' l shes pa rang lugs glod byas pasl shes pa daTb sangs bde ba lal ma zhen pa 'in zug rngu medj aTk sku gzhi gnyis kyi dngos bzung ba; bTk rgyen; caddo as per Tk; dTk dag; eTk snyoms par; fTk mthun; gTk ' breI; hom. Tk; iTk dang pa; jTk rtogs; kTk pa 'i; 'Tk chos sku de; mTk dangs; nTk ma zhen rtogs pa 'i

192

chen models of the unconditioned gzhi and kun gzhi .507 Their most striking difference is that

whereas the first preserves the early rDzogs chen idea of an unconditioned all-ground, the

second draws a sharp distinction between a wholly unconditioned ground (gzhi) and a

conditioned all-ground (kun gzhi) that is further classified into three or four types

comprising virtually all the elements of kun gzhi present in earlier formulations .508 This

realignment allows for no positively qualified variant of the kun gzhi, to the extent that even

the primordial genuine all-ground (ye nyid don gyi kun gzhi) and genuine all-ground of

union (sbyor ba don gyi kun gzhi) are reinterpreted as basic conditions of error and karmic

conditioning.509 On the one hand, the sNying thig kun gzhi absorbs virtually all the attributes

associated with the classical Y ogacara developmental ground model that was introduced to

507 More specifically, the first l ine of interepretation, developed in Klong chen pa' s bridging works such as the Sems nyid ngal gso and Yid bzhin mdzod autcocommentaries, and in his Grub mtha ' mdzod, draws on conceptions of the genuine all-ground (don gyi kun gzhi) introduced in early rDzogs chen scriptures belonging to Mahayoga and Sems sde scriptures such as the extended Guhyagarbha (sGyu 'phrul rgyas pa), dGongs 'dus pa 'i mdo and Kun tu bzang po ye shes gsal bar ston pa 'i rgyud. The second and more distinctly rDzogs chen line of interpretation that is elaborated in Klong chen pa' s sNying thig summaries such as the Tshig don mdzod, Theg mchog mdzod, Chos dbyings mdzod and various works in the sNying thig ya bzhi cycle, draw on extensive formulations of the primordial ground itself (ye gzhi, gdod ma 'i gzhi, thog ma 'i gzhi) and the various modes of the conditioned all-ground (kun gzhi) as both are presented in the seventeen Atiyoga tantras and related tantras belonging to the Esoteric Guidance Genre (man ngag sde) ofrDzogs chen teachings.

508 The classification and function of this all-ground are summarized by Klong chen pa in his Theg mchog mdzod, (vol . I : 1 029 £) as follows : "Its classification is four-fold: [A] the genuine primordial all-ground (ye don gyi kun gzhi) , [B] the genuine all-ground of union (sbyor ba don gyi kun gzhi), [C] the all -ground of embodiment tendencies (bag chags Ius kyi kun gzhi), and [D] the all-ground for a variety of latent tendencies (bag chags sna tshogs kyi kun gzhi) . [A] The first is the inital ground as the source (dhatu : dbyings) of all phenomena belonging to sarpsara. It is described from the [perspective] of the original stirring of discursive reflection (dpyod byed), i .e . a turning away that is closely associated with ignorance (ma rig pa) [or basic non-recognition] with regard to open awareness. [B] The second is described from the perspective of this cognition which, when not fully aware of itself (rang ma rig pa), unites with sarpsara and, when fully aware of itself, unites with nirvfu).a. [C] The third is described from the perspective of this foundational cognition in which through the presence of latent tendencies for embodiment there emerges the body-mind [complex] with its flesh, blood and radiant hue. [D] The fourth is described from the perspective of this cognition serving as the ground of all (kun gyi gzhi), i .e . , the source of all impure actions and their latent tendencies." [III] dbye nal [i] ye don gyi kun gzhil [ii] sbyor ba don gyi kun gzhil [iii] bag chags Ius kyi kun gzhil [iv] bag chags sna tshogs pa 'i kun gzhi dang bzhi 'ol [i] 'khor ba 'i chos thams cad kyi dbyings dang po 'i gzhil dpyod byed thog ma 'i 'gyu ba rig pa la Itos pa 'i ma rig pa mtshungs Idan du yodpa 'i zlog pa nas brjod pa 'ol [ii] gnyis pa nil shes pa de nyid la rang ma rig na 'khor bar sbyor lal rig na myang 'das su sbyor ba 'i cha nas brjod pa ' 0 1 [iii] gsum pa nil rtsa ba 'i shes pa de nyid la Ius kyi bag chags yod pasl shal khragl 'od! yid Ius 'char ba 'i cha nas hrjodpa 'ol [iv] shes pa de nyid la ma dagpa 'i las dang bag chags kyi 'byung khungs kun gyi gzhi byedpa 'i cha nas brjodpa 'ol

509 In the general rNying rna account of two modes of kun gzhi, the sbyor ba don gyi kun gzhi refers to the unconditioned and uncontaminated ground and is contrasted with the conditioned, contaminated bag chags sna tshogs kyi kun gzhi. In the sNying thig model, however, it refers either to a pivotal indeterminate state which makes room for sarpsara when not recognized as it is (rang ma rig pa) or nirval).a when recognized (rig pa), or to the state of fundamental ignorance. This mode of the kun gzhi in turn depends on the stil l more fundamental actual primordial all-ground (ye don gyi kun gzhi) that is no longer a primordially undefiled substrate but a condition of beginning less ignorance and the very source of sarpsara itself.

193

account for the genesis and persistence of karmic conditioning and causal production. Thus,

many of the central problems of continuity that the alayavijfiana sought to resolve -

specifically, continuities of consciousness (vijfiana) , corporeality (namariipa) , latent or

latent tendencies (anusaya, vasana) , and the relation between actions and results - are here

absorbed into the three or four different modes of the conditioned kun gzhi . On the other

hand, the sNying thig model also assimilates the later formulations of a neutral kun gzhi that

is the source of all latent tendencies (bag chags) , whether they lead to sarpsara or nirval!a.

This process of semantic drift (as schematized in Table F) brings the entire cumulative

development of the kun gzhi concept into alignment with the conditioned mode of being and

awareness and into stark opposition to dharmakaya and primordial knowing.

Table F: Stratigraphy of rDzogs chen ground conceptions, 8th to 14th centuries

Period Proponent rDzogs chen Unconditioned Neutral kun gzhi Conditioned Tradition(s) kun gzhi (+) (+1-) kun f.!zhi (-)

gt" c .? Ea rly rNying Mahayaga ye nyid don gyi kun gzhi, bag chags rkyen gyi

rgyud tantras* Sems sde 'dus ma byas don gyi kun kun gzhi

gzhi

10' c . gNubs chen Mahayaga gzhi don gyi kun gzhi sbyor ba don gyi (Mun pa'i Sems sde kun gzhi go cha)

l1t c. Rang zom Mahayaga tantric/rDzags chen kun sutric kun gzhi

( Theg chen tshul Sems sde gzhi

'jug)

14t c. Klang chen - Sems sde sbyor bo don gyi kun gzhi kun gzhi bag chags sna tshags

rNying rna Klang sde (=brol gzhi) po'; kun gzhi

{SN, Yid bzhin (=brol bya)

mdzod,Grub

mtha' mdzod)

14t c . Klang chen - Man ngag sde gzhi, grol gzhi, ye gzhi, ye don gyi kun gzhi

sNying thig (sNying th ig) gdod ma'i gzhi etc. sbyor ba don gyi kun (Te, Tshig don gzhi mdzod,ZN etc. )

bag chags sna tshogs - based on 17

pa'i kun gzhi tantras

bag chags Ius kyi kun (l2'h c. or ear l ier)

gzhi

14tn C . rGad Idem Man ngag sde 1) gnas lugs ngo bo nyid

{dGongs po (sNying th ig) kyi gzhi (chos nyid spros

zang thal) - brol)

based on 17 2) bkod po Ius kyi gzhi (rdo

tantras rje'i Ius)

* e. g. Kun tu bzang po Ye shes gsal bar ston pa 'i rgyud, sGyu 'phrul rgyas pa

194

§2. A Central Problem: Does Errancy Exist in the Ground?

At the heart of rDzogs chen attempts to resolve the tension between developmental

and disclosive ground models was the question "does errancy exist in the ground" or, put

another way, "does the ground have error (as a constitutive element)?" That this question is

taken up repeatedly from the eighth century onward testifies to its importance as an

orienting framework for bringing into view new formulations and clarifications of the

rDzogs chen ground. Taken in chronological sequence (from 8th to 14th centuries) , we can

see reflected in the responses of rDzogs chen scholars to this question a growing emphasis

on the differentiation of the absolute and neutral grounds and increasingly nuanced attempts

to clarify the specific nature of this relationship . To better understand these developments,

we will briefly examine the responses of three rDzogs chen masters belonging to different

periods : gNyags Jfianakumara (8th c .) , Rog Bande shes rab ' od ( 1 3th c .) and Klong chen rab

'byams pa ( 14th c . ) .

2. 1 The Response of gNyags JiUinakumara (8th century)

gNyags broaches the question of whether error exists in the ground in his Mirror of

Manifestation ( ,Phrul gyi me long) . He there adduces a number of absurd consequences that

follow from assuming errancy either exists or does not exist in the ground:

[I.] If deluded appearances ( 'khrul snang) existed in the ground, then due to the flaw that this saI!1saric ground is permanently autonomously existent: [ 1 ] obscurations would not arise51O, [2] there would be no awakening to buddhahood, like a glass trinkefl l [that never becomes a real gem] , [3] there would be a fundamental difference between the family lineages (rigs rgyud) of victors and ordinary beings , [4] there would be no point in teaching buddhist doctrine, [5 ] the manifestation of nirvi:iI).a would stop, and [6] saI!1sara would become an absolute . [7] Since there

5 1 0 If the ground is permanently deluded, the claim that i t is only adventitiously obscured would be erroneous . 5 ] ] This analogy is also found in the dGongs 'dus pa mdo (Tb vol . 1 6, ch. 5 5 : 422.2 f.) in the context of describing characteristics of the unchanging essence of the ground: shel sgong bsgyur kyang gting mi 'gyurl 'ching bu bsgyur kyang rin chen mini sa rdo bsres kyang 'drer mi rungl gfog 'gyus gzhi fa mun pa medi i

195

would be no connection [with buddhahood] , [8] it would be impossible to pursue one's aim. And thus [9] phenomena belonging to the ground would be inherently defiled . . .

[II .] However, if error did not exist in the ground, this would entail [ 1 ] the fallacy that co-emergent [innate] ignorance does not exist, [2] the fallacy of an eternally non-existent nature, [3] nirvfu)a becoming an absolute, and [4] the denial [cessation] of deluded appearances . If sa1!lsara manifests in the absence of a ground, [5] sa1!lsara would have arisen from the very beginning, [6] one ' s life-stream even when purified [would be] sa1!lsaric , [7] there would be no point in cleansing obscurations , [8] there would be no purpose in [teaching] buddhist doctrine . If manifestation derived from a ground that is nothing, [9] this would imply a manifestation [ex nihilo taught by] the nihilist heretics [tfrthika] . This would involve the fallacy of [ 10] nothing existing previously, [ 1 1 ] the fallacy of there being no relation between one thing and another, and [ 1 2] [the fallacy] of the primordial ground being nothing.5 1 2

gNyags construes the relationship between ground and error as one of mutual entailment.

Errancy requires something like a ground, a fundamental mode of being, to be intelligible :

one has to confused or wrong about or in relation to something . Yet it is too much to assert

either that error exists or does not exist in or as this ground. To say error rises ex nihilo is to

espouse a nihilist view of perpetual non-existence (chad pa) , but to say error preexists in the

ground is to espouse an eternalist view of perpetual existence (rtag pa) . Both views fail to

account for how error adventitiously arises within a medium that is originally pure and

unconditioned. gNyags concludes that "the existence or non-existence of deluded

perceptions in the ground contradicts the meaning of 'nonduality ' , is not present amongst

the scriptures , and is not supported by logical arguments. It is therefore [deemed] untenable

by means of reasoning. , ,5 13 gNyags here applies Madhyamaka reasoning to the rDzogs chen

5 1 2 'Phrul gyi me long dgu skor gyi 'grel pa bzhugs: 984.4 f.: 'khrul snang gzhi la yod na gzhi 'khor ba rang rgyud rtag pa 'i skyon gyis sgrib pa mi 'byungl 'ching bu 'i dpes 'tshang mi rgyal rgyal ba dang 'gro ba rigs rgyud tha dad 'byungl bstan pa gsung pa la dgos ched med!, my a ngan 'das pa 'i snang ba 'gagl 'khor ba mthar 'gyurl 'brel ba med

pas don byar mi btubl gzhi 'i chos dri ma can du 'gyur ba '0 1 . . . gzhi la 'khrul pa med pa yin na 'angl lhan cig skyes pa 'i ma rig pa med pa 'i skyon dangl rang bzhin chad pa 'i skyon dangl my a ngag las 'das pa mthar 'gyurl 'khrul snang 'gagl gzhi med pa la 'khor ba snang nal 'khor ba la thog ma 'byungl rgyud dag pa yang 'khorl sgrib pa sbyang mi dgosl bstan pa la dgos ched med!, ye nas gzhi la med pa las snang nal mu stegs chad pa 'i snang bar 'gyurl snga na med pa 'i skyon dangl gcig la gcig med pa 'i skyon dangl ye nas gzhi la med pa dang bcu gnyis 'byungl l

5 1 3 Ibid. 985 .4 f.: gzhi ni 'khrul snang yod med gnyis su med pa 'i don dang 'gall bka ' lung las mi snang bal gtan tshigs kyis ma rgyas pal de ltar rigs pas mi 'thad pa '0 1 1

196

ground problem. ' Ground' and 'error ' are co-implicates like health and illness, order and

chaos - concepts that depend on each other for their definition and without which the edifice

of Buddhist soteriology would collapse . gNyags therefore charts a middle way between the

extremes of existence and non-existence, eternalism and nihilism, acknowledging that

errancy simply occurs due to certain causes and conditions, as in the example of mistaking a

rope for a snake, without independently existing or having any determinate source for its

occurrence .

2.2 The Response of Rog Bande Shes rab 'od ( 12th century)

In the concluding section of his bsTan pa 'i sgron me, Rog bande Shes rab ' od ( 1 1 66-

1 244) takes up the question of whether the ground has error a step further by reversing the

formulation of the problem: "Errancy does not exist in the ground," says Rog, "but the

ground does exist in errancy." Like gNyag, Rog would agree that error presupposes a

ground (what one is wrong about) as a condition of its possibility . But Rog is primarily

concerned with determing the nature of this ground. The ground exists in errancy in the

sense that it is the basis for error, the precondition for its own non-recognition, just as the

rope is the basis and condition of being (mis)perceived as a snake. Rog is also interested in

determining the nature of error. He defines errancy as the non-realization of the ground

whereby the ground ' s expressive energy (rtsal) manifests as reflections (mnemic and thetic)

that fail to recognize the ground as it really is and themselves as they really are, namely,

expressions of this ground. This analysis of error in terms of the ground' s expressive energy

(rtsal) prefigures treatments of the ground problem presented in the sNying thig sources .

In summarizing the rDzogs chen view (Ita ba) of the ground, Rog states that "as all

phenomena consiting in appearance and worldliness, saI]1sara and nirvaIJa, are in essence

great self-occuring primordial knowing, the great sphere, dharmakiiya , they have been

primordially present as buddhahood without [requiring any] deliberate effort ."s14 He goes on

to present a detailed treatment of the ground under three topics : ( 1 ) the actual abiding

5 14 bsTan pa 'i sgron me : 294.3 f. : snang srid 'khor 'das kyi bsdus pa 'i chos thams cadi thig Ie chen po chos kyi sku rang byung gi ye shes chen po 'i ngo borl bya rtsol med par ye nas sangs rgyas par gnas pa '0 1 1 Rog' s supporting quote is from the Nam mkha ' che, a scripture frequently quoted by gNubs chen and therefore at least as early as the l oth century.

197

condition of the ground (gzhi dngos po 'i giws lugs), (2) the process of errancy due to not

realizing it, and (3) the ascertainment of errancy as primordial knowing.515 The first two

topics on the ground and errancy are relevant to the present discussion:

First, concerning its actual abiding mode, the ground is endowed with four qualities . The nature of Mind, the actual abiding mode of what i s knowable, [is such that] : [A] As one does not find the slightest intrinsic essence, it is unique like the sky encompassing everything . [B] As it cannot be identified [as anything] , it is unique like a jewel that fulfills all needs and desires, manifesting as anything whatsoever . [C] As one doesn 't find any basis for appearance (snang gzhi) , it is unique like a dream in which appearances arise without gravitating toward [the extreme of] unreality . [D] As it abides in its primordial greatness without modification or alteration, it is unique like the finest gold. 5 1 6

As for the process of errancy due to not recognizing this ground, Rog has this to say :

The process of errancy due to not realizing [the ground] has three aspects . [A] first, the ground from which one errs, [B] second, how the process of errancy occurs, and [C] third, the outcome of erring in this way. [A] First, the ground from which one errs has three aspects : [a] If there is error from [the standpoint of] errancy existing in the ground, then this errancy could not be abandoned by trying to eliminate it because errancy [pre-]exists in the ground. [b] But if there is errancy [from the standpoint of] errancy not existing the ground, it would entail the absurd consequence that error would come about in a buddha whose mind-stream is purified . Query: Well, then how does it occur? [c] Errancy does not exist within the ground but the ground does exist within errancy. Take the example of mistaking a rope for a snake. Although there is no aspect of a snake whatsoever in the rope, the basis of mistaking it for a snake is nonetheless made [possible] by the rope. In accordance with this example, although there is no basis whatsoever for erring with regard to the knowable nature of things , errancy is nonetheless made [possible] by not realizing this knowable nature of things .

5 1 5 bsTan pa 'i sgron me : 294. 6 f. : bye brag tu gtan la dbab pa la gsum stel gzhi dngos po 'i gnas lugs bstan pa dangl de ltar ma rtogs 'khrul pa 'i tshul bstan pa dangl 'khrul pa ye shes su gtan la dbab pa bstan pa '0 1 1 5 1 6 bsTan pa 'i sgron me: 295 . 1 f. : dang po dngos po 'i gnas lugs nil gzhi chos bzhi ldan yin te l sems kyi rang bzhin shes bya dngos po 'i gnas lugs te l rang gi ngo bo tsam yang ma grub par kun la khyab par nam mkha ' Ita bu gcig yinl ngos bzung med par cir yang 'char ba nor bu 'i dgos 'dod 'byung ba Ita bu gcig yinl snang gzhi ma grub par snang ba dngos med phyogs med du 'char ba rmi lam Ita bu gcig yinl bcos slad med pa ye nas chen por gnas pa gser sa Ie sbram Ita bu gcig yin nol l

198

[B] How errancy occurs : Concerning the uncontrived ground, the spontaneously present nature of reality in which one does not find any intrinsic essence whatsover, its expressive energy (rtsal) manifests as anything whatsoever . It arises as the expressive energy (rtsal) of [mnemic and thematic] reflection (dran pa) . Since this reflection does not recognize by itself what it really is, it serves as the cause of co­emergent ignorance (lhan cig skyes pa ' i rna rig pa) . This in turn serves as the condition for ignorance of wrongly imagining (log par brtags pa 'i rna rig pa) all objects . By then believing these objects to be self-existent, [mind] takes its own reflections to be real like [one ' s] face [in] a mirror. It believes things to be other than they are like mistaking a scarecrow for a man. [Thus] it ensnares itself by itself like the spittle of a silkworm [that forms a cocoon around itself] .5 17

The upshot of Rog ' s account of error is not only that one errs on account of not recognizing

the ground as it is , the nature of Mind and the abiding condition of what is knowable, but

that this ground is prior to and a condition of possibility of all error . The possibility of error

occuring within a primordially pure and unconditioned ground is attributed to ground' s

expressive energy (rtsal) in the form of discursive reflections (dran pa) that (mis)represent

their source and themselves as subject and objects .

2 .3 The Response of Klong chen rab 'byams pa (14th century)

The issue of whether error is present in the ground is taken up repeatedly by Klong

chen rab pa in his rDzogs chen exegesis . Among his most philosophically penetrating

treatments is the response to the last of three points of controvery concerning the rDzogs

chen ground that he presents in his Zab don rgya rntsho ' i sprin, a highly original summation

5 1 7 bsTan pa 'i sgron me : 295 .5 f. : ma rtogs te 'khrul pa 'i tshul la gsum ste l gang las 'khrul pa 'i gzhi dang gcigl ji Itar 'khrul pa 'i tshul dang gnyisl de Itar 'khrul pa 'i 'bras bu dang gsum mol dang po gang las 'khrul pa 'i gzhi la gsum ste l gzhi la yod pa las 'khrul nal 'khrul pa spang gis mi spong bar 'gyur te l gzhi la yod pa 'i phyir rol gzhi la 'khrul pa med kyang 'khrul nal rgyud dag pa 'i sangs rgyas la 'khrul pa 'byung bar thal lol '0 naji ltar yin zhe nal

gzhi la 'khrul pa med kyangl 'khrul pa la gzhi yod par thag pa la sprul du 'khrul pa Ita bu yin te l thag pa la sprul gyi rnam pa gang yang med kyangl sprul du 'khrul pa 'i gzhi thag pas byas sol dpe de bzhin du shes bya 'i gshis la 'khrul pa 'i gzhi gang yang grub pa med kyangl 'khrul pa ni shes bya 'i gshis ma rtogs pas byas sol ji ltar 'khrul pa ni l gzhi ma beos Ihun gyis grub pa 'i ehos nyid rang gi ngo bor cir yang ma grub pa la rtsal ci yang 'char ba ste l dran pa 'i rtsal du shari dran pa rang ngo rang gis ma shes pasl lhan eig skyes pa 'i ma rig pa rgyu byasl des yul kun la log par brtags pa 'i ma rig pas rkyen byas nasi yul rang rgyud du bzung nasi rang gi gzugs brnyan la bden par bzung ba me long dang bzhin Ita bur gyurl min pa la yin par bzung ba mtho yor la mir 'khrul pa Ita bur gyurl rang gi rang beings pa srin gyi kha ehu Ita gyur to l l

199

and defence of rDzogs chen sNying thig system contained in the mKha ' 'gro yang tig .5 1 8 The

point at issue is whether error exists or does not exists in the original ground (gdod ma 'i

gzhi) .5 1 9 Klong chen pa presents the two sides of the debate as follows : (1) If errancy existed

in the ground, then the original ground could not be one ' s authentic abiding condition (yang

dag pa 'i gnas lugs) which is by definition free from error . (2) On the other hand, if error did

not exist in the ground, this would have the absurd consequence that there is no cause for

error at all given that there could be no other source of error independent of this most primal

ground of experience . Like gNyags long before him, Klong che pa is careful to avoid the

two horns of this dilemma. Since there no evidence of error in the ground itself, he reasons,

the ground has never known the existence of any cause of error . Error nonetheless occurs

because the ground functions unceasingly as the basis for arising ( 'char gzhi) in the same

way that a mirror functions unceasingly as the source of reflections . Just as reflections

appear in the mirror without the mirror being altered in any way, so errancy appears without

the ground being altered in any way. But this begs the question of why error should occur in

the absence of any basis for it :

Objection : Isn 't ' error ' untenable given there is no ground/basis of error? Reply: It is analogous to the lack of contradiction in [assuming that there is] [ 1 ] a basis for the arising of myriad dreams within the nonconceptual [state of] sleep, though no [actual basis] is found, and [2] a basis for the arising of the yellow appearance of a white conch under the influence of jaundice, though there is no [actual] basis for yellowness .

Objection : But could we not therefore conclude that the subtle awareness of inner radiance as the primordial responsiveness (gdod ma 'i thugs rje) [one of the three aspects of the ground] , is simply the all-ground (kun gzhi) or all-ground cognition (kun gzhi ' i shes pa) given that it is present as the subtle aspect functioning as the source of arising of all cognitions present in the ground? Reply: This is not so because [ 1 ] this original ground is open awareness that is not confined in any way to sarpsara or nirvaJ;la, and thus does not serve as a basis of obscuration, whereas [2] the

5 1 8 mKha ' 'gro yang tig voL 2 : 9 1 f.. The first two points of contention are whether ( I ) the ground is something perceptable or imperceptab1e (snang mi snang), and (2) the ground's aspects of essence, nature and responsiveness (ngo bo, rang bzhin, thugs lye) are the same or different.

5 1 9 In what follows, I abridge the arguments presented in the Zab don rgya mtsho 'i sprin : 92.4 £ : gdod ma 'i gzhi de la 'khrul pa yod dam medf yod na gdod ma 'i gzhi de yang dag pa 'i gnas lugs ma yin par 'gyur nal ci 'i phyir 'khrul pa yodf med na 'khrul pa rgyu med par thall 'khrul pa 'i byung sa la 'khrul pa 'i rgyu med del de las gzhan la 'khrul rgyu med par btags pa mtshungs pa 'i phyir zhe nal gnyis pa Ian nil gzhi la 'khrul pa grub pa med pasl 'khrul rgyu yod ma myong lal 'char gzhi ma 'gags pas me long dang 'dra '0 1 1

200

all-ground as the neutral cognitive capacity belonging to ignorance (rna rig pa ' i shes pa) does serve as a basis for myriad karma, and is thus similar to the earth (sa gzhi) or to a carpet of silk brocade520.521

.

The dialogue has so far drawn attention to two points in need of clarification: ( 1 ) The first is

the need to reconcile the original ground (gdod rna ' i gzhi) that, like a mirror, remains

invariant under the transformations it appears to undergo with its function as a basis for

arising ( 'char gzhi) that consists in its capacity to make room for appearances, comparable

to a mirror ' s capacity to make room for a limitless variety of reflections . (2) The second

point is the need to distinguish this invariant originary ground and its expressive nature from

the generative or developmental all-ground (kun gzhi) that is the substrate for all karma and

obscurations . The two are irreducible to one another. The originary ground is the prior and

pervasive open awareness - empty in essence, radiant in nature, and all-pervading in

responsiveness (ngo bo stong pa - rang bzhin gsaL ba - thugs rje kun La khyab pa) ; the

derivative all-ground is the neutral cognition belonging to fundamental ignorance .

Klong chen pa ' s imagined interlocutor then asks whether we are not forced to

conclude that the original ground cannot possibly serve as the source (skye rten) of the two

dissimilar categories of sarpsara and nirvfu,la given the untenability of deriving two

dissimilar types of result from an essentially singular cause . In reply, Klong chen pa takes

the case of the Buddha ' s cousin Devadatta who is a friend to some but an enemy to others : it

is inadmissable, Klong chen pa argues , to conclude that we are dealing here with two

different agents - one who inspires happiness and other misery - because both have a single

referent, i .e . Devadatta himself. Klong chen pa then employs the traditional simile of a

crystal ball : "Now, just as a single crystal ball appears as water under the condition of the

rising moon at night or as fire under the condition of the rising sun [at dawn] , so it stands to

reason that this ground functions as the ground for arising of both nirvaI,la and sarpsara due

520 On the example ' carpet of silk brocade ' (za 'og gi 'ding ba), see below 298 n. 720; also 200 n. 520.

521 Zab don rgya mtsho 'i sprin : 92.6 f. : '0 na 'khrul gzhi med pa la 'khrul pa mi 'thad do zhe nal gnyed rtog med la rmi lam sna tshogs kyi 'char gzhi ma grub bzhin du snang ba dangl bad kan gyi rkyen gyi dung dkar po fa ser po 'i gzhi med kyang ser por snang ba 'i 'char gzhi byed pa mi 'gal ba bzhin nol yang gdod ma 'i thugs rje nang gsal gyi rig pa phra mo de kun gzhi 'ami kun gzhi 'i shes pa nyid du thall gzhi gnas kyi shes pa kun gyi 'char gzhi byed pa 'i phra mor gnas pa 'i phyir zhe nal ma yin te gdod ma 'i gzhi de 'khor 'das gang du yang ma chad pa 'i rig pa yin lal sgrib pa 'i rten mi byed pa 'i phyir kun gzhi ni ma rig pa 'i shes pa lung ma bstan las sna tshogs pa 'i rten byed pas sa gzhi 'am za 'og gi 'ding ba Ita bu yin pa 'i phyir rol l

201

to conditions of open awareness and the lack thereof (rig pa rna rig pa) , even though this

original ground is not itself established in any way as saqlsara or nirvaI).a. , ,522

While the originary ground is naturally unbiased and uncurtailed in scope (rgya chad

phyogs lhung rned pa) , it is nonetheless primordially and spontaneously active as the great

basis for arising ( ,char gzhi chen par) of all that constitutes saqlsara and nirvaI).a.523 Klong

chen pa is now in a position to conclude that errancy does not exist in the ground per se, but

nonetheless occurs owing to the indeterminacy (rna nges pa) of the ground ' s self­

manifestation (gzhi snang; rang snang) , a spontaneous self-manifestation that may appear as

saqlsara when not recognized as is or as nirvaI).a when so recognized . Because error is

conceived as an auto-manifestation (rang snang) lacking any extraneous foundation (gzhi

rned) , it can be regarded as a kind of boot-strapping process that unfolds of its own accord

under the appropriate conditions and also ceases of its own accord when the conditions for

its functioning are no longer operative.

By means of the foregoing sequence of questions and answers, Klong chen pa

clarifies the logical steps leading to the fully developed sNying thig formulation of the

original ground, one emphasizing the indivisibility of original purity (ka dag) from the

perspective of its empty essence and spontaneous presence (lhun grub) from the standpoint

of its radiant nature. Klong chen pa concludes:

In short, since the essence of this original ground is primordially empty, [the ground] is not established as any substance or attribute . It is [also] empty due to its making room for everything [to manifest] . It abides as the all-encompassing nature of things . Since its nature radiates a s light ( 'ad) , it transcends the coarse and subtle elements . It is fully present as manifestations of spiritual embodiment (sku) and primordial knowing (ye shes), luminosity, and spontaneously present maI).galas . Since its compassionate responsiveness is nonconceptual, it transcends the domain of the all­ground with its eightfold ensemble [of cognitions] . Since it is self-occuring primordial knowing, it is sensitive and caring, serving as the ground for the arising of myriad spontaneous activities that work [for the benefit of others] . Moreover, since its essence is empty, it does not fall into the extreme of eternalism. Since its nature is

522 Zab don rgya mtsho 'i sprin : 94 . 1 f.: gzhan yang shef sgong gcig nyid mtshan mo zla ba shar ba 'i rkyen gyis chu 'byung fal nyi ma shar ba 'i rkyen gyis me 'byung ba bzhinl gzhi de nyid rig ma rig gi rkyen gyis 'khor 'das gnyis kyi 'char gzhi byed pa 'thad de l gdod ma 'i gzhi de fa 'khor 'das gang du 'ang ma grub pari I

523 Zab don rgya mtsho 'i sprin : 96.2 f. : 'dir yang gdod ma 'i gzhi de l rgya chad phyogs lung med pa 'i tshul gyis 'khor 'das thams cad kyi 'char gzhi chen por ye nas lhun gyis grub po zhes legs par fan thebs soi l

202

radiant, it does not fall into the extreme of nihilism. And since its compassionate responsiveness is all-encompassing, the three embodiments are inseparably united. 524

Here, in characterizing the originary ground as originally pure and yet spontaneously

present, empty in essence and yet radiant in nature, Klong chen pa charts a course between

the Scylla of eternalism and Charybdis of nihilism.

§ 3 . The sNying thig Primordial Ground and its Critics

We have followed two lines of differentiation leading to the fully articulated sNying

thig conception of a primordial ground that ( 1 ) transcends the Yogacara tilayavijfitina and all

the complex workings of dualistic consciousness and that (2) constitutes a condition of

ontological freedom that is essentially devoid of error but at the same time a precondition

for its arising ( 'char gzhi) . As tempting as it may be to view this affirmation of a primordial

ground as a foundationalist enterprise, its portrayal in rDzogs chen sNying thig sources

suggests the opposite . There the ground is presented not as an object of metaphysical

speculation or even rational inference but as an implicit, if generally obscured, mode of

being that is nonetheless accessible to personal experience . To directly recognize open

awareness (rig pa rang ngo shes) is to ascertain the ground (gzhi gtan la dbab pa) . Here, one

ought not disregard the contexts of living praxis and pedagogy within which this attestation

of the ground is traditionally situated. To do so would be to underplay the testimonial tenor

of rDzogs chen ground presentations which owe their evidential force less to abstract

reasoning and deductive inference than to first-hand accounts of personal experience .

Indeed, writings on rDzogs chen praxis customarily specify a number of indications (rtags)

and measures (tshad) of attainment that are said to accompany the ascertainment of the

ground. Later exegetes such as Klong chen pa further explained that the ground is so-named

precisely because it is groundless having no further foundation from which it originates or

524 Zab don rgya mtsho 'i sprin : 95.2 f. : mdor na gdod ma 'i gzhi de ngo bo ye nas stong pas dngos po dang mtshan mar ma grub I kun gyi go 'byed pas stong pal yongs la khyab pa 'i bdag nyid du gnasl rang bzhin 'od du gsal bas phra rags kyi 'byung bas las 'dasl sku dang ye shes kyi snang ba gsal bal 'tsher bal lhun gruba pa 'i dkyil 'khor du rdzogsl thugs rje rnam par mi rtog pas kun gzhi tshogs brgyad kyi yul las 'dasl rang byung gi ye shes yin pas mkhyen pa brtse bal mdzad pa 'i phrin las sna tshogs kyi 'char gzhi byed pa '0 1 de yang ngo bo stong pas rtag pa 'i mthar ma lhungl rang bzhin gsal bas chad pa 'i mthar ma lhungl thugs rjes kun la khyab pas sku gsum 'du 'bral med pa ' 0 1 1 atext has lhun sdug

203

root from which it develops (gzhi med rtsa bral) . This original ' groundless ' ground is

precisely what remains when reifying abstractions have ceased, the most pernicious of

which is the beliefs in real entities and their having real characteristics .

3 . 1 The Abiding versus Metaphysical Grounds

It is in this anti-foundationalist spirit that the sNying thig scriptures distinguish the

ground experienced as one ' s abiding condition (gzhi kyi gnas lugs) from the various grounds

posited as intellectual objects (shes bya ' i gzhi)525 on the basis of different philosophical

presuppositions ( 'dod lugs) . mKhas pa Nyi rna 'bum ( 1 1 58- 1 2 1 3) specifies that the abiding

ground is a matter of direct experience for those adherents of the path (lam du rjes su 'dzin

pa), whereas the intellectual, or what we can call 'metaphysical ' , grounds are products of

abstract theorizing entertained by adherents of philosophical systems (grub pa ' i mtha ' rjes

su 'dzin pa).526 The sNying thig tantras and their commentaries identify six or seven

metaphysical ' grounds , 527 that represent realist ontologies based on differing reductionist

accounts of how things really are . These grounds (presented in Table G below) are therefore

525 The distinction between ' ground' as intellectual object (shes bya 'i gzhi) and ground as abiding condition (gnas lugs kyi gzhi) is introduced in a rare though often quoted extra-canonical rNying rna tantra entitled Klong gsal 'bar ma nyi ma'i gsang rgyud: 3 7a.2 . It is also taken up by mKhas pa Nyi rna 'bum in his rDzogs pa chen po Tshig don bcu gcig pa: 16 . 7 f, and is the source for discussions of this distinctions in mKha ' 'gro snying thig vol. 1 : 34 1 .3 f as well as the rDzogs rim man ngag snying po from the gTer rna collection Bla ma dgongs 'dus (mTshams brag ed.) vol. 1 0 : 634.3 f.. 526 See rDzogs pa chen po Tshig don bcu gcig pa : 1 6.9 f.. This analysis is followed by Klong chen pa in his Tshig don mdzod: 778 .5 f.. 527 There is an extensive literature on these grounds. The primary sources of this doctrine are the sGra thaI 'gyur and Klong drug tantras and other works associated with the oral transmissions of Vimalamitra. See sGra thaI 'gyur, vol. 1 2 : 1 52 .3 f and Klong drug, Tb vol. 1 2 : 437.2 f.. The passages from the two Atiyoga tantras have been the subj ect of detailed philosophical analyses in the following works: ( 1 ) mKhas pa Nyi rna 'bum's 1 2th century Tshig don bcu gcig pa; (2) commentaries on these two tantras attributed to Vimalamitra (sGra thaI 'gyur rtsa rgyud 'grel vol. 2, in NyKs vol. I l l : 734.2 f and Kun tu bzang po Klong drug rgyud kyi 'grel pa, in NyKs vol. 1 09 : 609.2 f.) ; (3) Klong chen pa' s Theg mchog mdzod (vol . I : 646.2 f) and Tshig don mdzod (776.2 f.); (4) later rNying rna exegetical works based closely on Klong chen pa and his sources such as rTse Ie sna tshogs rang gro l ' s Nyi ma 'i snying po ( Theg pa thams cad kyi mchog rab tu gsang ba bla na med pa 'od gsal rdo rje 'i snying po 'i don rnam par bshad pa Nyi ma 'i snying po, in rTse Ie sna tshogs rang grol gyi bka ' 'bum, vol 8: 439.2 f.) . , and 'Jigs med gling pa' s rNam mkhyen shing rta ( Yon tan mdzod 'grel in 'Jigs gling gsung 'bum, vol. 4 : 26.2 f); and Yon tan rgya mtsho ' s Zab don snang byed nyi ma 'i 'od zer ( Yon tan rin po che 'i mdzod kyi 'grel pa, in NyKs vol. 5 5 : 530 . 1 f) ; and (5) two 1 4th century gTer rna collections linked with the oral transmissions of Vimalamitra, the dGongs pa zang thaI (for e.g. , Bi ma mi tra 'i snyan brgyud chen mo, in dGongs pa zang thaI, vol. 4 : 208.5 f.) and Bla ma dgongs 'dus ( for e.g. , rDzogs rim man ngag snying po in Bla ma dgongs 'dus (mThams brag ed.) vol. 1 0 : 634.2 f.). For a concise overview on the six or seven grounds, see Achard 2002. See also Germano 1 992 vol. I : 1 43 f..

204

called ' grounds based on extremist beliefs ' (mthar 'dzin gyi gzhi) . The relevant passage

from the sGra thal 'gyur reads as follows :

The abiding [ground] as i t naturally occurs Is present in a seven-fold manner: [ 1 ] It is known as spontaneous from the perspective of its myriad expressions, [2] Indeterminate from the standpoint of everything changing, [3] Determinate from [the perspective of] its immutability, [4] Able to transform into anything [given the] creative energy of manifesting, [5] Amenable to any propositions because it [may] arise as everything, [6] Originally pure because errancy has been purified, and [7] Variegated given its diverse ways of manifesting .528

Valid though these characterizations may be as partial perspectives , they are

considered flawed or erroneous (skyon can) to the extent that they are appropriated for

personal, doctrinal , or sectarian purposes and elevated to the status of absolute truths . Klong

chen pa' s Theg mchog mdzod invokes the traditional Indian parable of the seven blind men

and the elephane29 to illustrate the partial and perspectival nature of the seven intellectual

grounds .530 In his Tshig don mdzod it is the "six grounds propounded by those who adhere to

528 Tb vol. 1 2 : 1 52 .3 f.: babsa las grub pa 'i gnas lugs nil gnas pa bdun gyi tshul las yangl sna tshogs ngos nas lhun grub lab l 'gyurC tshad cha nas nges med pal mi 'gyur ba las nges pa canl snang ba 'i rtsal ni cir yang bsgyurl thams cad 'byung phyird khas len bcasl 'khrul pa dag phyir ka dag lal snang tshul tha dad khra bor 'dod! I aAti bab ; bAti pa; C 'gyu corrected to 'gyur as per Ati; dAti zhing. The Klong drug pa 'i rgyud reproduces this list (reversing the last two views) but describes them in greater detail and provides a critique of each.

529 Varying versions of this parable are found in Buddhist, Jain, Brahmanical and Sufi literature . It has generally been used to illustrate perspectivism, the doctrine that no account of reality can be taken as definitively true since it is always relative to the perspective from which it is formulated. Jains use the parable to i l lustrate the 'maybe doctrine' (syadvCida) which is perhaps the earliest clearly worked out doctrine of persepectivism in world philosophy, predating Nietzsche ' s doctrine by some 2200 years. On Nietzsche ' s perspectivism, see Nehamas 1 985 . The seven-fold Jain formula is used to demonstrate that every proposition is relative or conditional, none can be absolutely affirmed or denied. According to this doctrine, there are no absolute truths but only partial truths or perspectives (naya) that are relative to the particularities of the situation (space, time, substance and state) in which they occur. Such is the account given in the Jaina SyCidvCidamanjarl. In Buddhism, the parable is found in early Buddhist canonical sources such as UdCina VI, 4: p . 66-69 as well as later Mahayana sources such as the MahiiyCinasarrtgraha III : 235 (Chinese edition, Lamotte 1 93 8) . For further references, see Winternitz vol. 2 : 84-85 ; Nakamura 1 992 : 2 1 9 f . Klong chen p a may have followed mKhas p a Nyi rn a 'bum's use o f this parable in his own Tshig don mdzod and Theg mchog mdzod, though his early Sems nyid ngal gso 'grel does quote a passage from the Buddhhrdaya-sutra (Sangs rgyas kyi snying po 'i mdo) that invokes the parable of various blindmen describing an elephant to illustrate the futility of trying to express buddha nature (buddhagarbha : sangs rgyas kyi snying po) when one has not personally realized it (see Sems nyid ngal gso 'grel: 327.2 f.) . I have not identified this text which appears to be other than the Buddhahrdaya-nCima-dhCirmJl ( 'Phags pa sangs rgyas kyi snying po zhes bya ba'i gzungs, D no. 5 1 5) which does not contain this passage.

530 Ironically, there has been a divergence of opinion on the issue of whether all seven of these views are to be considered mistaken or only the six apart from the distinctively rDzogs chen idea of original purity (ka dag). The two root tantras explicity declare all seven views to be one-sided partial perspectives. While this view is endorsed by

205

philosophical systems" that are "shown to be flawed because these people succumb to views

based on extreme beliefs stemming from their attachment to their own particular

perspectives . They are like the interpretations of the colour and shape of a divine elephant

by six blind men based on what they [can] grasp with their hands ."s3 1 In short, the enemy

here is not the six or seven views themselves - which may be perfectly valid as partial

accounts - but rather the tendency toward reductionism and absolutization that lead their

adherents to elevate a given viewpoint to the status of an all-embracing dogma.532 mKhas pa

Nyi 'burn notes that "the six ways of abiding [of the ground] are not inherently flawed

because if we investigate each as a partial expression, there is no mistake . But if one

believes any of them to be a real essence, this is a grave error."S33

the sGra thaI 'gyur commentary, the Klong drug commentary interpolates another flawed view of the ground (by doubling the fifth) in order to salvage the controversial rDzogs chen idea of an originally pure ground ( ka nas dag pa 'i gzhi) from the set of seven flawed grounds and vouchsafe its status as a (or the) valid description of the ground. The I th century Tshig don bcu gcig pa of mKhas pa Nyi ma 'bum likewise distinguishes original purity as a flawless interpretation of the ground in contrast to the other six flawed interpretations. Tshig don bcu gcig pa: 16 . 7 : de ltar shes bya ' i gzhi bdun la 'dod lugs gnyis su dbye ste l gzhi drug skyon can du gnas pa dangl ka dag skyon med rang gzhung du gtan la dbab pa '0 1 1 mKhas pa Nyi ma 'bum's Tshig don bcu gcig pa, as I suggested previously, may have served as a prototype for Klong chen pa' s Tshig don mdzod, a work similarily structured according to the eleven salient sNying thig topics (tshig don : padartha) but dealing with the subject matter in much greater detail . This conj ecture is supported by the fact that the Tshig don mdzod similarily distinguishes ka dag as the only flawless interpretation of the ground. On the other hand, Klong chen pa' s most mature and extensive sNying thig summary, the Theg mchog mdzod, follows the root tantras in holding all seven views to be partial perspectives . Both lines of interpretation can be traced through later rDzogs chen exegesis on the seven intellectual grounds. The account of six flawed grounds finds support in the Bla rna dgongs 'dus and dGongs pa zang thaI as well as in rTse Ie sna tshogs rang gro l ' s Nyi ma 'i snying po where the author offers a cogent defence of the ka dag doctrine by showing its continuity with earlier Buddhist views. Support for seven flawed grounds is found in the works of ' Jigs med gling pa and Yon tan rgya mtsho, though they are careful to specifY that the view of original purity is mistaken only to the extent that it is considered in exclusion to spontaneous presence and taken as an end in itself. Absolutizing original purity in this way is said to be no different than clinging to a sheer emptiness (stong pa rkang rna) in exclusion of presence (snang ba) and awareness (rig pa) .

53 1 Tshig don mdzod: 779. 1 f.: grub mtha ' Ijes su 'dzin pas gzhi drug skyon can du bstan pa ni phyogs re la zhen nas mthar 'dzin gyi Ita bar Ihung ba nil dmus long drug gis Iha 'i glang po che la lag pas nyal nas dbyibs dang kha dog 'jal ba 'dra lal lam rjes su 'dzin pas ka dag skyon med rang gzhung du 'dod pa mig dang ldan pas glang po che 'i rang bzhin 'jal ba Ita bu ste l l

532 Tshig don mdzod: 778.3 f. : "Thus, in the case of showing [the ground] to be seven-fold, although it may be analyzed in these varying ways on the basis of interpreting the reality ofthe one open awareness, these words, letters and styles of assertion are not established in any way within the essence of open awareness. For this reason, I do not here subscribe to any assertions that are attached to one extreme, declaring "it is only this". de ltar bdun du bstan pa yang rig pa gcig gi don 'ja! ba las so so nas brtags kyang rig pa 'i ngo bo la tshig dang yi ge dang 'dod tshul gang du 'ang rna grub pas 'di kho na '0 zhes mtha ' gcig tu zhen pa 'i khas len ni 'dir mi 'dod.,

533 Tshig don bcu gcig pa: 2 1 . 8 f. : gnas lugs drug po de ngo bo nyid kyi skyon can rna yin te rtsal phyogs re la brtag na nor ba 'ang rna yin la de la ngo bo nyid bden par bzung nal shin tu 'khrul ste l dper na long ba rnams kyis glang po che la bltas pa Ita bu 'ami skyes pa 'am bud med gang yang rung ba cig la nye 'breI du mas so sor zhes pa lat bu 'ami la kha 'i skyes pa drung cig la mthong Itas rigs dgur mthong ba dang 'dra '0 1 1

206

Table G: The seven metaphysical grounds : flawed or partial perspectives on the Ground according to Atiyoga tantras and related works

sGra thai 'gyur rgyud Klong drug rgyud Theg mchog mdzod, Tshig don bcu gcig pa, (with 'grel pa) (with 'grel pa) Tshig don mdzod dGongs pa zang thai,

Bla ma dftonfts 'dus, 1. spontaneously present spontaneously present origina l ly pure; spontaneously present (lhun grub) ( lhun grub) (ka dag) (lhun grub)

2. i ndeterminate indeterm inate spontaneously present indeterminate (nges med) (nges pa med pal ( lhun grub) (rna nges pa)

3 . ult imate foundation ult imate foundation indeterminate u ltimate foundation ( nges

(nges pa don gyi dngos (nges pa don gyi dngos gzhi) (rna nges pa) pa don gyi gzhi)

gzhi)

4. ab le to transform i nto able to transform into ult imate foundation ab le to transform i nto anyth ing (cir yang bsGyur anything (cir yang bsGyur du (nges pa don gyi dngos anyth ing (cir yang bsGyur

du btub pa) btub pal gzhi) du btub pa)

5 . a mmenable to any ammenable to any able to transform i nto ammenable to any proposition (cir yang khas proposition (cir yang khas anything (cir yang bsGyur proposition (cir yang khas

blang du btub pal blang du btub pal du btub pal blang du btub pal

6. origina l ly p ure" va riegated or varied" ammenable to any varied (ka dag) (khra bo'am sna tshogs) proposition (cir yang khas (sna tshogs)

blang du btub pal

7. variegated origina l ly pure varied origina l ly pure (khra bo) (ka nas dag pal (sna tshogs) (ka dag)

Conclusions: 1-7 are 1· 7 are flawed claims based Tshig don mdzod: 2·7 are 1·6 are flawed, being flawed claims based on on one·sided perspectives of flawed; reified expressions (rtsol)

one·sided perspectives of the ground (commenta ry 1 (ko dog) is flawless. of gzhi;

the ground reinterprets this)2 TC: 1·7 are flawed; 7 (ko dog) is flawless Actua l gzhi is ko dog Ihun ( as in Tshig don mdzod)

grub dbyer med

Notes on Table G:

1 Although the sGra thaI 'gyur 'gre! pa follows the root tantra in identifYing al l seven grounds as flawed partial perspectives of the ground, original purity is nonetheless qualified as a view '"held by those having minds in which

errors have resolved themselves" ( ,khrul pa rang dag pa'i bla can lal ka dag tu 'dad pa . . . ) vol. 2, 749.2 .

2The Klang drug 'grel pa (63 1 .2 f.) here adds a 6th analysis of the ground (brtag pa drug pa) that is an essentialized

version of the 5th ground, i .e . " a ground held to be ammenable to propositions concerning the essence of whatever is

ammenable to any proposition" (gzhi cir yang khas blang du btub pa de ci 'i nga bar khas blang du btub pa 'I 'dad pa). This interpolation allows for a less radical interpretation of the seven grounds that preserves the controversial

idea of ka dag as a valid description of the ground. With this addition, the Klang drug' S 6th flawed ground, the so­

called variegated or varied, becomes the commentary ' s 7th so that the ka dag is no longer included in the set of seven

flawed interpretations of the ground but is considered the correct or flawless interpretation of the ground.

3 According to Klong chen pa' s Tshlg dan mdzad, original purity (ka dag) is a correct or flawless description of the

ground as distinct from the other six descriptions which are partial or distorted perspectives (in contrast to both

tantras which delineate seven flawed interpretations inclusive of ka dag) . Although this view is not corroborated by the Klang drug or sGra thaI 'gyur tantras, it does agree with the Klang drug commentary attributed to Vimalamitra,

mKhas pa Nyi rna 'bum ' s Tshig dan bcu gcig pa and the dGangs pa zang thaI and Bla ma dgangs 'dus. By contrast,

Klong chen pa' s Theg mchog mdzad (which expands on all the themes of the Tshig dan mdzad and a great many

others) follows the root tantras in including original purity among the partial views and further specifies the correct

understanding of the ground as consisting in the indivisibility of original purity and spontaneous presence ( ka dag lhun grub dbyer med).

207

Without venturing into a detailed illvestigation of the seven grounds and their

historical antecedents - a task which would take us well beyond the compass of this thesis -

let it suffice here to briefly consider the doctrine in light of some of the central problems of

the ground we have been examining in this chapter . Foremost among these were the

tensions between invariance and change, emptiness and appearance, quietism and exertion,

and (perhaps most distinctively) freedom and error, that early articulations of the ground

sought in various ways to reconcile . From a sNying thig standpoint, the main problem with

the idea that the ground, i .e . , human reality in its ontologically most primitive condition, is

immutable and determinate (nges pa) is that it renders all change, and most importantly

soteriological change (the Buddhist path) , impossible. Such an absolutist and eternalist view

is little different from Brahmanical titman doctrille and vulnerable to the same

antifoundationalist critique . To posit an ontological foundation that does not depend on

anything else but on which all other things depend is to court determinism and eternalism.

By contrast, the view that the ground is inherently indeterminate - protean, transformable

and ammenable to any proposition about it - runs the opposite risks of relativism and

nihilism. A fundamentally indeterminate, random ground that can become anything, and that

can be anything one asserts of it - a ground of all (kun gzhi) where ' all ' is understood to

comprise all actual and possible determinations - takes the barb out of the Buddhist path.

There is nothing to prevent a condition of freedom from slipping back into bondage and

error, whether because the ground is inherently changeable and subject to arbitrary

vacillations or because it conforms to whatever proposition we may entertain about it. Thus

the rDzogs chen problem is fundamentally a soteriological one: how to reconcile in theory

and praxis the abiding and manifesting aspects of the ground (gnas lugs, snang lugs) , the

abiding illvariant ground of experience and the directionality and dynamism of the path of

disclosure . In classical rDzogs chen exegesis, the resolution lies in the attestation (as distillct

from rational proof or inferential conjecture) of a ground (open awareness) that consists in

the indivisibility of original purity and spontaneous presence (ka dag dang lhun grub dbyer

med) , emptiness and lucidity .

In presenting the sNying thig ground as originally pure (emptiness) and

spontaneously present (lucidity) , Klong chen pa addresses a possible objection that this

208

definition of the ground simply introduces an eighth intellectual ground that is vulnerable to

th(3 same antimetaphysical critiques as the others . The opponent argues that original purity

and spontaneous presence have each proven to be invalid as a characterization of the

ground: ( 1 ) On the one hand, if the ground were, in its very essence, originally pure, having

never known the existence of sarpsara, one would be forced to conclude that it makes no

sense that sentient beings could ever be in error ( ,khrul pa) . (2) If, on the other hand, the

ground' s nature were spontaneously present (replete with all buddha qualities) , one must

conclude that beings are always already free (ve grol bar) without making the slightest

effort . (3) One is therefore led inescapably to conclude that the alleged unity of original

purity and spontaneous presence constitutes a fundamental contradiction. Klong chen pa

finds no contradiction here : although sarpsara and sentient beings do not actually exist given

that the ground' s essence is originally pure, they nonetheless appear to do so, like dream

images suddenly manifesting out of dreamless sleep, due to the mere expressive energy

(rtsal) or playing forth (rol pa) of spontaneity .534

3 .2 Mi bskyod rdo rje ' s Critique and rNying rna Responses

The classical rDzogs chen conception of an invariant ground structurally prior to ,

and yet a precondition of, the Yogacara iilayavijiiiina not suprisingly became the target of

refutation by representatives of gSar rna traditions . A notable example of this is the

trenchant critique put to the Zur rDzogs chen master Sog zlog pa Blo gros rgyal mtshan

( 1 552- 1 624) by eighth Karmapa Mi bskyod rdo rje ( 1 507-1 554), a brilliant and original

thinker whose penetrating interrogation raises a number of important questions :

In the context of explaining the ground in counterfeit instructions you pass off as the meaning of the tantras , [certain questions arise] . The New (gsar ma) traditions assert [the following] . Most Indian scholar-adepts such as the hero Nagarjuna and especially Dharmaklrti, maintain that:

The all-ground consciousness (iilayavijiiiina) Is unobscured [and] neutral in essence.535

534 See Theg mchog mdzod part 1 : 663.2 f . .

53 5 This quotation is not found in Steinkellner' s Verse-Index of Dharmakfrti 's Works 1 977. The attribution of such a view of alayavijFiana to Nagarjuna also seems dubious to say the least.

209

Just as a mirror is devoid of any reflections when [considered] in its essence, so the all-ground is devoid of the seven modes of consciousness together with their mental factors when [considered] in its essence . In the same way that [a mirror] does not lose its clarity, its capacity for any reflections whatsoever to appear, so [the all­ground] does not lose its capacity for the latent tendencies of sarpsara, nirvaI).a and the path to be imprinted on it. Just as when a mirror in itself does not encounter any objective conditions , it remains a neutral [or indeterminate] clarity (lung ma bstan pa 'i gsal ba) , likewise the all-ground when it is not swayed by karmic dispositions toward freedom or errancy is claimed to be a neutrality that does not veer one­sidedly toward sarpsara or nirvaI).a.

By contrast, your tradition declares that the ground is originally pure (ka dag) and primordially free (ye grol) . So in your tradition, does this mean that original purity and the all-ground are the same or different? If they are the same, the all-ground would be the common ground of both sarpsara and nirvaI).a, in which case it would possess innate ignorance because it is [considered] the root of all ignorance . Consequently, it would not fulfill the stipulations of being ' originally pure ' and 'primordially free ' . Now, if the all-ground and original purity are not the same but different, then which comes first (thog mar gang snga), original purity or the all­ground? If original purity were prior, this would imply that first there was original purity which later collapses when emerging as the abiding state of the all-ground. This is untenable from the standpoint of scripture and reasoning because the all­ground is one ' s primordial abiding condition that does not veer one-sidedly toward either sarpsara or nirvaI).a, so there is nothing at all that is prior to it . If the all-ground is prior, then it would not be originally pure or primordially free . Consequently, what you call ' original purity ' is claimed, in Bon texts, to be the initial primordial absence (dang po ye med) and the failure to realize original purity and worldly existence as a bit of primordial existence (ye yod) deriving from that is called the ground for straying into sarpsara ( 'khor ba 'i 'khrul gzhi) . Thus you have simply modified [Bon] terminology. 536

536 rGyal ba 'i dbang po Karma pa mi bskyod rdo rjes gSang sngags snying ma ba la dri ba 'i chab shog gnang ba 'i Dris Ian lung dang rigs pa 'i 'brug sgra, in Sog bzlog pa gsung 'bum vol. 2 : 68 .2 f. ; NyKs vol. 1 1 7 : 1 1 7.2 f.: yang rgyud de dag gi don yin pa ltar bcos pa 'i gdams pa rnams kyi gzhi bshad pa 'i skabs nal gsar ma lugs ni klu sgrub dpa ' bo la sogs 'phags yul gyi mkhas grub phal mo che dangl khyad par chos kyi grags pa 'i bzhed pasl de la kun gzhi 'i rnam shes nil ngo bo ma sgribs lung ma bstanl ces pa ltar me long rang gi ngo bo 'i dus na gzugs brnyan gyi stong pa bzhin dul kun gzhi rang gi ngo bo 'i dus na tshogs bdun sems byung dang bcas pas stong pal gzugs brnyan cira yang snang rung gi gsal ba mi 'dor ba bzhin dul 'khor 'das lam gsum gyi bag chags 'jog rung gi nus pa mi 'dor bal yul rkyen dang ma phrad pa 'i me long rang gi dus na lung ma bstan gyi gsal ba yin pa bzhin kun gzhi 'khrul grol 'du byed ma g.yos pa 'i dus na 'khor 'das kyi phyogs su ma lhung ba 'i lung ma bstan du bzhed pa lal khyed rnams kyi lugs la gzhi ka dag dang ye grol du 'dod zer bal khyed rang gi lugs la ka dag dang kun gzhi gcig gam tha dad!, gcig na kun gzhi 'khor 'das gnyis kyi spyi gzhi yin pa 'i don gyi lhan cig skyes pa 'i ma rig pa yod lal de ma rig pa thams cad kyi rtsa ba yin pas ka nas dag pa dang ye grol gyi don ma tshangl kun gzhi dang ka dag gnyis mi gcig tha dad nal ka dag dang kun gzhi thog mar gang sngal ka dag snga nal dang po ka dag la rjes zhig nas kun gzhi 'i gnas lugs su byung ba ni lung rigs gi ngos nas kyang mi 'thad del kun gzhi ni 'khor 'das kyi phyogs su ma lhung ba 'i gdod ma 'i gnas lugs yin lal de 'i gong na gang yod med pas sol kun gzhi snga na ka dag dang ye grol du mi 'gyur basi de bas na ka dag ces pa ni bon gyi gzhung nal dang po ye med du 'dod pa ka dag dangl de las ye yod cung zad srid pa la ma rtogs pa 'khor ba 'i 'khrul gzhi zhes ming 'dogs bsgyur ba yin mod!, I aNyKs cing

2 10

Mi bskyod rdo rje ' s critical questions draw attention to two pertinent issues that are

only partially addressed in Sog bzlog pa ' s rejoinder .537 First of all, the eighth Karmapa

equates the all-ground (kun gzhi : alaya) with the all-ground-based consciousness (kun gzhi

rnam par shes pa : alayavijiiana) which he understands along classical Yogacara lines as the

neutral and as yet unobscured fundamental consciousness that retains all latent tendencies

and their resultant sarpsaric or nirval).ic phenomena. He then questions how there could be

anything more fundamental than this . On his view, to posit a still more primordial ground

(gzhi) that is originally pure (ka dag) and primordially free (ye grol) is to court absolutism,

as his reference to the 'primordial absence' (ye med) doctrine of the Bon indicates . It also

contradicts those scriptures which view the all-ground as one ' s primordial abiding

condition.

On this last point, it has previously been shown that scriptural support for the

primacy of alayavijiiana was by no means commonplace even among Y ogacara sources; on

the contrary, many late Yogacara works such as the MahayanasaTpgraha , Abhidharma­

smuccaya and Trif!lsika portrayed the alayavijiiana as impure and conditioned and therefore

fundamentally distinct from the pure dharmakaya and suchness . We have also seen that this

association of kun gzhi and dualistic mind (sems) on the basis of such siitras is already made

537 Sog bzlog pa' s response consists primarily in reiterating the central rDzogs chen distinction between the all ­ground (kun gzhi) which i s identified with dualistic mind (sems) and its essence, i .e . , the ground (gzhi) itself or freedom ground (grol gzhi) which is identified with open awareness (rig pa) . According to his Dris Ian lung dang rigs pa 'i 'brug sgra: 69.4 f. : "The essence of the so-called ' all-ground' is unconditioned, inexpressible, naturally occuring and not partial in any way. It is called the originally pure and primordially free ground when referring to the victorious Samantabhadra who is free within this very ground. We do not, however, assert that the all-ground itself is originally pure and primordially free. Consequently, the term ' originally pure' (ka nas dag pa) refers to that which has never known errancy from the very beginning. The meaning of the term "Kun tu bzang po" ("All Good") is one who has never known errancy for "all" (kun lu) time and is hence described as "good" (bzangpo). This is how it is explained in our tradition and the description ' primordially free' [basically] has the same meaning, so it should not be thought otherwise. Therefore, our statements about the originally pure and primordially free ground should be recognized as referring to the 'freedom ground' (grol gzhi) but not as assertions about the 'all-ground' (kun gzhi) because in our tradition, the all-ground is dualistic mind (sems), whereas the freedom ground is open awareness (rig pa). So the all-ground and original purity are not in any way the same or different." kun gzhi zhes pa 'i ngo bo nil 'dus ma byas brjod du med pa 'i rang byung phyogs gang du yang ma lhung ba yin lal de la gzhi ka dag dang ye grol ces pa rgyal ba kun tu bzang po gzhi de nyid kyi thog lu rang grol ba la zer ba yin gyil kun gzhi nyid ka dag dang ye grol du 'dod pa ma yin nol de 'i phyir ka nas dag pa zhes bya ba gdod ma nas 'khrul ma myong ba 'i dag pa de la zer lal kun lu bzang po zhes pa 'i sgra don ni dus kun tu 'khrul pas nam yang gos ma myong ba de 'i phyir bzang po zhes bya bal 'di 'i lugs la 'chad pa yin zhing ye grol zhes pa yang de dang don gcig pa yin pas na gzhan du mi bsam mo l de 'i phyir 'dir gzhi ka dag dang ye grol zhes gsungs pa grol gzhi la ngos 'dzin pa yin gyi kun gzhi la 'dod pa ma yin nol 'dir kun gzhi sems yin lal grol gzhi rig pa yin pa de 'i phyirl kun gzhi dang ka dag gnyis gcig dang Iha dad gang yang ma yin nol l

2 1 1

by Ye shes sde in the 8th c . In this connection, it is noteworthy that the third Karmapa Rang

byung rdo rje draws scriptural support from late . Y ogacara -Tathagatagarbha siltras in · his

identification of the iilayavijiiiina with impure mind (sems ma dag pa)538 and of buddha

nature with pure mind (sems dag pa) which he further characterizes as "the ground (gzhi) of

all that constitutes sarp.sara and nirval).a".539

Let us turn our attention, then, to Mi bskyod rdo rje ' s principal argument based on

reasoning (rigs pa ' i rtsod) for accepting the primacy of iilayavijiiiina . The author takes the

epistemic and affective neutrality of the iilayavijiiiina when it is disengaged from the seven

modes of consciousness and "not swayed by karmic dispositions toward sarp.sara or

nirval).a" to be evidence of its ontological priority . In this regard, it is interesting that

classical rNying rna scholars would interpret this neutrality not as an indication of ultimacy

but rather of ignorance and delusion in any but the fully realized. In the words of Klong

chen pa:

In this regard, some teachers in the past have said that "if there is no discursive analysis due to emotionally-afflicted ego-mind [in the iilayavijiiiina] , then there is no accumulation [of karma] by cognitions of the six senses because [mind] is unconditioned by any of the three emotional poisons . " This [assumption] must be investigated, however, because while it may be like this in the case of view, meditation and conduct when one has recognized the nature of all phenomena, in beings who have not directed their minds in this way, [deeply ingrained] deludedness (gti mug : mohai40 still exists so there is still accumulation of non-virtue .541

53 8 2ab mo nang don gyi 'grel pa, Rang byung rda rje gsung 'bum vol. 7: 3 82.3 f. : ma dag pa la sems su brjad pa ni kun gzhi 'i rnam par shes pa zhes gsungs pa . . . 1 1

539 2ab ma nang dan gyi 'grel pa, Rang byung rda rje gsung 'bum vol. 7 : 3 8 1 .6 f. : . . . sangs rgyas kyi snying pa la sems su brjad cing 'khar 'das thams cad kyi gzhi 'i don yin nol l The identification of buddha nature with pure mind follows Ratnagotravibhaga 1 .55-57.

540 As the author explains, this refers not to the delusion counted among the five poisons but to a more fundamental deludedness synonymous with innate ignorance (than cig skyes pa 'i ma rig pa) that exists prior to, and as a condition for, the manifestation ofthe five poisons. See Sems nyid ngal gso 'grel, vol .2 : 275.4 f..

541 Sems nyid ngal gso 'grel, vol. 1 : 277.5 f. [da ni kun gzhi dang tshogs brgyad kyi dbye ba nil de 'ang bag chags sna tshogs pa 'i kun gzhi lung ma bstan ni me long dang 'dra zhingl kun gzhi 'i rnam par shes pa ni me long gi dangs gsal dang 'dra zhingl sgo lnga 'i shes pa ni gzugs brnyan shar ba dang 'dra ste l de la don snga ma las kyis dpyod pa 'am sgo lnga 'i snang yul la 'di 'o zhes dang por shar ba ni yid shes yin lal de 'i rjes la yul la chags pa sdang ba bar ma gsum dang mtshungs ldan du shar ba ni nyon mongs pa can gyi yid ces bya '0 1 ] de 'ang nyon yid kyis ma dpyad na tshags drug gi shes pas la mi sog ste l dug gsum gang rung du 'dus ma byas pa 'i phyir zhes slob dpon snga ma dag gsung p 'ang dpyad dgos te l chos thams can kyi rang bzhin shes nas Ita ba dang sgam pa dang spyod pa 'i gnas skabs su de ltar yin lal de Ita bu la blo kha ma phyogs pa 'i 'gro ba la gti mug tu yod pas las mi dge ba sags pa yin no l l Untranslated section (bracketed) provides the author 's analysis of the kun gzhi and eight consciousnesses.

212

In other words, dwelling in a non-discursive state devoid of cognitive-affective activity is by

itself no guarantee that one has transcended dualistic mind and karmic conditioning. Here,

the very epistemic and affective neutrality of the prereflective alaya [vijfiana] that certain

late Y ogacara traditions took as verification of its ultimacy is taken by Klong chen pa to be

proof of its opposite , i .e . , its fundamentally delusive nature . This neutrality is portrayed as a

state comparable to stupor or deep sleep (not unlike the Upani�adic tur�ya) in which the

accumulation of non-virtue is not even suspended let alone arrested. The alayavijfiana is for

this reason identified with dualistic mind (sems) and ignorance (ma rig pa) and considered

the source of grasping for and believing in the existence of subject and object, ' I ' and

' mine ' .542 Mi bskyod rdo rje ' s polemic brings to light a problem that had evidently become a

bone of contention among Tibetan Buddhist scholars in the classical period . The issue was

whether there is anything more fundamental than the alayavijfiana . As we have

demonstrated in this chapter, the classical rNying rna answer to this question was an

emphatic "yes". Its doctrinal response was to gradually separate, and in the case of the

sNying thig system radically differentiate, the conditioned Yogacara conditioned

alaya[vijfiana] from the rDzogs chen unconditioned ground of freedom while clarifying the

priority relation between them.

§4. Concluding Remarks : The rDzogs chen idea of freedom

While questions about the distinction between ultimate sources of error and freedom

led to increasingly nuanced articulations of the ground and all-ground, it also opened up

fresh persepectives on the age-old Indian problem of freedom. In Buddhism, as in Indian

religions generally from the period of the Upani�ads onward, the idea of freedom (Skt.

masc . mok�a/fem. mukti; both < etymon muc signifying 'release ' ) has been employed in a

religious sense as denoting liberation from the sources of suffering and bondage (primarily

the karma and kldas) that constitute cyclical existence (saf!1sara) . Already in early rDzogs

chen, this traditional idea of freedom as the liberation from or of factors that bind one to

542 See Sems nyid ngal gsa 'gre!, vol . 1 : 208.5 f . . Klong chen pa later (209.3 f) quotes a passage fi'om the 'Jam dpal ye shes rgyan gyi mdo in support of this interpretation: "Dualistic mind (sems) is the all-ground consciousness (kun gzhi 'i rnam shes). The belief in 'mine ' (ngar 'dzin pa) is the ego-mind (yid)." sems ni kun gzhi 'i rnam par shesl ngar 'dzin pa ni yid yin nol l

213

sarp.sara was rendered problematic by the insight that human reality is, in its most originary

condition, devoid of error and bondage and in this sense primordially free (ye grol) . Strictly

speaking, there really is no error or karma or sarp.sara . On this account, freedom has at best

a provisional meaning since humans are fundamentally aways and already free . We get a

clear sense of this from gNubs chen:

Query: If one does not analyze and investigate anything, how can one free one ' s mind? Reply : One is free by the very absence of doing something to become free. Why is that? Because given that one does not perceive any bondage within [this state] that transcends conceptualization and analysis, the term 'freedom' is a mere figure of speech.543

With this idea of primordial freedom, the stage IS set for the sNying thig construal of

freedom as the ground of human existence (grol gzhi) where it is understood not as the

absence of error, nor as its opposite, but as the very condition of its possiblity . This

ontological idea of freedom is first sketched in the earliest stratum of rDzogs chen tantras

and further developed by gNubs chen and Rong zorn pa.544 But it is in rDzogs chen sNying

thig writings that the idea receives its most lucid and far-reaching analysis . In his Zab don

rgya mtsho ' i sprin, Klong chen pa traces the genesis of the grounds of freedom and errancy

to the recognition or non-recognition of the ground' s spontaneous presence as an outward

effulgence . On this account, not erring is a necessary but not sufficient condition of

freedom. This is because humans dwell in the light of presence; so long as they are alive and

sentient, they are the dative of manifestation . Consequently, freedom lies also, and more

fundamentally, in recognizing this self-manifestation as it is, and not (mis)taking it for

something it is not.

543 bSam gtan mig sgron : 295 . 1 f. : ' 0 na cir yang ma brtags ma dpyad na sems grot du btub bam zhe na grof bar byar med pa nyid kyis grol ba ste l ei 'i phyir zhe nal rtog dpyod fa 'das pa fa beings pa nyid ma dmigs pa 'i phyir tha snyad tsam du grol zhes bya '0 1 1 See also Mun pa 'i go cha vol . 1 (NyKs vol . 93 ) : 5 12 .2 f. : dngos po gzhaf zhing don tshol ba 'i bya byed med pa nyid kyis tha snyad tsam du grof zhes kyang bya ste l de la beings pa 'i chos ma dmigs pa 'i phyir rol l

544 See for example Mi nub rgyal mtshan (one of the five earlier sems sde texts), Tk vol . 1 : 424.4 f. : "Objectives do not disturb the way things are. By no activities but by freedom [itself] is one free. Since self-occuring primordial knowing is effortless, it is shown also to be a path of freedom by way of freedom" don rnams ji bzhin mi skyod del bya ba med pas grol bas groll rang byung ye shes brtsal med pasl grol nas grof ba 'i lam yang stonl l . This passage is quoted by gNubs chen bSam gtan mig sgron 295.3 under the title rDo rje sems dpa ' Nam mkha ' che (this is also the title used by Rong zorn pa for the Mi nub rgyaf mtshan) . The text continues : "Freedom naturally abides in everything. Even erroneous concepts are self-occuring in freedom and are not from [anything] other ." grol ba kun la rang bzhin gnasl phyin ci log tu rnam rtoga kyangl grol bar rang byung gzhan las mini I aTk: rtogs : Tb: rtog

214

What is the reason for erring from the [spontaneous presence of the ground]? Now, one may think that if one does not err from the originary ground, this is sufficient [for realizing freedom] . But that is not the case because the originary ground, as an inner radiance, abides as the unique condition of freedom, the very nature of which is without error. If one recognizes the spontaneous presence manifesting from this [ground] as an outer radiance just as it is, it displays as the ground of freedom (grol gzhi) of Samantabhadra. If one does not recognize it, it displays as the ground of errancy ( ,khrul gzhi) of sentient beings . Thus it is known as "indeterminate spontaneity" (ma nges pa 'i lhun grub) . It is also called the "great ground manifestation (gzhi snang chen pO) . , ,545

Freedom is here construed as a primary mode of being rather than as a teleocratic

goal, whether this latter is defined negatively (freedom from) or positively (freedom to) . In

the same way that health is best understood not simply as the absence or opposite of illness

but as a basic condition of well-being546, freedom is best understood not simply as the

absence of bondage but as the most fundamental way of being of the subject. Freedom

reframed in this way has nothing to do with capacities and properties of agents . It has more

to do with how we are than what we can or cannot do . Understood as a mode of being rather

than the capacity of an agent - as it is conceived, for example, in the Western theo­

philosophical problem of "free will" - ontological freedom is both prior to and a condition

of possibility of all choice and deliberation. This understanding is implicit in the term grol

ba, ubiquitous in sNying thig sources, that is construed grammatically as an intransitive

verbal noun (perhaps best translated as "being free") and radically distinguished from

earlier Buddhist conceptions of liberation (mok�a : thar pa) which carry the sense of

"becoming free of or from" . Five modes of ontological freedom are elaborated in rDzogs

chen works, the details of which go beyond the scope of the present discussion: ( 1 ) self­

occuring freedom (rang grol) , (2) primordial freedom (ye grol) , (3) naked freedom (cer

grol) , (4) unbounded freedom (mtha ' grol) and (5) unique freedom (gcig grol) .547

545 Zab don rgya mtsho 'i sprin: 1 37.6 £ : de nas 'khrul pa 'i rgyu mtshan ci yin l yang na gdod ma 'i gzhi nas ma 'khrul na de 'i chog mod snyam nal ma yin te gdod ma 'i gzhi ni nang gsal 'khrul pa med pa 'i bdag nyid grol ba gcig

po nyid du bzhugs lal de las phyir gsal du shar ba 'i lhun grub ni rig na kun tu bzang po 'i grol gzhir 'ong lal ma rig na sems can gyi 'khrul gzhir byung ba ma nges pa 'i Ihun grub ces kyang byal gzhi snang chen po zhes kyang byal l

546 According to the World Health Organization: "Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well ­being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity."

547 On these modes of freedom, see Mu tigphreng ba Tb vol. 1 2 : 339 . 1 £ ; Ati vol. 2: 465 . 5 £ : 'gagpa medpa 'i rig pa lal 'khrul rgyu' med pas Idol pa medl ye grol yin pas gtan nas 'phagsl rang grol yin pas yul rkyen zadl cer grol

2 15

Descriptive of our most fundamental opening onto the world, freedom is to be

understood neither as an absence of contraint (negative freedom) , as in the goal of ' freedom

from sarpsara ' , nor as a disposition of the will (positive freedom), as in deliberative striving

toward the pre-established goal of awakening (bodhi) , but rather as the ontological

precondition of both these. Freedom is human existence itself as the fundamental clearing or

disclosedness (to use Heideggerian language) through which being and world are always

and already there for us at all . "The term 'freedom ' ," says Klong chen pa, "means being free

through simply letting be and being free directly through simply being aware . . . , ,548 He goes

on to distinguish this ontological freedom as an intransitive mode of being and knowing

from traditional conceptions of freedom as a telos arrived at by causal means :

'Freedom' (grol) is not the same as ' liberation ' [from constraint] (bkrol) . So there is no need to make efforts in view and meditation. Given that freedom abides as one ' s natural mode o f being, it has the sense of 'being without artifice or modification ' . Because this is so, letting body, speech and mind simply relax in their natural condition and abiding in the natural state of Mind as such is what we call "freedom" . Moreover, since it is always already present in this way, it i s superior to the [negative freedom of] the ordinary vehicles .549

This letting be in freedom is less quietistic than the passage may suggest. For, it will be

recalled that letting be (non-interference) is interpreted not as an end in itself, but as a way

of letting the ground of being manifest in all its fecundity without (mis)taking its outward

shining forth for something it is not, namely, as an ' inner ' subject apprehending ' outer '

objects . It is important here as in all other dimensions of rDzogs chen thought to bear in

yin pas snang ba dagl mtha ' grol yin pas mu bzhi 'gags I gcig grol yin pas du ma stongsl l a Ati pa; b Ati rtog. See also sGra thaI 'gyur, Tb. vol. 1 2 : 1 50 .3 f.; Ati vol. 1 : 1 78 .6 f.: gzhan yang grol ba 'i ehos nyid bshad>, gnad kyisa grol bas 'bad rtsol zad>, ye nasgrol bas bskyar mi dgosl rang grol yin pas gnyen po med>, eer grol yin pasb mthong sar yall

yongs su grol bas rang bzhin dagl dus kyic grol bas goms mi dgosl rang bzhin grol bas ma beos pa 'ol grol zhesd tha snyad tsam nyid de l rtogs dang ma rtogs su yi ehos l l aTb kyi; bTb phyir; cTb kyis; dTb shes. See also Klang chen pa' s Theg mehog mdzod vol. 2 : 1 6 1 4 .4 : ' Jigs med gling pa' s Yon tan mdzod 'gre! vol. 2 : 627.4 f. and 630.2 f. for extended discussions of these modes of freedom.

548 Theg mehog mdzod vol . 2: 1 6 1 3 .2 f.: grol zhes bya ba lal bzhag pa tsam gyis grol ba dangl shes pa tsam gyis gnad thog tu grol ba . . . 1 1 549 Theg mehog mdzod vol. 2 : 1 6 1 5 .2 f. : grol ni bkrol ba Ita bu ma yin pasl Ita sgom gyis 'bad mi dgosl grol zhes rang lugs su gnas pa lasl beas beos med pa 'i don nol de ltar yin pas Ius ngag yid gsum rang lugs la lhod ehags shingl sems nyid rnal du phebs pa la grol zhes byal l

2 16

mind this dialectical intertwining between emptiness and radiance, primordial purity and

spontaneous presence .

Central to classical rDzogs chen reinterpretations of freedom along ontological rather

than causal lines is their critique of traditional conceptions of action that construe it

primarily as guided by reason (toward a predefined goal) and sustained by Will . 550 For

rDzogs chen scholars , action so conceived can scarcely be identified with freedom - this

would be to annul the traditional Indian distinction between karma and mok$a . Action to be

free must neither be motivated by rational deliberation nor guided toward a preconceived

goal .

In short, the classical rDzogs chen tradition reconceptualizes freedom in such a way

that it no longer implies the mere absence of error and conditioning but the disclosive

ground of its possibility; it is the originary mode of being to which one remains attuned

through recognition or from which one errs through non-recognition but which, in either

case, abides as is . That freedom is a precondition of errancy means not only that it makes

the range of phenomena subsumed under the category of errancy intelligible (both logically

and phenomenologically) but also that the recognition of errancy as errancy is a necessary

condition of the consciousness, of freedom. As I have attempted to show in this chapter, the

sNying thig reinterpretation of freedom as an ontological precondition of errancy is integral

to its understanding of the ground as ontologically prior to the all-ground. The dialectic

between errancy and freedom has turned out to be the creative tension underlying and

animating the rDzogs chen problem of the ground.

550 On Heidegger' s similar critique of teleological action and his ontological conception of freedom, see Villa 1 996 : 1 1 7.

2 17

Part IV The Problem of the Path : Implications of the Sems/ye shes Distinction

6 1 rNying rna Path Hermeneutics and the Problem of Reconciliation

This chapter looks at some soteriological implications of the rDzogs chen distinction

between dualistic mind (sems) and primordial knowing (ye shes) through the lens of

classical rNying rna path summaries . Its main focus is the problem of how the authors of

these summaries sought to reconcile progressivist sUtric and non-progressivist tantric

models of the Buddhist path on the basis of this distinction. There are few better ways of

coming to understand a religious tradition than by examining how it articulates its

fundamental aims and the proposed routes to their attainment. In the case of Buddhism, our

most valuable references are the summaries of the Buddhist path (marga) that have emerged

periodically from the time of the Pali Canon onward in response to a growing need to

summarize and systematize an increasingly heterogenous body of ideas and practices .

Among these, the varied and voluminous Tibetan genre of path summaries known as Lam

rim or Stages of the Path55 1 is of particular relevance to such inquiry insofar as its works

55 1 The attempt to delineate in a single work the essentials of the Buddhist way can be traced back as far as a work entitled the Pa!isalJ1bhido.magga, The Path to Thorough Comprehension in the PaIi Canon. This text, one of fifteen belonging to the Khuddanikaya of the Suttapi!aka, presents thirty discussions (kathas) on various topics of Buddhism arranged in an orderly progression. This ShOli work represents the first attempt to systematize the various discourses and dialogues of the Buddha into an orderly all-embracing account. See A.K. Warder' s introduction to The Path of Discrimination, in Nal]amoli 1 982. See also Warder 1 970 : 3 1 2 . In the early development of Indian Buddhism, path summaries came to play an increasingly important role as the need to synthesize and organize the growing body of exegetical and commentarial literature increased. This need was practically fulfilled in the fifth century CE by the Visuddhimagga, The Path of Purification, a standard text of Theravada Buddhism ascribed to Buddhago�a. The all-encompassing scope of the work is indicated by the author's interpretation of its title : ' " Visuddhi means the nibbana which is wholly and thoroughly purified, and fi'ee from dirt of every description and the path which leads to this purification is called Visuddhimaggd'. Winternitz 1 922: 1 95 . In the text, Buddhaghosa schematizes the subj ect matter, namely the essentials of the Buddha' s discourses as handed down by the elders of the Theravada tradition, according to the three trainings of a Theravada monk: ethics (Sfla), meditation (samo.dhi) and discerning insight (prajno.) . It is worth noting that the increasing prevalence of path summaries in early Buddhism coincided with the growing importance of the path idea itself as a hermeneutical device for reconciling the varying needs and inclinations of aspirants. We find, for example, in two quasi-canonical Pali texts on hermeneutics, the Nettippakarana and the Petakopadesa, the path being used to reconcile different religious concerns and needs while preserving the idea that the dhamma embodies a single truth and leads to a single goal, nibbana. See George Bond, 'The gradual path as a hermeneutical approach to the Dhamma, ' in Lopez 1 988 : 29-45. By the time Mahayana had reached its zenith in India (circa 8th century CE), path summaries had become a standard form of presentation. Some were simply compilations of quotations arranged sequentially and interspersed with the author ' s commentary and verses. Examples are Santideva' s Silqo.samucaya (Anthology of Training) and Nagarjuna' s Sutrasamuccaya (Anthology of Sutras) . Other path summaries sought to delineate the path of a bodhisattva in a

2 18

attempt to delineate the viewpoints, ideas a:nd practices that have been taken as definitive of

the traditions they represent .552 Of special interest are certain formative Lam rim works

relatively lengthy series of verse stanzas. Examples are Santideva' s Bodhicaryiivatiira (Entering the Way of Awakening) and Atisa' s (982- 1 084) Bodhipathapradfpa (P no. 5343). Although written in Tibet, the Bodhipathapradfpa (Lamp for the Path to Awakening), which became a prototype for a large number of Lam rim texts in the new bKa' gdams (bKa' gdams gsar rna) tradition, was originally composed in Sanskrit and later translated into Tibetan by its author with the assistance of dGe ba' i bIos gros. The followers of this tradition were commonly referred to as dGa' Idan pa after the dGa' Idan monastery founded by Tsong kha pa up until the 1 7th

century when the name dGe lugs pa (said by Thu'u bkvan B lo bzang chos kyi nyi rna to be a euphonic variant of dGa' lugs pa) begins to appear in texts. See Seyfort Ruegg 2000 : 3 7 1 n. 2 . This manifesto of monastic reform, together with its auto-commentary (Bodhimiirgapradfpapaffjikii, P no. 5322), is itself a concise and orderly synthesis of the basic tenets of Mahayana Buddhism as embodied in various standard Indian path summaries. Its presentation is structured according to the classification of three types of person (skyes bu gsum) which has a long pedigree in Indian Buddhism. On this threefold characterology, see n. 58 1 .

To these influential works must be added another, less well-known, class of short metric works which briefly outline the stages of the path. Three examples are the BodhisattvamiirgakramasaYflgraha (P no. 4543) or Compendium of the Stages of the Bodhisattva Path of Sakyasribhadra ( 1 1 27- 1225 CE), the Mahiiyiinapathakrama (P no. 5359) or Stages of the Mahiiyiina Path of Subhagavajra (date unknown), and the Jinamiirgiivatiira (P no . 5372) or Entering the Path of the Victors of BuddhaSrijiiana ( 1 oth to 1 1 th century CE). What is noteworthy about these relatively late Indian Mahayana path summaries (coinciding with the beginnings of Lam rim in Tibet) is their structural similarity to Tibetan Lam rim texts. All three begin by discussing the four preliminary topics - the uniqueness of human existence, impermanence and death, the relationship between actions and consequences, and the miseries of saqlsara. They go on to emphasize the need to rely on a spiritual friend who assists one in internalizing the teachings. They next elaborate how to cultivate the awakened mind (bodhicitta) and conclude with aspects of the Mahayana path conducive to attaining the goal of Buddhahood. Such topics were to become the hallmarks of the Lam rim genre.

As we may conclude, the Tibetan Lam rim corpus crowns a long lineage of path summaries dating to the earliest stages of Indian Buddhism. Like their Indian forerunners, the Lam rim works arose in response to the need for systematic and practical synthesis of the major themes of Buddhist thought and praxis. This need was particularly acute for Tibetans who had become heir to a diverse body of Buddhist teachings - HInayana, Mahayana and Vajrayana - that had been developing for over a millennium in India.

552 The Lam rim corpus is as varied as it is vast. A listing of Lam rim texts in a bibliography compiled by A khu rin po che ( 1 807- 1 875) includes in addition to those works containing lam rim in their title many belonging to related genres such as bsTan rim (Stages of the Teaching), Khrid rim (Stages of Guidance), Lam khrid (Guidance on the Path) and Blo sbyong (Mental Training). See Lokesh Chandra 1 963 . See also Seyfort Ruegg 2000: 1 7-32 for an excellent overview of the Lam rim genre with a primary focus on gSar rna works and their antecedents. On bsTan rim and Blo sbyong genres, see Jackson 1 996 and Sweet 1 996 respectively. Texts designated as Lam rim are found within the collections of all four schools of Tibetan Buddhism though this designation is all that some of these works share in common. There has so far been no systematic attempt to identifY the hallmarks of the Lam rim genre. For our purposes, it is useful to identifY certain constitutive features that the most influential Lam rim share in common. These comprise both functional (contextual) and formal (textual) criteria. The functional criteria concern the formative role the maj or works have played, and continue to play, in the overlapping spheres of individual praxis and tradition. Within the individual sphere, the works serve to (a) introduce the aspirant to the essentials of Buddhist doctrine and praxis and (b) guide him or her through the stages of the Buddhist path toward the realization of enlightenment. Within the sphere of tradition, the texts play a major part in representing the distinctive approaches and ideas of a given tradition and thus preserving its identity over time. This latter factor is of particular relevance to the formative Lam rim works considered in this paper given that the exfoliation of the Lam rim genre was so closely associated with the institutionalization of Tibetan Buddhism. Because the authors of these works were also the founders or organizers of their respective schools of Tibetan Buddhism, the texts were all taken as representative of the defining ideas, ideals and approaches of these schools. The formal or textual features common to the formative lam rim works may be briefly schematized in terms of content and organization. Lam rim texts include, with certain variations in sequence and content, the following:

219

composed during the so-called later diffusion (phyi dar) of Tibetan Buddhism that played an

important role in the institutionalization and self-definition of three of the four major

schools of Tibetan Buddhism. They are the Bodhipathapradfpa of Atisa alias Dlparpkara­

srijiiana (982- 1084) , founder of the bKa' gdams pa order, the Thar pa rin po che ' i rgyan of

sGam po pa bSod nams rin chen ( 1079- 1 153) , founder of the main bKa' brgyud lineages

through four of his major disciples, the Sems nyid ngal gso (and autocommentaries) of

Klong chen rab 'byams pa Dri med 'od zer ( 1 308- 1 363), principal organizer of the rNying

rna order and the Lam rim chen mo of Tsong kha pa Blo bzang grags pa ( 1 357- 14 19) , whose

New bKa' gdams or dGe lugs order styled itself as a continuation of the original bKa '

gdams . All were composed with the intention of synthesizing and systematizing a

remarkably diverse and complex amalgam of doctrines and practices, and all continue to

serve in present -day monastic settings as study and practice manuals introducing students to

what their respective traditions have identified as the central teachings of Buddhism. The

rNying rna tradition produced a number of Lam rim-type works, the most important and

influential being Klong chen pa ' s above-mentioned Sems nyid ngal gsa as well as his later

Yid bzhin mdzod (with their autocommentaries) . These served as models for later rNying rna

path summaries , most notably 'Jigs med gling pa ' s ( 1729- 1798) Yon tan rin po che ' i mdzod

(with autocommentaries and commentaries) and dPal sprul rin po che ' s ( 1 808 - 1 887)

beloved Kun bzang bla ma zhal lung. A comparative study of the most important and

influential rNying rna and gSar rna path summaries provides a context for establishing areas

of convergence and divergence with respect to the different traditions ' distinctive aims,

orientations, and methods of goal-realization.

I . Preliminary Topics A. The difficulty of finding a human existence (dal 'byor rnyed dka ') B . Impermanence and mortality (mi rtag pa; 'chi ba) C. Karma and its consequences (las rgyu 'bras) D. The miseries of Sarp.sara ( 'khor ba 'i nyes dmigs)

2. Relying on Spiritual Friends 3. Mahayana: Developing bodhicitta (aspiration phase) - 4 immeasurables : love, compassion, j oy and

equanimity 4. Cultivating bodhicitta (pursuance phase) - 6 paramltas consisting in skillful means ( 1 -5) and insight (6) 5 . Mantrayana - Creation and Completion Stages [only in rNying rna path summaries] 6. rDzogs chen - various contemplative practices [only in rNying rna path summaries] 7 . Goal-realization

220

As a first foray into this little explored terrain, the present chapter offers a

comparative analysis of classical rNying rna path hermeneutics that examines the major

exegetical and hermeneutical problems confronting authors of path summaries in this

tradition and the distinctive strategies by which they sought to resolve them. These problems

centred around the challenge of how to reconcile both in theory and practice the complex

variety of intellectual/spiritual approaches that Buddhism had become by the time of its

reception in Tibet. Buddhism had by this stage become less a single creed that is the same

for all than a graded series of idealized vehicles - as many as nine or sixteen are presented

in rNying rna doxographies553 - formulated to meet the varying needs and interests of its

aspirants at different stages of their intellectual, ethical and spiritual itinerary . Fundamental

to these late Indian early Tibetan classification schemes was the abstract doxography of

three vehicles - Hlnayana, Mahayana and Vajrayana - reflecting doctrinal developments

553 In his Grub mtha ' mdzod (690. 1 f.), Klong chen pa discusses a number of vehicle classifications, ranging from one to as many as sixteen (1 through 5 , 9, 1 6) while allowing for a potentially infinite number to meet the endlessly varied needs, abilities and interests of their aspirants. Klong chen pa' s account closely resembles the presentation of one to nine vehicles (1 through 5 , 9) given by Rog Shes rab 'od ( 1 1 66 - 1 244) in his Grub mtha ' bstan pa 'i sgron me (NyKs vol . 1 1 4 : 1 3 1 .6 f.) . There is compelling evidence to suggest either that this earlier text was an important source for Klong chen pa's doxographical analyses (found in Grub mtha ' mdzod, Yid bzhin mdzod and Theg mchog mdzod) or that both drew on still earlier as yet undetermined source(s). Among other things, one can observe similarities in their (a) hermeneutics of the three turnings, (b) doxographies of philosophical schools, ( c) detailed classifications of rnying ma and gsar ma tantras, (d) interpretations of buddha nature (bde bar gshegs pa 'i snying po) as synonymous with sems nyid and ye shes, and (e) schematization of the path as the disclosure of this buddha nature/Mind as such. Definitive conclusions, however, would have to depend on close textual comparison and consideration of possible earlier influences. A contemporary analysis of vehicle models that covers one through five, nine, n-vehicle and no vehicle (ayiina) classifications is offered by Wangchuk 2007: 1 09 - 120.

Klong chen pa begins his vehicle classifications by approvingly quoting a well -known passage from the Lankiivatiira 2 .204 (p. 1 3 5 .2-3) and 1 0.458 (p. 322. 1 5- 1 6) : "So long as the mind is engaged, there will be no end to the vehicles" (S. yiiniiniilJ1 niisti vai ni$tha yiivac cittalJ1 pravartatel cite tu vai pariivrtte na yanalJ1 na ca yiiyinabl l T . ji srid sems ni 'jug pa 'i barl theg pa 'i mtha ' la thugpa med] I ) . See Kapstein 2000 : 209 and Wangchuk 2007: 1 1 8 . Klong chen pa concludes with a plea for soteriological pluralism echoing the Buddha' s admonition both "to avoid those who view things incorrectly because they are overwhelmed or intimidated by these vast sea of spiritual traditions and to pursue [the vehicles] with a sense of purpose." (Grub mtha ' mdzod 696.5 f.) Among the classifications of yiinas he mentions, the most important from a rNying ma standpoint is the nine-fold scheme culminating in Atiyoga (rDzogs chen) that is ascribed to Buddhaguhya (7th c.) and popularized by rNying ma scholars of the early dynastic period such as Padmasambhava. See Dalton 2005. On this account, the eight lower vehicles from Sravakayfma up to Anuyoga are based on dualistic mind (sems) while the ninth, Atiyoga, is based on primordial knowing (ye shes) . See Kun byed rgyal po chs. 28 and 38 (Tk 85 .2 f and 1 1 0.4). The sixteen-fold scheme is attributed to the gSang ba spyod pa sa bon gyi rgyud (discussed in Grub mtha ' mdzod 694.6 f.), a tantra contained in the Bi ma snying, vol. 1 : 73-27 1 , though not in any extant editions of the rNying ma rgyud 'bum or the Bai ro rgyud'bum. This classification consists of two mundane vehicles of gods and men, two non-Buddhist vehicles (Eternalists and Nihi l i sts), two Sravaka vehic les (Vaibha�ika and Sautrantika), two Mahayana vehicles (Cittamatra and * Svatantrika Madhyamaka), Prasal)gika Madhyamaka, KrTya, Carya, Yoga, Maha, Anu, Ati and culimating in the rather lofty sounding sixteenth vehicle known as rdo rje snying po 'od gsal lhun gyis grub pa 'i theg pa or "the vehicle of spontaneously present luminosity that is the adamantine quintessence."

221

characterized by divergent ethical norms and ideals, world-views , exemplary lifestyles , and

conceptions of the path. 554 Central to the Tibetan assimilation of Buddhism was the problem

of how to bridge non-tantric Mahayana traditions with esoteric Vajrayana traditions that had

become increasingly influential and popular in Indian Buddhism from the time of their

emergence circa 7th century CEo Claiming to offer more effective and expedient means of

realization than their predecessors, Buddhist tantric traditions developed a highly complex

repetoire of teachings and contemplative practices aimed at facilitating awakening in a

single lifetime. Although Vajrayana developed out of late Mahayana, building on the shared

cornerstones of compassion and emptiness, tantric scholar-adepts were quick to criticize the

Mahayanist tendency to give intellectual and moral refinement priority over spiritual

illumination . They also criticized the inclination to suppress those very elements of life -

erotic desires and other intense bodily, emotional, and aesthetic experiences - that could

prove the most potent means of self-transcendence . Given these developments , it is

understandable that the task of accommodating sUtric and tantric approaches within a

theoretically integrated and practically viable path structure had become the central

challenge facing those Tibetan scholars who were at the vanguard of cultural appropriation.

Their reception and interpretation of a remarkably heterogenous amalgam of Buddhist

teachings that had been developing for more than a millennium and over an entire

subcontinent called for unusually innovative forms of doctrinal synthesis and practical

guidance.

§ 1 . Overview: Bridging the Vehicles

In exploring the soteriological implications of the principal rDzogs chen distinction

between dualistic mind (sems) and primordial knowing (ve shes) , I am proposing that it

should be seen as an indispensable hermeneutical key to understanding how rNying ma

authors sought to synthesize divergent, and at times seemingly contradictory, models of the

554 Of course, any attempt to reconstruct a narrative history of these vehicles and to specifY their dates, leading proponents, representative texts and doctrines is far from unproblematic. See Seyfort Ruegg 2004. The overview offered here concerns the type of idealized soteriological narrative - based on largely abstract doxographies and characterologies - that one so often encounters in Indian and Tibetan path summaries, the main value of which (for research purposes) lies in the ways it represents and codifies the hierarchy of motivating aims, ideas and practices that is endorsed by a given tradition.

222

Buddhist path within a single framework of study and practice . It is possible to identify two

major problems of reconciliation confronting the rNying rna authors in the classical period

( 12th to 14th c) . The first was the exegetical or content-focused problem of combining in a

single narrative structure the quite different models of the path delineated in the siltras and

tantras . At issue was a distinction introduced in tantric sources such as the

Susiddhikaramahiitantra555 and He ru ka 'i gal p0556 between a so-called cause-oriented

vehicle of characteristics (mtshan nyid kyi theg pa : *Lak�al!ayana) or vehicle of perfections

(pha rol tu phyin pa 'i theg pa : Paramitayana) advocating a linear progression toward a pre­

established goal by means of causes and conditions and a goal-oriented secret mantra

vehicle (gsang sngags kyi theg pa : Guhyamantrayana) or adamantine vehicle (rdo rje theg

pa : Vajrayana) emphasizing an ever-present goal identified as the nature of Mind,

primordial knowing, buddha nature .557 The second, and arguably more important, challenge

was the hermeneutical or context-focused problem of how an individual can make sense of

and 'make an experience of' (nyams su len) these divergent paths through his or her own

application. rNying rna scholars like Klong chen pa, 'Jigs med gling pa ( 1 729- 1 798) , and

Yon tan rgya mtsho (b . 1 9th c . ) were unusually sensitive to this problem and sought to

thematize it on the basis of the mind/primordial knowing structure of consciousness . We

have previously considered the rDzogs chen view that this structure is discernable in the

difference between the simple taking place of consciousness itself known as primordial

knowing (ye shes) or Mind as such (sems nyid) and the self-identifications with particular

555 This tantra is quoted as a source of the distinction between cause-oriented Paramltayana and goal-oriented Vajrayana by Klong chen pa (Grub mtha ' mdzod 1 0 12 .5 t:): rgyu dang 'bras bu 'i dbye ba yisl pha rol phyin pa 'i theg pa dangl rdo rje theg pa bla na me� I The work possibily refers to a Krlyayoga tantra entitled Susiddhikara­mahiitantra-siidhanopiiyikapatala (Legs par grub par byed pa'i rgyud chen po las sgrub pa'i thabs rim par phye ba). D no. 807: 1 68-222 . A palm leaf Sanskrit manuscript of a related tantra of the Susiddhi class, the Susiddhatantrasiddhiirthalavamantrasyamaflt;lala belonging to the Nor bug ling ka is listed in the Krung go 'i bod kyi shes rig zhib 'jug Ite gnas su nyar ba'i ta la'i 10 ma'i bstan beos (spyin shog 'dril ma'i par) kyi dkar chag mdor gsal. This is a catalogue of microfilms owned by the Tibetan Cultural Research Center in Beij ing. On the Susiddhi category oftantras, see Hunter 2004.

556 Tb vol . 3 3 : p. 225.7 L mtshan nyid rgyu yi theg pa yisl sems nyid sangs rgyas rgyu ru shes I 'bras bu sngags kyi theg pa yisl sems nyid sangs rgyas nyid du bsgoml l .

557 This is the interpretation of such authors as Rog Bande Shes rab 'od, Klong chen pa and their successors.

223

configurations of what one is conscious of, collectively termed 'mind ' (sems) .558 Mind is a

representational mode of awareness that is seen as deriving from a primordial pre­

representational mode of awareness that is a condition for its possibility . Thus understood,

the rNying rna approach to reconciling siltric and tantric vehicles came down to the task of

distinguishing an intransitive and prereflective path that is simply the progressive disclosure

of primordial knowing simpliciter (ye shes kyi lam) from the representational paths

grounded in dualistic mind (sems kyi lam) . One interesting corollary of this distinction is

that traditional path narratives used to structure soteriological activities and chart possible

trajectories must (like the narrative ' self' implicated as the putative protagonist of such

paths) be viewed as products of reflective and representational thought (sems) that not only

capture less than life as pre-reflectively lived, but also add to it certain assumptions of unity

and directionality that are more than experience delivers .559 Without discounting the

importance of orienting narratives for making sense of experience and giving it a sense of

direction, rNying rna authors were nonetheless intent on distinguishing life in its

presentational immediacy from the unifying linear narratives imposed on it .

From this standpoint, a whole tangle of interconnected soteriological tensions or

antinomies that had increasingly become the focus of debate and controversy in late Indian

and early Tibetan Buddhism - including gradualism/subitism (rim gyis, cig car) ,

causal/acausal attainment, rational inference/direct acquaintance, conceptual/nonconceptual

realization, nature/nurture - end up being reframed by rNying rna scholars as different facets

or expressions of the underlying structural polarity between dualistic mind and primordial

knowing. Recalling the classical distinction (AK 8 .39ab) between the two principal senses of

the term dharma when it is used to denote 'Buddhist teachings ' - namely, dharma as

558 See Fasching (2008 : 464) : " In meditation, I would suggest, one ceases to be actively occupied with the objects of consciousness in order to become conscious of consciousness itself (which usually remains " hidden" behind what it is conscious of)."

559 Here, I fully agree with Zahavi ' s criticisms of strong narrative identity theories that maintain 'we are nothing but the stories we tell ' : "Although it might be true that many of our actions easily lend themselves to narrative articulation, human life is made up of more than just actions. Moreover, it is one thing to claim that actions can be narrated, and something quite different to claim that they can all be fitted into one unifYing narration without thereby imposing more unity upon them than they had to start with." See Zahavi 2005 : 1 1 3 . I am particularly interested in how Zahavi ' s recommendation that " . . . the narrative or hermeneutical take on self must be complemented by an experiential or phenomenological take on the self' applies also to the ' stories' themselves, in this case Buddhist path narratives.

224

scripture (lung) and dharma as realization (rtogs)560 - I further propose that rNying rna

approaches to reconciling vehicles in a single path structure belonged to the broader

problematic of relating the path as codified by tradition to the path as realized individually .

Needless to say, the task of reconciling heterogenous spiritual approaches by elucidating the

differences between them in terms of dialectical tension between mind and primordial

knowing led to some interesting and highly distinctive views of the path.

§2 . The Problem of Gradualism in rNying rna Perspective

The idea that spiritual teachings ought to be internalized and put into practice in

order to discover their true validity and efficacy has been a leitmotiv of Buddhism since its

inception. It is in light of this normative constraint that Buddhism has traditionally called

itself a path (mGrga)561 or, more accurately, a series of paths formulated to lead individuals

of varying needs , abilities and aspirations toward spiritual realization. Despite the traditional

consensus that Buddhism should be applied as a path or directed course of soteriological

activity, there have been considerable differences amongst Buddhist traditions as to what is

actually meant by "path" and how best to pursue it . It is also worth noting that there has

been far more consensus on how to describe the goal realized - a goal generally defined as

extinction (nirvGIJa), awakening (bodhi) , buddhahood, primordial knowing and variously

characterized as unconditioned, non dual, nonconceptual and beyond causal production -

than on the most suitable means of its realization. Is goal-realization best understood as the

560 In his Yon tan mdzod 'grel (vol . 1 : 1 66.5 f), Yon tan rgya mtsho provides the following definition of dharma: "The essence of dharma is the elimination of any cognitive and emotional obscurations or that which serves as the means of eliminating them. By definition, since it cures ( 'chos) afflictive emotionality in one ' s being like a medicine administered for an illness, it is called dharma (chos) . Its classification is dharma as scripture (lung) and dharma as realization (rtogs), or the two truths of cessation and the path. In terms of etymology, it derives from the [Sanskrit] term dharma, [which in turn derives from the root dhr] meaning 'to hold' ; since it does not let one go onto the paths of sarpsara and evil destinies and holds one onto the authentic path, it is called 'dharma' . nyon shes kyi sgrib pa gang rung spang ba 'am spong byed kyi thabs su gyur pa chos kyi ngo bol nges tshig nil nad la smad gtong ba ltar rang rgyud kyi nyon rmongs pa 'chos pas na chos sol dbye na lung dang rtogs pa 'i chos saml 'gog lam gyi bden pa gnyis sol sgra don nil dha rma zhes pa 'i sgra las drangs na 'dzin pa ste 'khor ba dang ngan song gi lam du mi gtong zhingl yang dag pa 'i lam du 'dzin pas na chos soi l

561 The Tibetan lam renders a variety of Sanskrit terms including miirga (Pali : magga), patha, advan, paddhati, pratipat/pratipad(a) and vartanf, terms that all mean way, path, road, course or journey depending on context. Patha is actually an old Indo-European term, cognate to the English 'path ' , that is found also in the Zoroastrian Avesta. These are all given in the Mahiivyutpatti s.v. lam. According to the sGra sbyor bam po gnyis no. 223 (Ishikawa: 77-8), " 'path' is so-named because by this path one seeks or is shown or perceives or attains cessation." lam des 'gog pa tshol ba 'am mtshon pa 'am dmigs pa 'am 'thob par 'gyur ba la bya ste lam zhes byal

225

result of a lengthy step-by-step (rim gyis) · accumulation of virtues and knowledge or as

occuring spontaneously and ' all at once ' (cig car) in directly recognizing the nature of

Mind? During the early period of the Tibetan assimilation of Buddhism, the confrontation

between such conflicting approaches to awakening had reached something of a climax in the

so-called bSam yas debate, as we previously noted in examining early Tibetan debates over

nonconceptuality . Our focus in the present context is confined to the question of how rNying

rna path hermeneutics positioned itself in relation to the two poles of the controversy . In this

regard, one must at the outset take note of the general disinclination on the part of early

rDzogs chen commentators on the controversy such as gNubs Sangs rgyas ye shes to take

either side of the sudden/gradual polarity . This is hardly suprising given that the categories

of gradual and sudden were not primarily employed in rDzogs chen works to demarcate

religious traditions but to distinguish swifter (more immediate) and slower (more mediated)

methods of propounding and/or realizing a given teaching in line with the differing

capacities of individuals or of a single individual as he or she progresses along the path.562 In

other words, whether a given teaching was taught and practiced in a step-by-step or all-at­

once fashion depended on the capacities of the aspirant to realize the teaching directly and

the capacities of the teacher to facilitate such realization. 563 To these categories was

occasionally added the intermediary category of one who can realize a teaching in mixed

order or by skipping steps (thod rgal ba) .564

562 See Collins 1 982 : 93 . Dighanikaya no. 14 , III : 6. See Appendix 2. See also Appendix A.

563 This view is of course well known from Chinese Chan sources. See McRae in Gregory 1 987 : 227-278 and Yampolsky 1 967. Consider the following passages from the Platform Sutra of The Sixth Patriarch Hui Neng: "Good friends, in the Dharma there is no sudden or gradual, but among people some are keen and others dull . The deluded recommend the gradual method, the enlightened practice the sudden teaching. To understand the original mind of yourself is to see into your own original nature. Once enlightened, there is from the outset no distinction between these two methods; those who are not enlightened will for long kalpas be caught in the cycle of transmigration." (Yampolsky 1 967: 1 3 7) . "Although in the teaching there is no sudden and gradual, in delusion and awakening there is slowness and speed." (ibid. : 1 60). "The Dharma is one teaching, but people are from the north and south, so Southern and Northern Schools have been established. What is meant by ' gradual ' and ' sudden? ' The Dharma itself is the same, but in seeing it there is a slow way and a fast way. Seen slowly, it is the gradual; seen fast it is the sudden [teaching] . Dharma is without sudden or gradual, but some people are keen and others dull ; hence the names ' sudden' and ' gradual ' ." (ibid. : 1 62-3 ) .

564 The Tshig mdzod chen mo s.v. thad rgal provides two definitions : (1) "disrupting the order of progression" as in "ascending to higher stages from lower by leaps [and bounds]" (rim pa 'choZ ba l . . . rim pa 'og ma nas gong du thod rgal gyis 'dzegs pal ) or (2) the Leap-over teachings [of rDzogs chen snying thig] that are concerned with spontaneous presence (lhun grub thad rgal dang don gcigl ) . For an informative discussion of this term, see R.A. Stein "Sudden Illumination or Simultaneous Comprehension," in Gregory 1 987 : 5 1 -4.

226

In light of these considerations, it is not suprising that when the ' sudden ' and

' gradual ' rubrics were used to define schools of Buddhism, the early rDzogs chen authors

were inclined to view them as caricatural one-sided positions that fail to capture the

complexity of the Buddhist path or the human beings who pursue it . Recall that gNubs

Sangs rgyas ye shes went so far as to declare in his 1 0th c . bSam gtan mig sgron that both the

gradualist Mahayanist path and simultaneist Chinese path represent deviations (gol sa) from

the more inclusive rDzogs chen perspective .565 His relatively low evaluation of both

gradualist and subitist approaches in contrast to the allegedly superior Vajrayana and

rDzogs chen systems is reflected in his aforementioned hierarchy of the Buddhist traditions

prevalent in Tibet during his time (late 9th to early 10th c .) .

gNub ' s doxography suggests what i s in fact borne out by subsequent developments in

rNying rna path hermeneutics : namely, that the Buddhist path is best viewed as neither

exclusively gradual nor sudden but as incorporating elements of both. Nowhere is this m ore

evident than in rNying rna "Stages of the Path" summaries which are by definition gradualist

in structure and yet explicitly oriented toward recovering a kind of non-representational

mode of awareness and intelligibility in which gradualist frames of reference are

transcended. From this perspective, the dialectical tension between gradual and subitist

approaches to awakening and the typologically similar tension between sUtric progressivist

and rDzogs chen non-progressivist conceptions of the path (bsgrod du lam and bsgrod du

med pa ' i lam) both reflect the concurrent reflective-representational and prereflective non­

representational modalities of cognition, i .e . dualistic mind and primordial knowing. Thus

the retrieval of primordial knowing from the appropriations of dualistic mind, however

gradual or abrupt, is mirrored in the transition from progressivist to non-progressivist

accounts of the path .

§3 . Nature and Scope of the Reconciliation Problem

At the heart of classical rNying rna path hermeneutics is the problem of how to

reconcile in theory and practice the quite different paths delineated in the sutras and tantras .

565 bSam gtan mig sgron 55 .6 f. and 65 . 1 f.. See above 7 1 .

227

Let us now look more closely at the two' overlapping dimensions of the reconciliation

problem that are paramount in rNying rna path summaries : the exegetical or content-focused

problem of synthesizing heterogenous subject matter within a single narrative and the

hermeneutical or context-focused problem of how this subject matter is to be appropriated

by the individua1 .566 The exegetical dimension of the problem was imposing enough : how to

combine in a single narrative two obviously distinct, and at times seemingly irreconcilable,

idioms of learning - the cause-oriented *Lak��ayana advocating a model of linear

progression toward a pre-established goal or telos , and the goal-oriented Mantrayana

advocating the immediacy of prethematized experience and the endotelic (or goal-implicit)

character of the way of learning - and how to clarify the transition between them both in

theory and practice . Klong chen rab 'byams pa characterizes this distinction in his Sems nyid

ngal gso in the context of discussing the Triple Refuge:

There are two objects of refuge: an ordinary cause-oriented one And an extraordinary goal-oriented one . Now as for what is asserted concerning ' cause ' and ' goal ' : The claim that the goal will be accomplished at some other time characterizes

the cause-oriented vehicle Whereas the claim that it is realized right right now as our own Mind

characterizes the goal-oriented approach. They are presented [here] by means of a distinction introduced in the

Vajrayana. Since discussions of this topic derived from the vehicles of characteristics Are only nominally similar, they must be considered one-sided.567

The exegetical side of the problem of how to combine these two idioms in a single

discourse required that the authors articulate a path structure that could somehow

accommodate these two seemingly disparate models of learning (doctrinal synthesis) while

566 These dimensions reflect different but intimately related forms of discourse. Pierre Hadot has distinguished between two senses of "discourse" in ancient Western philosophy that are relevant to the present discussion: "On the one hand, d isco urse insofar as i t i s addressed to a disciple or to onesel f: that is to say, the di scourse l i nked to an existenti al context, to a concrete praxis. discourse that is actual ly spiritual exercise: on the other hand, discourse considered abstractly i n its formal structure. in its intel ligible content. It is the l atter that the Stoics woul d consi der ditTerent from phil osophy . but which is precisely what is usually made the object of most of the modern studies of the history of philosophy. But in the eyes of the ancient philosophers, if one contents oneself with this discourse, one does not do philosophy." (Hadot 1 995 : 26).

567 Sems nyid ngal gsa, ch. 6 , verse 4, in Sems nyid ngal gsa 'grel vol. 1 : 426.4 £: yul rnams gnyis te thun mong rgyu dang nil thun mong ma yin 'bras bu 'i skyabs gnas gnyisl rgyu dang 'bras bur dam 'cha ' de yang nil dus gzhan 'grub 'dod rgyu yi theg pa dangl da Ita nyid grub rang sems 'bras bu 'i tshull rdo rje theg pa dag gi dbye bas bzhagl mtshan nyid theg las de nyid gsungs pa nil ming tsam mthun pas phyogs gcig nges par byal l

228

disclosing the continuity between them (narrative unity) . We will see that rNying rna

scholars understood this problem of narrative unity as part of the larger problem of relating

a presentational path identified as the progressive disclosure of primordial knowing to the

various representational paths used to map this process . Obstacles loomed whenever a given

model of reality slipped into the reality of the model, and wherever the representations

consequently served more to conceal than reveal the phenomena they sought to represent.

Thus, the exigetical problem of combining the heterogenous subject matter of the vehicles in

a single narrative was inseparable from the hermeneutical problem of how best to apply

such narratives to one ' s present situation. This shift in focus from the exigetical to the

hermeneutical involves a transition from the universal to the particular , from teachings as

codified by tradition (lung) to teachings as realized (rtogs) by an aspirant .

3 . 1 The Exegetical Dimension : Doctrinal Synthesis and Narrative Unity

We have indicated that the Tibetan Lam rim genre emerged as a series of attempts to

synthesize and systematize the heterogenous body of teachings that make up the Buddhist

path in response to the combined demands of doctrinal coherence and practical guidance .

While the numerous texts belonging to this genre vary widely in style and content, all in one

way or another attempt to present a systematic and practical overview of the Buddhist path

(lam) in its entirety. Serving both as comprehensive doctrinal summaries and step-by-step

practical manuals , the texts were representative of the leading ideas and practices of the

traditions to which they belonged, not least of all because the authors of the formative path

summaries - Atisa, sGam po pa, Klong chen pa and Tsong kha pa - were all either the

founders or principal organizers of their respective traditions . Consequently, each of these

authors emphasized the need to properly combine the diverse yanas and their soteriological

discourses in a single path structure and to clarify the transition between them. Let us now

look at how rNying rna authors addressed this problem and evaluate how their responses

differed from gSar rna approaches .

The synthesis problem is addressed in the colophons of Klong chen p a ' s Sems nyid

ngal gsa and his later Yid bzhin rin po che ' i mdzod and auto-commentaries wherein he

discusses the purpose (dgos pa) of the texts . In the section of his Sems nyid ngal gsa

229

colophon where he cites the reasons it is necessary to compose the text, he criticizes the

intellectually myopic scholars (bio mig ma dag pa) of his day who "hold the paths laid out in

the tantras and sutras to contradict one another, not knowing how to properly combine

them. , ,568 In his commentary on this verse, he explains:

With the departure of the great scholars and siddhas of yore, their great scriptural traditions , having long been preserved, became unclear since they were distorted by people each having his own preconceptions about their meanings . The intended meanings belonging to the differing paths of the great tantra classes of Mantra[yana] and the scriptural traditions of the Paramita[yana] are very profound [and extensive] . Consequently, because these [scriptures] were not studied in depth and were distorted by the mere negative opinions of rationalists , these fools who boast about their erudition hold them to be incompatible and thus do not know how to synthesize their profound meanings. For this reason, by busying themselves trivially only with individual words, they have a one-sided perspective .569

Klong chen pa here echoes a familiar rNying rna trope extolling the superiority of

early translations (snga/mying 'gyur) over later ones (phyi/gsar 'gyur) , a view he defends in

other writings that is probably based on similar accounts by Rong zorn pa and Rog B ande

Shes rab 'od in the 1 1th and 1 2th centuries .570 According to these authors, the translators of

the Royal Dynastic Period (9th to 10th centuries) such as Vairocana belonged to an unbroken

lineage of adepts who had studied and realized the import of the Mahayana, Vajrayana and

rDzogs chen vehicles . Their ability to combine, communicate and translate the essentials of

the vehicles in clear and direct language was among the many fruits of their realization .57!

568 Sems nyid ngal gsa 'grel vol . 2 : 3 72.3 £ : ding sang phal gyi glo mig rna dag pasl sngags dang pha rol phyin gzhung so so 'i laml 'gal bar 'dzin pas gcig tu sdu mi shesl de phyir de dag phyogs re 'i mig can yinl l

569 Sems nyid ngal gsa 'grel vol. 2 : 372.4 £ : sngon gyi mkhas grub chen po rnams ni gshegs lal de dag gi gzhung lugs chen po rnams kyang ring zhig nas rang rang gi don rtog gis dkrugs pas gsal bar med lal sngags kyi rgyud sde chen po rnams dangl pha rol tu phyin pa 'i gzhung so so 'i lam gyi dgongs pa shin tu brling basi mang du rna thos shing rtog ge 'i ngan rtog tsam gyis dkrugs nas blun po mkhas pa 'i mngon rlom can rnams kyis 'gal bar 'dzin pasl dgongs pa zab rna rnams gcig tu bsdu bar mi shes pa 'i phyirl cung zad re 'i tshig tsam lhur len pas phyogs re 'i mig can du gyur pa yin nol l

570 See bsTan pa 'i sgron me (208 . 1 f.) where Rog presents six ways in which rNying rna tantric traditions are deemed superior to gSar rna ones ( 'phags pa 'i che ba drug) as they were taught by Rong zorn pa (rang pa chos bzang gi zhal nas) . These six superiorities are revealed in the difference between their respective : 1 ) patrons who gave invitations (spyan 'dren pa 'i yon bdag) . 2) temples where traditions were practiced (phyag bzhes gtsug lag khang), 3 ) translators ( 'gyur byed 10 tsa), 4) scholars (pa ndi ta), 5) donations [for receiving teachings] such as flowers (zhu rten me tog), 6) teachings communicated (brjod bya) .

571 Grub mtha ' mdzod: 1 049.5 £ : "Since the earlier translators were buddhas incarnate, they were capable of masterful translations and therefore displayed tremendous power [in fathoming the abiding expanse] . Since the later translators appeared as scholars but for the most part in the manner of ordinary individuals, their literalist wordings

230

Translators from the time of Rin chen: bzang po onward are, by contrast, described as

consisting mainly of ordinary persons who tended to produce mechanical word-by-word

translations that more often than not missed out on the implicit sense of the texts . So it is in

the spirit of the early translators that Klong chen pa sets out in his Sems nyid ngal gso is to

present the essentials of the Mahayana, Vajrayana and rDzogs chen tradition while revealing

their underlying unity. In combining in a single narrative the implicit meanings of the cause­

determined and goal-sustained vehicles what the author seeks to disclose is not only the

compatibility of the vehicles but, more importantly, their complementarity within an

essentially tantric conception of the path as the progressive disclosure of primordial

knowing or Mind as such. Thus the author goes on to indicate the unifying character of his

Sems nyid ngal gso, an account that is largely repeated in his later Yid bzhin mdzod 'grel:

Here in this treatise , we have combined the definitive meaning (nges don) of the cause-oriented *Lak�aI).ayana in terms of ground, path and goal, the meanings of the goal-sustained Mantrayana in terms of ground, path and goal, whatever arises from the teachings on the subject matter of the sutras and tantras , scripture and logic , and esoteric instructions (man ngag) , as well as the meanings of the profound ultimate reality that issues from the authentic Bla ma.572

How does Klong chen pa propose to reconcile the two idioms? In his Sems nyid ngal

gso, the author sets out to reveal their underlying continuity and complementarity by

juxtaposing the teleological *Lak�al).ayana and endotelic Mantrayana approaches - the

former bound up with dualistic mind (sems) and the latter with Mind as such (sems nyid) -

and by shifting the emphasis from the former to the latter in the course of the text. This

creates in the narrative progression of the text a tension between the voluntary and

involuntary trajectories of existential disclosure whose attempted resolution is the path

itself. The path unfolds as both a push from below and a pull from above, to echo a maxim

are difficult to understand. This is because they merely strung together words to reproduce the Indian [texts] but were otherwise incapable of translating their meaning." sngon gyi 10 tsa ba rnams sangs rgyas kyi sprul pa yin pas rang dbang bsgyur nus pa 'i phyir rlabs ehe bar mngon nol dus phyis kyi 10 tsa ba rnams gang zag phal pa 'i lugs kyi mkhas pa rnams byon pasl tshig grims la go bar dka ' ba stel rgya dpe 'i tshig gi rim pa tsam las don 'gyur ma nus pas de Itar byung ba 'ol l

572 Sems nyid ngal gsa 'grel vol . 2: 373 . 1 f. : bstan beos 'dir ni rgyu mtshan nyid kyi theg pa 'i nges don gzhi lam 'bras bu dang beas pa dangl 'bras bu gsang sngags kyi theg pa 'i gzhi lam 'bras bu 'i don rnamsl mdo dangl rgyud dangl lung dangl rigs pa dangl man ngag gi gnas bstan pa lasji skad 'byung ba dangl bla ma dam pa las 'ongs ba 'i zab mo 'i de kho na nyid kyi don rnams gcig tu bsdus te l l . . . A similar listing of sources is given in the author ' s commentary to the Yid bzhin mdzod, Yid bzhin mdzod 'grel: 886 f..

23 1

attibuted to Padmasambhava.573 Klong cheri. pa' s Positive Path of Awakening (Byang chub

lam bzang)574 - one of four autocommentaries on the text - reveals a sequential arrangement

of subject matter ranging from Mahayana (first eight chapters) to Vajrayana (chapter 9) to

rDzogs chen (chapters 1 0 through 1 3) , each stage reflecting a deepening familiarization with

Mind as such or primordial knowing. This familiarization is precisely how Klong chen pa

defines the path in the introductory section of his auto-commentary:

When the turbulence of mind and its mental factors have come to rest, Mind as such -luminous primordial knowing - arises from within. We call the progressIve familiarization with this [primordial knowing] the path of awakening .575

From the foregoing, it is clear that Klong chen pa' s response to the exegetical

problem of synthesizing the teachings of the slitras and tantras is to incorporate the core

subject matter of Mahayana, Vajrayana and his own rDzogs chen tradition into the narrative

progression of the text. To do so he invokes the tantric and buddha nature model of the path

as a clearing process576 that progressively lays bare one ' s abiding condition - primordial

knowing, buddha nature. This model in turn presupposes a difference inscribed in the

innermost structure of human reality between a conditioned, dualistic mode of awareness

bound up with conceptual superimposition and an implicit unconditioned and nondual mode

of awareness that is not yet channeled through the categories of representational thinking .

The path unfolds as the recovery of this prerepresentational knowing from the

appropriations of dualistic mind as discursive elaborations fall away. It is this dialectical

tension between dualistic mind and primordial knowing that Klong chen pa and his

successors take as the framework for elucidating the hermeneutical dimension of the

reconciliation problem, the problem of making the goal the path.

573 This is the gist of the statement ascribed to Padmasambhava. "Vision draws from above. Conduct ascends from below." Ita ba yas phub spyod pa mas 'dzegl See Zhal gdams dmar khrid don bsdus thugs kyi phreng ba in Bla rna dgongs dus (Gangtok ed.) vol. 5 : 703 .6 .

574 This is a systematic guide to internalizing the teachings ofthe Sems nyid ngal gso that analyzes the subj ect matter ofthe root text into 1 4 1 contemplative topics, 92 belonging to Mahayl'ma (6 et seq.), 22 to Vajrayl'ma (69 et seq.) and 27 to rDzogs chen (9 1 et seq.) .

5 7 5 Sems nyid ngal gso 'grel vol. 1 : 130 £ : gang gi tshe sems dang sems las byung ba 'i rnyog pa zhi ba na sems nyid 'od gsal ba 'i ye shes khong nas 'char ba ste l de nyid goms par byed pa byang chub kyi lam zhes brjod de l l

576 See below section 245-9 and Table H where different disclosive soteriological models are presented and discussed.

232

• Comparison with gSar rna Path Summaries of Atisa, sGam po pa, Tsong kha pa

Before turning our attention to this problem, it is worth comparing Klong chen pa ' s

understanding of and response to the exegetical problem with those of other Lam rim

authors . To what extent are Klong chen pa ' s criticisms of his contemporaries justified? To

what extent had they failed to understand the implicit meanings of the paths of sutras and

tantras and to combine them in their path summaries? This is difficult to judge since Klong

chen pa, following an unspoken Tibetan scholastic rule of decorum, does not name his

adversaries . It is worth noting, however, that each of the Lam rim authors I have mentioned

cites concerns similar to Klong chen pa as reasons for composing their texts . It is with the

express aim of clarifying the essentials of Mahayana and Vajrayana and the relationship

between them that Atisa, sGam po pa, and Tsong kha pa (who was born a few years before

Klong chen pa ' s death) set out to compose their own path summaries . In fact, Klong chen

pa ' s criticisms echo the same concerns about Tibetans ' inability to properly combine sutric

and tantric teachings that had motivated Atisa, sGam po pa and later Tsong kha pa to write

their path summaries. It is equally clear, however, that while the so-called new (gsar ma) or

new translation (gsar 'gyur) traditions acknowledged the superiority of Mantrayana

approach over *Lak�a1)ayana as a matter of course, the gSar rna Lam rim authors generally ,

and for reasons we will briefly explore, confined their path summaries to Mahayana

traditions, reserving treatment of Mantrayana for separate works .577

577Atisa's treatment of Mantrayana in his Pafijika (on stanzas 60 - 67 of the Bodhipathapradfpa) is devoted mainly to listing the various rites, powers and classes of tantras which he presents with little elaboration. There are important historical considerations behind his rather perfunctory treatment of tantra in the Bodhipathapradfpa and auto-commentary. According to Tibetan historical and biographical sources, Atisa devoted many years to the study and practice of tantra. Noteworthy in this regard is Sa P3lJ'S remark that it is "a contradiction of Lord Atisa's tradition itself to assert that this is not an era for Mantra practice when Lord Atisa himself practiced it ." See Rhoton 2002, 1 6 1 . Atisa included among his tantric preceptors Rahulagupta and the famous siddha-scholar Maitripada (a.k.a. PaiI)9apatika Avadhiitipa, Advayavajra), a renowned disciple of the siddhas Saraha and Viriipa who Atisa is said to have l ived with from ages twelve to eighteen. This latter relationship need not be doubted since Atisa twice quotes '"my guru Avadhutipa" (ya ba 'di pa) in his Pafijikii (P no. 5344, 334b, 336b). For an overview of sources on Atisa's early tantric career, see Chattopadhyaya 1 98 1 : chapter 8: '"The Tantrika Initiation" .

Surveying the author's writings collected in the bsTan 'gyur confirms that Atisa wrote extensively on tantra and also collaborated in the translation of many tantras during his soujourn in Tibet. He is also said to have complained of not being allowed to teach his beloved songs of realization (doha) which were then so popular in his native Bengal. See Davidson 2005 : I I I f.. Tibetan histories relate that Atisa was commissioned to write the Bodhipathapradfpa by the monk Byang chub 'od who had invited Atisa to Tibet on the advice of his uncle king Ye shes 'od as part of the latter' s program to instigate monastic reform in Tibet and clear up misconceptions concerning the practice of tantra. The reformist campaign evidently met with a mixed reception. While Atisa gained considerable fame as a teacher

233

According to Atisa ' s Pafijikii, the root text was written at the request of the 1 1 th

century King Ye shes ' od and his nephew Byang . chub 'od who had invited the renowned

Bengali pandit to Tibet to help clear up the many prevailing misconceptions . about

Buddhism: "Gurus and spiritual friends are arguing with one another about matters they do

not fully understand. Each has his own line of reasoning and his own preconceptions

concerning the meanings of what is profound and vast. , ,578 Of particular concern were the

deviant practices of tantra and, above all, the flagrant violations of the monastic celibacy

vows , a concern that had led the king to adopt a critical stance toward those who practiced

tantrism ' to freely ' , i . e . , without the proper training and knowledge . Atisa, an ardent

proponent of both Mahayana and Vajrayana579, considered the main source of all this

confusion and uncertainty to lie in the inability among Tibetans to reconcile the scholastic

approach to Buddhism outlined in the siitras with the experiential approach detailed in the

tantras . This problem had preoccupied Indian Buddhists from as early as the 7th c . but now

reached an unprecedented magnitude with the rapid influx of diverse and often quite

contrary ideas and norms expounded in the siitras and tantras . Atisa sets out in his

BodhipathapradfjJa not only to outline a basic framework for monastic Buddhism in Tibet

but also, as he reveals in the Pafijika, to rectify two widespread misrepresentations of tantra

that had led their proponents to two contrasting reactions : ( 1 ) One was a tendency to reject it

and monastic reformer, and is said to have humbled the pride of Tibet 's famous gSar rna translator and tantric scholar, Rin chen bzang· po, not everyone welcomed Atisa' s reformist agenda. 'Brog mi, founder of the Sa skya tradition who was renowned in Tibet for introducing the tantric Lam 'bras teachings, is said to have avoided meeting Atisa. The great yogi Mi la ras pa, on the other hand, pointed the finger of accusation not at Atisa but at 'Brom ston rGyal ba' i 'byung gnas ( 1 008- 1 064), Atisa' s leading disciple and financial patron (bdag gnyer) , who he criticized for suppressing his master ' s attempts to teach Mantrayana to Tibetans. See his colourful remarks to sGam po pa recorded in 'Gos 10 tsli ba's Deb ther sngon po, Roerich 1 976: 453 £. Mi la ras pa' s criticism aside, it is known that 'Brom ston collaborated with Atisa on the translation of tantric ritual manuals such as the Cakrasa11Jvara and Yamiintaka. See R. Davidson 2005 : I I I £. It would appear that 'Brom ston' s suppression of the teaching of tantra was motivated more by the alleged misrepresentations and abuses of tantra by those lacking proper training than by reservations about the viability of tantra as a path. It should also be emphasized that Atisa never denounced tantra per se but only those charged with either excluding it from the Buddhist teachings, an instance of unwarranted depracation (skur 'debs), or embracing it as a licence for brazenly immoral conduct, an instance of il legitimate exaggeration (sgro 'dogs). See his Bodhimiirgapradfpapafijikii, P vol. 1 03 , no.5344 : 44.4 £. See also Seyfort Ruegg 1 98 1 . Tsong kha pa' s Lam rim chen mo was also composed with the explicit intention of furthering Atisa's reformist campaign and restoring the balance between study and practice in Tibet, as noted in his introduction and colophon to the treatise.

578 See Bodhimiirgadfpapafijikii, trns.by author as Byang chub lam gyi sgron ma 'i dka ' 'grel, P no . 5344 : 22.2 £ . See B u ston Rin chen grub' s account i n Obermiller 1 932 : 2 12 - 1 3 .

579 On Atisa's tantric background and affiliations see above n . 577.

234

outright, an instance of unwarranted deprecation (skur 'debs) . (2) The other was the

tendency to wrongly embracing tantra as a license for reprehensible behaviour, an instance

of illegitimate imputation (sgro 'dogs) .58o The destruction of the Buddhist teachings, Atisa

tells us in the colophon of his Pafijikt1, is due not only to commoners or non-Buddhists but

to Buddhists as well , and particularly the ordained members of the community . With such

concerns in mind and with his financial patronage in the hands of a staunch reformist 'Brom

ston rGyal ba ' i 'byung gnas ( 1008- 1064) , Atisa initiated a modest campaign of monastic

reform in Central Tibet and composed his summa of Mahayana doctrine as a kind of

manifesto of this movement.

Born five years before Atisa ' s death, sGam po pa composed his lucid summary of the

Buddhist path, the Thar pa rin po che ' i rgyan or Jewel Ornament of Liberation with the aim

of "uniting the two streams of siitras and tantras . " sGam po pa had studied under the Bengali

master ' s disciples at a bKa' gdams pa monastery, and soon gained renown for his extensive

knowledge of Mahayana Buddhism and his considerable expertise as a Madhyamika

philosopher. The decisive turning point in his spiritual career, however, was his encounter

with the famous Tibetan yogi Mi la ras pa who followed the esoteric Mahamudra teachings

which his teacher Marpa had received from Naropa/Na<.iapilda in India. This encounter with

the Mantrayana, and the non-gradual Mahamudra teachings of the siddhas in particular, was

to profoundly influence sGam po pa's life and work. The majority of sGam po pa ' s

teachings gathered in his bKa ' 'bum and recorded in the works of his disciples reflect

emerging indigenous traditions of non-gradual Mahamudra teachings inspired in no small

measure by the Indian Buddhist siddha movement. That said, sGam po pa' s Thar rgyan is

primarily a practical compendium of Mahayana Buddhism that is said to belong to the

period soon after his meeting with Mi la but before he had fully realized the import of the

latter ' s teachings during a period of extended retreat .

Atisa ' s reformist campaign was revived and strengthened in the 14th century by

Tsong kha pa whose New bKa' gdams order sought to return to the essentials of Indian

monastic Buddhism. Like Atisa and Klong chen pa before him, Tsong kha pa lamented that

580 See above n. 577.

235

"the teachings preserved by scholars of the past had gradually declined so that the good path

was for a long time lost" . He therefore composed his Lam rim chen mo to "summarize the

main points contained in all of the canonical literature of the Victorious One" - Hinayana,

Mahayana and Vajrayana. Just as Atisa' s monastic reforms served as a model for Tsong kha

pa ' s much more ambitious and wide-ranging campaign of monastic reform, so Atisa ' s

Bodhipathapradfpa served a s the scriptural basis for Tsong kha pa ' s Lam rim chen mo

which elaborates in extenso on the paths of the three types of person . 5 8 1

From the foregoing it is clear that all the authors of the most influential Tibetan Lam

rim works shared a concern to bridge the different Buddhist vehicles , Mahayana and

Vajrayana in particular . But to what extent did authors actually synthesize the subject matter

of these vehicles and accommodate their divergent approaches to goal-realization in the

structure and content their texts? Here it is evident that the gSar rna authors confine their

summaries of the Buddhist path almost entirely to Mahayana, though they are unanimous , as

virtually all Tibetan scholars were, in proclaiming the superiority of Mantrayana over

ParamItayana. Atisa and Tsong kha pa discuss Vajrayana only briefly in their basic Lam rim

581 The classification of three types of person (skyes bu gsum), or three stages in the spiritual career of a single individual, has a long history in Buddhist literature. As Steven CoBins has observed in the context of Theravada Buddhism, ' ' [t]he idea that there is a social and psychological range in the appreciation of doctrine refers not only to a difference between individual persons (puggala-vemattata), to which much attention was devoted, but also to differences of insight within each individual as he progresses along the path." (CoJlins 1 982 : 93) . Atisa claims, in the Pailjikii to his Bodhipathapradfpa (P vol . 1 1 5 : 1 89 . 1 ) , to derive his three-fold characterology from Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakosabhii$ya which distinguishes between the lesser person who works only for his own happiness, the intermediate one who turns away from suffering due to his own lack of happiness but thereby continues to suffer, and the worthy individual (dam pa) who works for the welfare of aU others by turning away the basis of their suffering, and thereby suffers on account of their suffering. See also the YogiiciirabhUmi (P vol. I l l : 7.5 f.) where Asailga delineates various ways of classifYing individuals into lesser, intermediate and superior. He begins his analysis with the statement that "The three persons, lesser, intermediate, and superior have their inception in modes of realization (sgrub) ."Another source familiar to Atisa was the Anthology of Discourses (Sutrasamuccaya) ascribed to Nagarjuna which Atisa interprets, in his commentary Sutrasamuccayasaf[lcayiirtha, in light of the classification of Dharma practitioners into three types: lesser, middling and superior. In any case, the three-fold characterology is found already in Pali sources such as The Mahiipadiinasutta of the Pali Canon which compares people of varying inteUectual capacity to three types of lotus plants : those which remain submerged in the pond; those which grow only up to its surface; and those which rise above the water, unmuddied by it. Only the latter of the three types, "those whose eyes are nearly free from dirt" , are considered ripe for the Buddha's teaching. See Dialogues of the Buddha pt. II, trns.T.W. and C.A.F. Rhys Davis (London: Luzac and Co. Ltd. , 1 97 1 ) : 3 1 . See also Dighaniikiiya III : 1 1 8- 1 9 where a distinction is made between the 'ordinary man' (puthujjano) who is outside Buddhism, the ' learner ' (sekho) in the teaching, and the ' adept' (asekho) in accordance with three types of insight appropriate to them The Vimuttimagga of Arahant Upatissa, a text thematicaUy similar to the Visuddhimagga of Budhaghosa but extant only in its Chinese translation, associates three types of individual with the three trainings: "The B lessed One expounded the training of higher virtue (Sfla) to a man of the lower type, the training of higher thought (citta) to a man of the middle type and the training of higher wisdom (prajilii) to a man of the higher type." The Path of Freedom trns.by N.R.M. Ehara, Soma Thera and Kheminda Thera (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1 977) : 3 .

236

works , although both composed separate works on the subject. 582 sGam po pa had composed

his Thar rgyan with the explicit aim to "unite the streams of slitras and tantras", yet he only

briefly touches on Mantrayana, more specifically the non-gradual Mahamudra precepts

received from his root guru Mi la ras pa, in a later chapter on the sixth perfection

prajfiaparamita . Given its introductory scope and the fact that it was most likely

commissioned by a bKa' gdam pa monastic583 , sGam po pa' s exceedingly clear and practical

text is devoted mainly to Mahayana, leaving Mantrayana and Mahamudra teachings as

separate subjects to which the majority of the other works contained in his bKa ' 'bum are

devoted. Thus each of the gSar rna Lam rim works leaves the reader with the impression that

the tantras advocate a mode of learning distinct from that of the *Lak�al)ayana, one that is

almost univerally acknowledged as superior but reserved only for advanced candidates who

have taken the appropriate bodhisattva and tantric vows.

That being said, Tsong kha pa must be credited with underscoring the unity and

compatibility of the three yanas . He sets out in his Lam rim chen mo (and the shorter Lam

rim chung ba) to emphasize how the canonical teachings (gsung rab) contained in the sutra

and tantra vehicles , whose key points are said to be combined in Atisa ' s text584, reflect

stages in the spiritual progress of a single individual . "Here [in Atisa ' s Bodhipathapradfpa]

to understand that all these teachings [of the Buddha] are free of contradiction means to

582 Among the long list of works in the Otani index to the Tibetan bsTan 'gyur that Atisa played a role in either translating or revising (almost always in collaboration with a Tibetan such as Rin chen bzang po, dGe ba' i blo gros, Tshul khrims rgyal ba, or ' Brom ston) are many that are tantric in nature: tantras, sadhanas, and tantric dharal)is . The index also includes works attributed to Atisa himself which comprise a large number of tantric works such dohas, vajragItis and sadhanas. Tsong kha pa composed a lengthy Vmjayana Lam rim-type work, the sNgags rim chen mo ( Tsong kha pa gsung 'bum vol . 3 ) and also provides a cursory overview of Sutrayana and Vajryana in his Lam gyi rim pa mdo tsam du bstan pa (A Concise Summary of the Stages of the Path) composed in response to a letter by dKon mchog tshul khrims.

583 The work is said to have been written at the request of Dar rna skyabs ( 'Dar rna' being a prefix characteristic of Bka' gdams followers) . After thirteen months with Mi la, tradition relates that it took sGam po pa three years of arduous solitary practice, as predicted by Mi la, to fully understand the nature of his teacher and the import of his teaching. This period was spent at Se ba lung, a Bka' gdams monastery in the Gnyal region of Central Tibet. It was likely during this period that sGam po pa composed the Thar rgyan which is dedicated to Atisa and Mi la ras pa, though the latter ' s teachings are only briefly alluded to.

584 Lam rim chen mo in Tsong kha pa gsung 'bum vol. 1 3 : 1 8 . 1 : "Since it teaches by summarizing the vital points of both sutra and tantra, its subject matter is comprehensive . . . " mdo sngags gnyis ka 'i gnad bsdus nas stong pas brjod bya yongs su rdzogs pal l . . .

237

comprehend that they constitute the path whereby a single individual becomes a buddha. , , 585

Tsong kha pa argues that there is no contradiction between the teachings and ethical norms

characteristic of the different yanas - the differences simply reflect a gradation in

intellectual and spiritual maturation. The approach here is inclusivistic : the principal

teachings of early Buddhism are incorporated into the more encompassing and altruistic

Mahayana as preparatory stages :

To proclaim that you need not train in the scriptural collections of the Hlnayana because you are a Mahayanist is proof of the opposite . There are both shared and unshared paths to enter the Mahayana. Since the shared [paths] are those that derive from the scriptural collections of the Hlnayana, how could these be something to give up? Therefore, the Mahayanist must internalize all those things with only a few exceptions such as seeking happiness and quiescence for oneself alone . This is the reason the exceedingly vast scriptural collections of the bodhisattvas teach in extenso all three vehicles .586

Similarily, the Vajrayana path(s) is in no way incompatible with Mahayana; in fact, it

should be seen as an extension ojParamitayana, grounded in the same altruistic ethos of the

bodhisattva who cultivates bodhicitta for the welfare of all :

Although it is necessary, in entering the Great Vehicle of the piiramitiis , [to follow] the paths explained in the scriptural collections of the Hlnayana, one might think when entering upon the Vajrayana that it does not share anything in common with the paths of the Paramitayana because [the two approaches] are incompatible . This too is most unreasonable . The very essence of the Paramitayana comprises the intention to develop bodhicitta and its engagement in training in the six piiramitiis . That it is absolutely necessary to rely on all these [procedures] . . .is also maintained in many Mantra texts .587

585Lam rim chen mo 1 8 .6 £ : de thams cad 'gal ba med par rtogs pa nil 'dir gang zag gcig 'tshang rgya ba 'i lam du go ba ste l l . . .

586 Lam rim chen mo 1 9 .6 f. theg pa chen po pa yin pa 'i phyir thog dman gyi sde snod la bslab par mi bya ' 0 zhes smra ba ni 'gal ba 'i rtags pol l theg pa chen po 'i lam la 'jug pa la lam thun mong ba dang thun mong min pa gnyis yod lal thun mong pa ni theg dman gyi sde snod nas 'byung ba rnams yin pas de dag dor byar ga la 'gyurl des na rang gcig pu zhi bde don gnyer la sogs pa 'i dmigs bsal can 'ga ' re ma gtogs pa thams cad theg chen pas kyang nyams su blang dgos pasl byang sems rnams kyi shin tu rgyas pa 'i sde snod lam theg pa gsum ga rgya cher ston pa 'i rgyu mtshan yang de yin nol l

587 Lam rim chen mo 20.6 f. : gal te pha rol tu phyin pa 'i theg pa chen por 'jug pa la theg dman gyi sde snod nas bshad pa 'i lam rnams dgos na 'angl rdo rje 'i theg par 'jug pa la ni phar phyin kyi theg pa 'i lam rnams thun mong bar mi 'gyur te lam mi mthun pa 'i phyir ro zhe nal 'di yang ches mi rigs te l pha rol tu phyin pa 'i lam gyi ngo bo ni bsam pa byang chub tu sems bskyed pa dangl spyod pa pha rol tu phyin pa drug la slob par 'du ba yin lal de ni rnam pa thams cad du bsten dgos par . . . gzhan yang sngags kyi gzhung du mar gsungs soi l

238

Thus "the path of the piiramitiis is the path common to both sutra and tantra." It is clear that

Tsang kha pa' s inclusivism is decidedly Paramitayana-centric , the pivotal practice of

piiramitiis serving both as the ethical aim for Hlnayanists making the transition from self­

interest to other-interest and as the indispensable ethical norm for Vajrayanists . On Tsang

kha pa ' s account, Mahayana is the common ground for early Buddhist vehicles as well as

Vajrayana. If one is to clearly understand the implicit gradation of the Hlnayana, Mahayana

and Vajrayana, Tsang kha pa continues, one must not only read the many texts of these

traditions but take them to heart as personal instructions . Be this as it may, Tsong kha pa

follows Atisa ' s lead in emphasizing the need to gain a mastery of Indian Paramitayana,

especially its altruistic ethos, before embarking on the Mantrayana so as to avoid the many

potential misrepresentations and pitfalls . The author ' s Lam rim chen mo therefore deals

almost exclusively with Mahayana, reserving detailed treatment of Mantrayana for his

sNgags rim chen mo.588 Mantrayana is postponed for future consideration, along with the

goal itself.

The Paramitayana had provided Atisa with a framework for delineating the Buddhist

path in terms of a well-known three-fold typology of individuals - the lesser, middling and

superior - of which only the superior, the compassionate bodhisattva, is deemed a suitable

candidate for following the Mahayana path. The two lesser types , the lesser worldly non­

Buddhist and the intermediate self-seeking sravaka or pratyekabuddha, are introduced only

as counter-examples to the superior individual who is motivated by compassion to pursue

the Mahayana path of self-fulfillment and other-enrichment (rang don; gzhan don) . Tsong

kha pa does not simply adopt Atisa 's model but reinterprets the three types of individuals as

three phases in the life of a single individual . The two lower types , rather than serving as

counter-examples to the superior candidate, are now seen as representing ascending stages

in his spiritual maturation which come successively into play as his spiritual aims become

increasingly less self-centered. Thus Atisa ' s three-fold typology is reformulated as a three­

phase teleology such that the path of the superior individual contains within its scope the

588 To this day, dGa' Idan pa/dGe lugs pa monasteries have separate colleges for Mahayana and Vajrayana studies and maintain separate curriculums for their study and practice.

239

lesser paths and, accordingly, the Mahayana encompasses all yanas, Hinayana as well as

Vajrayana:

Since the paths shared in common with both the lesser individual who seeks worldly contentment and the intermediate individual who seeks liberation from sarpsara merely for his own sake are not really intended as distinct instructions for pursuing different paths, but rather as preliminary instructions preparatory to the path of the superior individual, they are taken as adjunctive aspects of linking up with the m ain path of the superior individual. 589

Tsong kha pa' s reinterpretation of Atisa 's typology constitutes a shift from a class­

theoretical approach - which deals with types or categories and presupposes a certain

atomistic independence of the classes involved - toward a field-theoretical approach, which

deals with phases and their interactions within a single field or continuum of experience .

Fundamental to both Atisa ' s and Tsong kha pa' s path summaries , however, i s the

assumption of a teleological path involving the accumulation of virtues and knowledge, the

only difference being that Atisa excludes the lesser aim as being unsuitable while Tsong kha

pa incorporates it within the overarching path structure of the superior person as a

preparatory stage.

While the new translation (gsar sgyur) schools generally treated the cause-related

and goal-sustained paths as separate disciplines, rNying rna scholars, drawing on rDzogs

chen traditions going back to the Royal Dynastic Period, were inclined from early on to

view them as differing approaches to goal-realization that reflect an implicit tension

between their two predominant modes of knowledge: an inferential-representational mode

endorsed by the siitras and an experiential-presentational mode advocated by the tantras .

Against this background, it is possible to see Klong chen pa 's aforementioned criticisms as

targeting a general tendency amongst his contemporaries to treat the Mahayana

progressivist conception of goal-realization as the normative model for understanding the

relationship between vehicles . It is one thing to acknowledge, as all Tibetan Buddhist

traditions do, both that the Mahayana ethos of altruism (compassion and bodhicitta) is a

precondition for Vajrayana practice and that Vajrayana is the highest branch of Mahayana.

589 Lam rim chung ngu : 1 93 .3 f..

240

It is another thing to take the Mahayana progressivist model of the path as a framework for

understanding and practicing Vajrayana.

From a rNying rna standpoint, it was not acceptable to treat the path espoused by the

tantras as a mere adjunct to Paramitayana, an add-on reserved for advanced candidates and

therefore relegated to a separate work or chapter of a work. Such an approach would

privilege the sutric cause-oriented and teleocratic conception of goal-realization as the result

of a long-drawn process of intellectual and moral refinement - accumulations of knowledge

and virtues - which serve as causes and conditions for its attainment. It is in this sense a

worldly path based on naIve preconceptions about the nature of goal-realization. As Klong

chen pa distinguishes these in his Zab ma yang fig :

The essence of the path consists in skillful means of travelling to the state of goal-realization.

Its definition is the going itself. Its classification is a cause-oriented path of characteristics and a goal-oriented

mantra path. Its analogies are a worldly path like the trail beings plod along or an effortless

path like the trail of a bird across the sky. 590

3 .2 The Hermeneutical Dimension : Internalizing the Path

We can reconstruct the central thrust of the foregoing argument in this way :

understanding how to combine the 'paths ' codified in the sutras and tantras within a single

soteriological narrative requires understanding what it means to be on a path in the first

place, and this in turn requires understanding, through contemplation, the heterogenous

structure of lived experience that makes a path of existential disclosure possible. It is this

structure that best explains the traditional distinction between sutric and tantric vehicles in

terms of their proximity (both temporal and existential) to goal-realization.591 Rog Bande

590 Zab mo yang tig vol. 2: 436.4 f.: lam gyi ngo bo 'bras bu 'i sar bgrod pa 'i thabsl nges tshig bgrod par byed lal dbye na rgyu mtshan nyid kyi lam dangl 'bras bu sngags kyi lam gnyis sol dpe ni 'gro ba 'i lam 'jig rten gyi lam dangl rtsol med kyi lam nam mkha ' bya 'i lam du gyur pa Ita bu stel l .

591 Rag Bande Shes rab 'ad characterizes this distinction in his bsTan pa 'i sgron me, NyKs vol. 1 1 4 : 1 96 . 1 f. : "There is said to be a great difference beween the Lak�aJ:la[yl'ma] - the method of step by step realization used by those of duller faculties and Guhyamantra[yana] - the method of all at once realization by those of sharp faculities ." . . . mtshan nyid ni dbang po rtul pos rim gyis rtogs par byed pa 'i thabs yin lal gsang sngags nil dbang po rnon pos

241

Shes rab 'od in his 1 3th century bsTan pa 'i sgron ma noted that the so-called cause-oriented

*Lak�al).ayana (rgyu ' i mtshan nyid kyi theg pa) and goal-oriented Mantrayana ( 'bras bu ' i

gsang sngags kyi theg pa) presuppose quite different conceptions of path and goal, the

former viewing the nature of Mind as a cause for goal-realization, the latter taking it as the

goal itselt,592 For Rog, the differences in how proponents of these two vehicles envision and

articulate Buddhist soteriology stem directly from their divergent views regarding the

"ground" - primordial awareness , buddha nature - and its role in awakening. As he

understands it, the Mantrayana injunction to take the goal as the path ( 'bras bu lam du byed

pa) means retrieving an ever-present primordial condition of being and knowing: "simply

recognizing what was not yet recognized or making clear what was not yet clear or letting

manifest what was not yet manifest is what we call ' taking [the goal] as the path" ' .

Klong chen pa further develops this line of thought in his Grub mtha ' mdzod where

he specifies how each of these vehicles construes the categories of ground, path and goal

and then draws out the implications these have for their respective approaches to

soteriology. In delineating these standpoints , the author at the same time explicates the basic

Mantrayana framework underlying classical rNying rna interpretations of the path:

gcig char rtogs par byed pa 'i thabs yin pas khyad par che gsungsl l As scriptural support for this distinction, Rog quotes the Mdo gdam ngag bog pa 'i rgyal po.

592 bsTan pa 'i sgron me, NyKs vol . 1 1 4 : 1 96.3 f. : "Understanding Mind itself to be merely a cause of buddhahood and taking this [cause] as the path is called the cause-oriented *Lak�aJ)ayana. Understanding Mind itself to be the very essence of the goal and then taking this [goal] as the path is called the goal-oriented Guhyamantrayana. Some people refute this as follows : " You Guhyamantra followers take the goal as the path in [the sense] that a goal is brought to fruition that had not come to fi'uition previously." Our initial reply is : We need not exaggerate the fruition of the goal or denigrate its non-fruition because we instead take the very essence of the goal as the path. Should you ask: "What is this essence of the goal?" our answer is spiritual embodiment (sku) and primordial knowing (ye shes) : Their being primordially present in oneself is called the goal . Therefore, simply recognizing what was not yet recognized or making clear what was not yet clear or letting manifest what was not yet manifest is what we call "taking it as the path". To summarize, the presence in oneself right now of what is to be attained is the goal. To simply clear away the attachments [and identifications] that have obscured this is called "taking it as the path"." sems nyid sangs rgyas kyi rgyu tsam du shes nas lam du byed pa ni rgyu mtshan nyid kyi theg pal sems nyid 'bras bu 'i ngo bor shes nas lam du byed pa ni 'bras bu gsang sngags kyi theg pa zer rol de la rgol ba dag na rei khyed gsang sngags pa 'bras bu lam du byed pa ste l 'bras bu sngar ma smin pa smin par byed pa yin nol zhes bya ' 0 1 dang po 'i Ian nil 'bras bu smin zhes sgro mi 'dogs I ma smin zhes skur pa mi 'debs te l 'bras bu ngo bo lam du byed pa yin nol 'bras bu 'i ngo bo gang yin zhe nal sku dang ye shes yin lal de ye nas rang la gnas pa ni 'bras bu yin pasl de ma shes pa shes par byed pa 'aml mi gsal ba gsal bar byed pa 'aml mngon du ma gyur pa gyur par byed pa (sam la lam du byed zer ba yin l mdor na thob bya da Ita nyid flas rang la gnas pa ni 'bras bul de la sgrib par byed pa 'i zhes pa 'dag par byed pa tsam la lam du byed zer ba yin nol l

242

Although these [vehicles] share the same purpose of ascertaining the ground - the luminous quintessence - and the phenomena founded on that, there is a difference in terms of how they understand it . The Lak�aQ.a[yana] is confused when it comes to ascertaining ground, path and goal as they really are, while the Mantra[yana] is not confused. [Consider] how each evaluates what is profound [ultimate] and extensive [conventional] . The Lak�aQ.a[yana takes] the profound as an objective reference consisting in a ground that is a mental construct - the ultimate truth that is investigated by means of logical reasoning and evaluated by the epistemic instrument of rational inference, a path that places [the mind] in that state by means of willful striving - that is, merely [by means of] calm abiding (zhi gnas) followed by discerning insight (lhag mthong) and a teleocratic goal that is attained after many aeons . As for what is extensive, it consists of nothing but ascertaining conventional truth - all the skandhas, dhiitus, and ayatanas and so forth, which are founded on one ' s spiritual potential - in order to determine which things to accept and reject .

The Mantra[yana] brings about a direct recognition of the profound as follows . Without recourse to logical reasoning, one simply works directly with the vital points of body, speech, the energy channels, currents and potencies . In this way, one ascertains nonconceptual primordial knowing that is not a mental construct [but] the very quintessence of dharmakaya as the ground. By then letting the mind remain naturally in this state, one realizes , in one life time or less , the ultimate truth that is the dharmadhatu, whereby spiritual awakening becomes fully manifest . As for what is extensive, one clearly ascertains this basic source (dhatu) - primordially present as a maQ.<;lala of luminosity - to be the ground aspect of tantra. One then implements the path aspects of tantra in ascertaining that the conventional aspects founded on this [expanse] - all the skandhas , dhatus, and ayatanas - constitute the array of deities , their mansions and realms, with nothing to be accepted or rejected. Through this revelation, one ascertains the goal aspect of tantra whereby the temporary goal of the eight siddhis and ultimate goal of supreme awakening are realized . Thus it is a teaching that shows how anything at all can become the path. For these reasons, [Mantrayana] is without confusion when it comes to the meaning of the profound and extensive .593

593Grub mtha ' mdzod 1 0 1 3 . 3 f.: de yang gzhi 'od gsal ba 'i snying po dangl de la brten pa 'i chos rnams gtan la 'bebs par don gcig kJ;angl mtshan nyid kJ;is ji Ita ba bzhin gzhi fa 'bras bu gtan la 'bebs pa rmongs lal sngags kJ;is ma rmongs par shes pa 'i khyad par yod de l ji ltar zab pa dang rgya che ba dag 'jal ba nal mtshan nyid kJ;is gtan tshigs kJ;i sgo nas gzhig ste rjes dpag nges pa 'i tshad mas gzhal ba 'i don dam gyi bden pa bIos byas kJ;i gzhi dang I de 'i ngang la 'bad pas 'jog pa 'i lam zhi lhag tsam dangl dus bskal pa mang po na thob pa la phyogs pa 'i 'bras bu la dmigs pa 'i zab pa tsam dangl rgya che ba 'ang khams la brten pa 'i phung po khams dang skye mched la sogs pa kun rdzob kJ;i bden par gtan la phab nas blang dor 'ba ' zhig tu byed pa tsam las med dol sngags ni gtan tshigs la ma ltos pari Ius ngag rtsa rlung thig Ie la sogs pa 'i gnad bsnun pa tsam gyis l bIos ma byas pa 'i ye shes rnam par mi rtog pa chos sku 'i snying po gzhir gtan la phebs nasi de 'ang du rang bzhin gyi blo gnas pas tshe gcig la sogs pa na dbyings don dam pa 'i bden pa rtogs nas byang chub mngon du byed pas zab mo mngon sum du skye ba nyid dangl rgya che ba 'ang dbyings 'od gsal gyi dkJ;il 'khor du ye nas grub pa gzhi 'i rgyud du gtan la phab nas i de la brten pa 'i kun rdzob pa 'i rnam pa phung khams skJ;e mched thams cad spang blang med par Iha dang gzhal yas khang dang zhing gi bkod par gtan la 'phebs pa 'i lam gyi rgyud rnams su len pa bstan pas l gnas skabs su grub chen brgyad dang

243

On this interpretation, the *Lak�al)ayana bases itself on a rationalistic epistemology

that misconstrues ground, path and goal by objectifying them, treating them as an objective

framework into which the individual is supposed to somehow fit himself. By taking the

ground, ultimate truth (the emptiness of all phenomena) , as something that one can

"investigate through logical reasoning and evaluate through the epistemic instrument of

rational inference", it reduces this ground to a mental construct, a deductive conclusion. The

path on this account becomes an instrumental means toward a predefined telos . In contrast

to this teleological view of ground, path and goal, the Mantrayana understands the goal as

nonconceptual primordial knowing which, far from being "a conceptual construct" arrived

at through rational inference, is an implicit invariant structure of consciousness that is

directly realized through non-ideational, intransitive modes of contemplation. 594 In taking

primordial knowing, not dualistic mind, as ground, path and goal, one (re)discovers a mode

of awareness that is both prior to and pervasive of the wholly derivative repertoire of

rational procedures that belong to the paths of mind.

To conclude, classical rNying rna authors of path summaries argued that the

*Lak�al)ayana conception of the goal as a te10s extraneous to human existence that one

progresses towards is fundamentally at odds with the Mantrayana conception of a goal

always and already present as one ' s own Mind as such, a goal progressively disclosed by

whatever stratagems are deemed capable of dispelling what obscures it. From the

perspective of rNying rna path hermeneutics , there is a natural gradation in the application

of such stratagems that is mirrored in the transitions from Mahayana to Vajrayana to rDzogs

chen where these represent critical phases in the clearing of obscurations of dualistic mind

that progressively reveals primordial knowing . On this view, the path cannot be a linear

mthar thug byang chub mchog la sogs pa mgnon du byed cingl gang yang lam du gyur pa 'i chos ston pa 'bras bu rgyud gtan la 'bebs pa 'i phyir zab pa dang rgya che ba 'i don la rmongs pa med pa yin no l l

594 My use of the term intransitive follows the grammatical distinction between transitive verbs which take a direct obj ect (e.g. to dream) and intransitive verbs which cannot take a direct object (e.g. to sleep) . The former express an action undertaken by a subj ect toward an obj ect, whereas the latter express states in which the act-object structure is not involved. Now, applied to consciousness (and, by extension, to contemplation), the distinction can help clarify two distinct ways in which one is said to be aware of one ' s conscious mental state. Consciousness can be given to itself transitively, i .e . when taken taken as its own object. But this is possible because conscious is already given to itself intransitively, i .e . in simply being aware, a state phenomenologists call first personal givenness. 'Being conscious ' is thus ambitransitive (see Legrand 2009) in the specific sense that all transitive intentional states of being conscious of something are given fi'om this first-personal perspective as experiences I am undergoing, i .e . they share this dimension of intransitive pre-reflective self-consciousness.

244

progression from a starting point to a pre-established goal; the goal must be implicitly

present from the start, even if it is concealed to varying degrees by adventious defilement.

§4 . rNying rna Soteriological Schemes: From Soteriology to Aletheiology

4. 1 The Path as an Emancipation Process and Clearing Process

rNying rna path summaries typically employ the fundamental categories of ground,

path and goal, or more elaborate schemes based on these, as interpretive frameworks for

delineating their subject matter. An overview of schemata employed or discussed by Klong

chen pa in some of his most influential works is presented in the following table :

Table H: 14th c. Soteriological schemes based on ground, path and goal in works of Klong chen pa

Three Continua Emancipation Model Purification Model Disclosure Model

Sources: va r ious Sems nyid nga/ gso 'gre/ Theg mchog mdzod (TC) Sems nyid nga/ gsa 'gre/, Yid

bzhin mdzod 'gre/, Grub mtha'

mdzod

ground ground of emancipation ground of purification ground where clearing (gzhi) (bral gzhi) (dag gzhi) occurs (sbyang gzhi)

= *sugatagarbha = primord ia l knowing = *sugatagarbha, dharmata,

(bde bar gshegs pa'i snying po) (ye shes) [dharmajdhatu

path causes ema ncipaton purification process clearing p rocess (lam) (bral rgyu) (dag byed) (sbyong byed)

= aspects of path, virtues conducive = diss ipating errors of mind =creation and complet ion to l i beration (sems kyi 'khru/ po songs po) stages (bskyed & rdzogs rim)

objects to be emancipated from object to be purified away objects to be cleared away (bral bya) (dag bya) (sbyang bya)

= a l l-ground of myriad latent = dua l istic mind (sems) = a l l-ground of myriad latent tendencies (bag chags sna tshogs tendencies with kyi kun gzhi) 8 modes of consciousness

goal goa l of emancipation goal of having purified goa l of havi ng cleared ( 'bras bu) (bral 'bras) (dag 'bras) (sbyangs 'bras)

= d isclosure of inherent qua lities = buddha hood as d isclosure of actua l a l l-ground (yon tan mngon du gyur po) dharmakayajfiana (don gyi kun gzhi)

245

While Klong chen pa's Sems nyid ngal gso is structured according to the basic

ground, path and goal rubrics which are also used to show its connection with the trio logy as

a whole595 , the author draws upon a derivative model of the path conceived as an

emancipation process (bral byed) in his lengthy discussion of buddha nature . After

explicating this model, he compares it to the model of the path as a clearing process (sbyong

byed) that is specific to Mantrayana.

In our account, one should understand there are four [phases] : (a) the ground where emancipation occurs (bral gzhi), (b) the causes of emancipation (bral rgyu) , (c) the goal that is emancipation (bral 'bras) , and (d) what one is to be emancipated from (bral bya) . (a) The emancipation ground is our spiritual potential , the *sugatagarbha; (b) the causes of emancipation are the facets that comprise the path, those virtuous actions conducive to liberation that clear away the defilements accreted on this [quintessence] ; (c) the goal that is emancipation is the disclosure of qualities once the *sugatagarbha has been freed from the plethora of defilements; and (d) what one is to emancipated from consists of the eightfold ensemble [of cognitions] that are founded on the all-ground of myriad latent tendencies (bag chags sna tshogs kyi kun gzhi) as well as the latent tendencies [themselves] .

In the Mantrayana, these phases are declared to be (a) the ground where clearing occurs , (b) the clearing process itself, (c) the goal where obscurations have been cleared (d) what is to be cleared. Although the names used are different, their meaning is the same .596

It is not suprising that the Sems nyid ngal gso ' grel adopts the idiom of

' emancipation ' for its detailed presentation of buddha nature as presented in Mahayana

literature; the path when viewed from the standpoint of individual aspiration appears as a via

negativa, a progressive stripping away of all that is found not to provide fulfillment. The

author ' s later path summary, the Yid bzhin mdzod, combines the idiom of the emancipation

595 Nga! gso skor gsum spyi don legs bshad: 223 .3 f. : where he discusses the intratextual structuring of the trilogy according to the paired categories gzhiilta ba. !amlsgom pa, and grogslspyod pa. Intertextually, the last four chapters of the Sems nyid nga! gso 's thirteen chapters are arranged such that ch. 1 0 reveals the ground, chapters 1 1 - 1 2 the path, and chapter 1 3 the goal.

596 Sems nyid nga! gso 'gre! vol. 1 : 273. 1 f.: skabs 'dir bra! gzhil bral rgvul bral 'brasl bra! bya dang bzhir shes par bya '0 1 de la bra! gzhi ni khams sam snying po '0 1 bra! rgvu ni de 'i steng gi dri ma sbyong byed thar pa eha mthun dge ba lam !dan gyi rnam pa '0 1 bra! 'bras ni bde bar gshegs pa 'i snying po dri ma mtha ' dag dang bra! nas yon tan mngon du gvur pa '0 1 bra! bya ni bag ehags sna tshogs pa 'i kun gzhi fa brten pa 'i tshogs brgvad bag ehags dang beas pa '0 1 'di dag gsang sngags ltar nal sbyang gzhil sbyong byed] sbyangs 'bras I sbyang bya dang bzhir grags pas ming fa tha dad kyang don fa geig gol l

246

with the specifically Mantrayana idiom of a clearing process which he adopts as a

framework for organizing the content of that text:

We here take the *sugatagarbha, our spiritual potential, as the ground. The two aspects of ( 1 ) clearing away the defilements of one ' s potential by means of discerning insight born of study, thinking and meditation and (2) directly recognizing the basis which is the tathiigata, the goal emancipated from all defilements are here summarized in terms of: (a) the emancipation ground, (b) the progressive stages of factors aiding the emancipation process, and (c) the goal that is the culmination of emancipation . Thus, chapter one concerns the ground where clearing occurs, chapter two elaborates on this, chapters three through seven detail the defilements that should be cleared away, chapters eight through twenty-one delineate the means for implementing the clearing process, and chapter twenty-two presents the goal that is the culmination of the clearing process .597

This idea that the path is a clearing process (sbyong byed) is again reminsicent of the Greek

idea of truth as unconcealment (aletheia) , a central theme of Martin Heidegger ' s existential

phenomenology that is developed from the period of Being and Time onward. According to

Joseph Kockelmans, "Heidegger tries to think non-concealment in many ways . It is the free

(das Freie) of the clearing process , which nonetheless abides in self-concealment. It is also

the nearness which brings close, while it preserves farness . It is called the dimension of all

dimensions . . . the region which as the open expanse (die Gegnet) lets beings be encountered

in its openness . , ,598 Later in Klong chen pa ' s Yid bzhin mdzod, in the section of the twelfth

chapter on philosophical systems, he explains the superiority of Mantrayana over

Lak�aJ:.layana on the basis of the idiom of the clearing process . The Mantrayana

schematization of the path as a clearing process supercedes essentialist accounts given in

lower vehicles insofar as it dispenses with the erroneous assumptions that goal-realization

depends on causal and teleological progression. Instead, it identifies the goal with the ever­

present ground - primordial knowing, buddha nature - that the path progressively lays bare .

597 Yid bzhin mdzod 'gre!: 453.2 f. : de !a khams bde bar gshegs pa 'i snying po gzhir byas te l thos pa dang bsam pa dang sgom pa las byung ba 'i shes rab kyi khams kyi dri ma sbyong ba dangl dri ma thams cad dang bra! ba 'i 'bras bu de bzhin gshegs pa 'i sa ngos bzung pa rnam pa gnyis te l bra! ba 'i gzhi dangl bra! byed gnyen po 'i rim pa dangl bral ba mthar ph yin pa 'i 'bras bu 'dus pa 'i phyirl !e 'u dang por sbyang ba 'i gzhi dangl gnyis par de 'i 'phros bstan lal gsum pa nas bdun pa 'i bar du sbyang bya 'i dri ma dangl brgyad pa nas nyi shu rtsa gcig pa 'i bar du sbyong byed thabs kyi rim pa dangl rtsa gnyis par sbyang pa mthar phyin pa 'i 'bras bu rnam par gzhag pa yin nol l

598 Kockelmans 1 984: 99.

247

Klong chen pa ' s overview recapitulates ' the overall scope of the Yid bzhin mdzod,

underscoring its Mantrayana standpoint:

Thus, in the cause-oriented [vehicle of] characteristics it is claimed that the *sugatagarbha , our spiritual potential , exists merely as a seed and that buddhahood is attained by making it grow through the two accumulation [of virtues and knowledge] as conditions . It is therefore called a cause-oriented vehicle because it is held that cause and effect follow [sequentially] one after the other .

In the Mantra [vehicle] , however, the spiritual quintessence (garbha : snying po) is spontaneously and naturally present in sentient beings lacking in none of its extensive inborn qualities . It constitutes the ground where clearing occurs (sbyang gzhi) which is like the shining sun. The objects to be cleared (sbyang bya) are the eightfold ensemble [of cognitions] together with their all-ground which constitute sarpsara and cover [this sun] like clouds .s99 When the obscurations have been progressively cleared away, like clouds dissolving [in the sky] , through cultivating the empowerments and the creation and completion stages600 which make up the clearing process (sbyong byed) , temporary qualities are actualized. It is held that thereafter, the actual all-ground (don gyi kun gzhi), i .e . the goal where obscurations are cleared away (sbyangs 'bras) , is disclosed as it is in all its luminosity, like the sun. At this time, since the defilements that were there previously no longer exist, and since even the name of the all-ground with its latent tendencies has subsided, the [enduring] reality shines forth without any distinction between an earlier and a later [state] . As the Hevajratantra [II, iv, 69] states :

Sentient beings are actually buddhas Though [their true nature is] shrouded by adventitious obscurations . When these obscurations clear, they are indeed buddhas . 601

599 In his Grub mtha ' mdzad, Klong chen pa emphasizes the need to distinguish the all -ground of myriad latent tendencies (bag chags sna tshags pa 'i kun gzhi) which constitues sarpsfu'ic phenomena that are to be cleared away (sbyang bya) and undermined/reversed (ldag pa) from the genuine all-ground of one ' s abiding condition (gnas lugs dan gyi kun gzhi) that is the ground where clearing occurs (sbyang ba 'i gzhi) and which therefore cannot be undermined/reversed (mi ldag). 600 I .e . bskyed rim and rdzags rim. 601 Yid bzhin mdzad 'grel: 1 1 69.4 f. : de yang rgyu mtshan las khams bde bar gshegs pa 'i snying po sa bon du yad pa tsam rkyen tshags gnyis las gong du 'phel bas sangs rgyas thab par 'dod pa 'i phyir rgyu 'i theg pa zhes bya stel rgyu 'bras snga phyir khas len pa 'i phyir rol sngags kyi snying pa de sems can thams cad la rang chas lhun grub tu yon

tan rgya chen ma tshang ba med par yad par sbyang gzhi 'i nyi ma 'dra ba nyid lal sbyang bya 'khar ba 'i rang bzhin tshags brgyad kun gzhi dang bcas pa sprin Ita bus bsgribs pa nyia, sbyong byed dbang dang bskyed rdzags bsgoms pas sprin sef ba ltar rim gyis sbyangs pas gnas skabs kyi yan tan grub nasi sbyangs 'bras dan gyi kun gzh i nyi ma ltar gsal ba ci bzhin pa mngan du 'gyur bar 'dad de l de tshe sngar gyi dri ma med pas kun gzhi 'i ming bag chags dang bcas pa lag kyang dan sna phyi rnam dbye med par gsal te l brtag gnyis lasl sems can rnams ni sangs rgyas nyia, 'on kyang gla bur dri mas bsgribsl de bsal na ni sangs rgyas nyia, I ces sal

248

Here the Mantrayana idiom of the clearing process with its disclosive hermeneutic of

ground, path and goal relativizes all causal interpretations of the path as a linear progression

toward a temporally and existentially distant telos . The goal, always and already present as

the ground, replete with all spontaneously present qualities , discloses itself by way of an

acausal endotelic process of clearing, bringing to light what has been implicitly present all

along. Klong chen pa ' s choice of the Mantrayana over the *Lak�aI).ayana idiom is central to

the text' s foremost premise : that the path is not so much an extrication /rom . . . as a return

to . . . Emancipation presupposes an originary clearing. On this view, soteriology is only

intelligible in light of aletheiology, the understanding of truth as unconcealment.

4.2 Yon tan rgya mtsho on Disciplines (sdom) as Stages of Refinement

It may be useful at this juncture to briefly consider a later rNying rna interpretive

strategy, outlined in ' Jigs med gling pa' s Yon tan rin po che ' i mdzod and commentaries , that

emphasizes the continuity of the ethical norms of the three vehicles within a fundamentally

Mantrayana path structure . This path structure situates Tsong kha pa' s inclusivism of

overlapping ethical norms within a Mantrayana conception of the path as process of

progressive refinement and clarification, one inspired in no small measure by Klong chen

pa ' s path summaries . In the Yon tan mdzod commentary of Yon tan rgya mtsh0602 , the

ethical disciplines or vows (sdom) delineated in the priitimok�a of early Buddhism advocate

an ethos of renunciation (nges 'byung) , the bodhisattva discipline an ethos of helping others

(gzhan phan), and Vajrayana discipline an ethos of pure vision (dag snang) , i .e . a

transformative vision of things as they are, undistorted by exaggerations or deprecations .

The distinction between these ethical/spiritual norms, he contends , should not prevent us

from seeing their essential unity and continuity. Indeed, the monastic rules (Skt. priitimok�a

: Pali pii{imokkha) of early Buddhism came to serve as the ethical frameworks for all

subsequent forms of monastic Buddhism just as the altruistic bodhisattva vows served as the

indispensable foundation for both Mahayana and Vajrayana practice . Considered in light of

602 Yon tan mdzod 'grel vol. 1 : 306.4 £ : zhib tu dpyad nal sor sdom gyi ngo bo nges 'byungj byang sdom gyi ngo bo gzhan phanl sngags sdom gyi ngo bo dag snang du 'jog dgos pa spyir btang yin lal de yang nges 'byung tsam dangl gzhan phan (sam dangl dag snang tsam zhig yod pas de dang de 'i sdom pa mtshan nyid par mi 'gyur na yangl bsam pa de dag gis nges par zin pa zhig dgos pas de skad ces bya ' 01 1 . . .

�

249

the progressive broadening of the aspirant ' s moral/spiritual horizons in the transformations

from individualism (Hlnayana) to altruism (Mahayana) to pure perception (Vajrayana) , the

spiritual vehicles and their ethical disciplines reflect crucial milestones or phase-transitions

along a single path .

Yon tan rgya mtsho characterizes the transition between the disciplines as a

transformation (mam 'gyur) which he likens to the process of extracting and refining

gold.603 The transformation from the individualistic Hlnayana ethos to the altruistic

Mahayana ethos is likened to extracting gold-bearing ore from rock; the transformation

from altruistic aspiration to the Vajrayana visionary ethos, whereby dualistic concepts and

activities are transmuted into primordial knowing, is compared to the refinement of the ore

to produce gold. By analogy, the path is seen as the progressive clarification and refinement

of what has been there all along, primordial knowing or buddha nature . Here

' transformation ' is used figuratively, the salient insight being that spiritual refinement, like

the refinement of gold, does not change what is sought (i .e . one ' s natural condition, gold)

but only removes all that it is not so as to allow it to be progressively revealed . What is

eliminated in the process are the dross of individualism (Hlnayana) and excessive

intellectualism and moralism (Mahayana) . Thus the later rNying rna Lam rim authors tended

to view the three vehicles and their moral/spiritual disciplines not only as stages in the

ethical/spiritual maturation of a single individual , but also as stages in the auto-disclosure of

one ' s natural condition .

603 This is of course a common Buddhist metaphor for goal-realization. On Indian and Chinese Buddhist developments of this theme, see Gomez 1 987.

250

7 I rDzogs chen Transformations of the Path

§ 1 . The rDzogs chen Path Without Progression (bgrod du med pa 'i lam)

Thus since all these [eight] lower vehicles are fixated on paths of effort and achievement by way of cause and effect, and since they do not realize Mind as such as it is, they are shown to be deviations where one goes astray from the Great Perfection.61l4

gZhan phan mtha' yas ' od zer, Kun byed rgyal po 'i 'grel pa

The 1 2th century Sa skya hierarch Sa pa:t;l Kun dga ' rgyal mtshan ( 1 1 82- 1 25 1 )

famously declared in his sDom gsum rab dbye that rDzogs chen Atiyoga should not be

considered a spiritual vehicle (theg pa : yana) : "While the view of Atiyoga may be

primordial knowing, it is not a vehicle . To make something that defies expression a topic of

expression is not the thinking of a wise person. , ,605 Various rNying rna scholars have

responded to this charge . An interesting example is found in a compendium of replies to

questions posed by Karma Mi pham mgon po ( 17th c . ) by the great 17th century rDzogs chen

and Mahamudra master rTse Ie sNa tshog rang grol (b . 1 608) . Before responding, sNa

tshogs rang grol quotes a passage from a commentary by unidentified authors (mdzad po

mams) that explains Sa pa:t;l ' s comment: "The term 'vehicle ' (theg pa) applies to what is like

ladder-rungs or a mount whereby one ascends from lower to higher. But in explaining

'Atiyoga ' as being the royal peak of all teachings among the vehicles [and] applying the

term 'vehicle ' with respect to what has no destination higher than itself, the words of these

604 Kun byed rgyal po 'grel: 843 f. : de Ita bu 'i 'og ma 'i theg pa thams cad rgyu 'bras rtsol sgrub kyi lam la zhen pas sems nyidji bzhin pa 'i don ma rtogs pas na rdzogs pa chen po las gzhan du gol ba 'i gol sar bstan pa yin te l l This is Klong chen pa's summary of a similar passage from the Thig Ie kun gsal. 605 sDom gsum rab dbye, in Sa skya bka ' 'bum (Tokyo, 1 968), vol. 4, no. 1 32 : 3 1 1 .4.5 f. : a ti yo ga 'i Ita ba nil ye shes yin gyi theg pa mini brjod bral brjod byar byas pa nil mkhas pa 'i dgongs pa min zhes byal l On Sa pal)' s critique of the rDzogs chen conception of 'vehicle' see Karmay 1 988 : 1 47 f.. For a survey of commentaries on the sDom gsum rab dbye, see Jackson 1 983 : 1 2-23 .

25 1

rNying rna pas are [just] the signs of unrefined fools and are their own fabrications (rang

bzo). For this we reprimand them. , ,606 sNa tshogs rang grol then replies as follows:

While Atiyoga is indeed primordial knowing, it is valid to call it a vehicle because all other vehicles also arise from the primordial knowing that is a buddha ' s awareness (sangs rgyas kyi mkhyen pa 'i ye shes) . In this case, the presence or absence of causes for ascending higher depend on whether you are a person who has personally experienced that vehicle [i .e . primordial knowing] . Even so, within Ati[yoga] , it is not true that there is no cause for rising higher because from Ati there is the ascent to sPyi ti, and from sPyi ti to Yang ti [these being further subdivisions within the man ngag sde division of Atiyoga] . Ati[yoga] is not the work of foolish rNying rna persons because they are simply taking as authoritative the intentions of the tantric collections that are the stainless buddha-word of Samantabhadra and Vajradhara . , ,607

An issue not raised by sNa thog rang grol but that I intend to investigate in this chapter is

that traditional Buddhist metaphors of spiritual progress ( 'paths ' , ' levels ' , 'vehicles ' ) proved

ill-suited to the kind of non-linear paradigm of existential disclosure that had been

developing in rDzogs chen traditions since as early as the 8th century.

In this regard, classical rNying rna path hermeneutics should be viewed not only

against the background of Indian path formulations found in the canonical siitras and tantras ,

but also in light of contrarian conceptions of the path that were endemic to rDzogs chen

discourses from early on. There the nature of the rDzogs chen path is couched in language

fundamentally distinct from the progressivist paradigm of Mahayana Buddhism, but also at

variance with the antinomian language one encounters in general Vajrayana traditions that

propose a rapid path (myur lam), a short cut (nyer lam), a path of desires (chags lam) that

makes use of the very passions and adversities of human life that the Mahayanist seeks to

avoid or counteract. By contrast, rDzogs chen sources cast doubt on the very definition of

the path itself by calling into question the tacit assumptions of progression and effort

606 Dri ba snga phyi tha dad mdzad pa 'i dri Ian thor bu 'i skor, in Tsibri spar ma vol. 26 : 5 82 . 1 f. : theg pa zhes pa 'i sgra ni 'og nas gong du spor du yod pa 'i stegs sam zhon pa Ita bu la 'jug la l a ti yo ga ni theg pa 'i chos thams cad kyi rtse rgyal yin par bshad na de las gong du bgrod sa med pa la theg pa 'i ming sbyar ba ni rnying ma rnams brda la ma byang ba 'i blun rtags dang rang bzo yin par bka ' bkyon mdzad ringl

607 Ibid. 582 .5 f.: a ti yo ga ni ye shes kyang 'os yin te l theg pa gzhan thams cad kyang sangs rgyas kyi mkhyen pa 'i ye shes las byung ba dangl 'dir gong du spor rgyu yod med ni theg pa de nyams su len pa po la 'ang rag mod" a ti las gong du spor rgyu med pa ma yin te l a ti nas spyi til spyi ti nas yang ti spar du yod pa dangl lar yang a ti la theg pa 'i ming sbyar ba 'di rnying ma 'i gang zag blun po rnams kyis byas pa ma yin te l kun bzang rdo rje 'chang gi bka ' dri ma med pa 'i rgyud sde 'i dgongs pa sor bzhag yin phyirl

252

common to all Buddhist path conceptions hitherto proposed, Vajrayana notwithstanding.

The 1 0th century rNying rna scholar Rong zom Chos kyi bzang po has summarized these

developments as follows :

This [rDzogs chen tradition] is called the unsurpassed highest summit o f all paths . In this regard, the sravakas ' freedom comes about through emancipation from causes and conditions . Their contemplation involves dwelling in states having objective references . The pratyekabuddhas ' freedom comes about through emancipation from the path of speech. Their contemplation involves dwelling in a kind of ineffable reality . Mah1iyanists ' freedom comes about through the jfiiina divested of conceptual fabrications of subject and object. Their contemplation involves entering into the expanse of phenomena that is exceedingly and thoroughly pure . As for the Mantra system: it is in the inseparability of both aspects of freedom and contemplation that one discovers the experience of the three diamond-like aspects [i .e . samadhis] . Now all these [systems] depend on progression and evolution . But here [in the Great Perfection] , we don 't establish anything like that : since that which is devoid of progression is supreme among paths, it is therefore called the highest summit of all vehicles .608

The path espoused in rDzogs chen works is variously called an effortless path (rtsol

med kyi lam) , a spontaneous path (lhun gyis grub pa 'i lam) , a path without cause (rgyu med

pa ' i lam), a path without destination (phyin du med pa 'i lam) , a supreme path (lam chen po),

a genuine path (yang dag pa 'i lam) , and a self-unfolding path (rang 'gros kyi lam) . It is

qualified as a path of primordial knowing (ye shes kyi lam) or open awareness (rig pa ' i lam)

as distinct from the wayward paths of dualistic mind. It is a path of the basic expanse

(dbyings kyi lam) , a path of luminosity ( ' od gsal kyi lam) . The rDzogs chen path is further

paraphrased as ' the supreme path that spontaneously unfolds without having to search for it '

(brtsal ba myed par Ihun gyis grub pa 'i lam chen po) , ' the supreme extraordinary path of

natural great perfection ' (rang bzhin rdzogs pa chen po 'i thun mong ma yin pa ' i lam chen

po) , and most frequently as the 'path devoid of progression ' (bsgrod du med pa 'i lam) .

608 Thegpa chen po 'i tshul la 'jugpa, Rong zom gsung 'bum vol. 1 : 473.23 £: de bas na lam thams cad kyi yang rtse bla na myed pa zhes bya ' 0 1 de la nyan thos rnam kyi rnam par grol ba nil rgyu dang rkyen dang bral ba las skyes pal ting ne 'dzin ni dmigs pa dang bcas pa 'i sa la gnas pal rang sangs rgyas rnams kyi rnam par grol ba nil ngag gi lam dang bral ba las skyes pal ting nge 'dzin ni brjod du myed pa 'i chos kyi tshul la gnas pal theg pa chen po 'i rnam par grol ba nil gzung ba dang 'dzin pa 'i rnam par rtog pa dang bral ba 'i ye shes las skyes pal ling nge 'dzin ni shin tu rnam par dag pa 'i chos kyi dbyings la spyod pal gsang sngags kyi tshul nil rnam par grol ba dang ling nge 'dzin gnyi ' ka dbyer myed pari rdo rje Ita bu rnam pa gsum gyi nyams rnyed pa ces 'byung nal de dag thams cad ni bgrod cing 'byung ba la ltos pa yin lal 'dir de Ita bu gang yang mi sgrub stel bgrod du myed pa nyid lam gyi mchog yin pasl de 'i phyir na theg pa thams cad kyi yang rtse zhes bya ' 0 1 1

253

One could endlessly cite passages in rDzogs chen tantras and oral literature

describing this 'path devoid of progression ' , but I will limit my discussion to a few

illustrative examples . This idea of a 'path without progression ' appears to have its roots in

contrarian path conceptions advanced in early rDzogs chen texts of the Royal Dynastic

Period belonging to the Mind Genre (sems sde)609 but becomes a central theme of the Kun

byed rgyal po, an important and highly influential rDzogs chen tantra of the Mind Genre

(sems sde) that represents a later synthesis of this system. It is further elaborated in sNying

thig tantras and oral instructions that become increasingly influential in Central Tibet from

the twelfth century onward. A concise summary of its meaning is given in the following

passage ascribed to Padmasambhava:

The heart of all paths is summarized as a 'path without progression ' . Other paths are transient and impermanent. The path of spiritual awakening has nothing to do with progression - it is the very essence of the awakened mind. When one realizes the meaning of the nonduality of the never-erring empty expanse that is authentic reality and primordial knowing that is luminous , there is no more travelling or progression on what is commonly called a 'path ' . When one thus deeply understands what is meant by no more coming nor going, then the very nature of what what we call 'vehicles ' , ' levels ' or 'paths ' is without any concrete foundation. Devoid of ' doing something ' , it is like a diamond and is thus known as indestructible buddhahood. When one realizes what is meant in this way, this is called probing to the heart of all paths .6 10

The Kun byed rgyal po repeatedly characterizes rDzogs chen as a path without progression.

A chapter of the work devoted to this non-progressive path declares that because awakened

mind (byang chub sems) is naturally present as a depth dimension of experience, it has

609 Such ideas abound in the five earlier Sems sde tantras. The Khyung chen Iding ba, Tk vol. 1 : 42 1 . 1 : for example criticizes "those who set out on a path where there is no path" (lam med lam du 'jug pa rnams). The rTsal che sprugs pa Tk vol. 1 : 423 . 6 proclaims that there is "no path for arriving [anywhere]" (phyin pa 'i lam med). The Mi nub rgyal mtshan, Tk vol. 1 : 426.3 £ compares one who would travel a path to a blind man trying to grab hold of space: the sphere of buddhahood has no destination to be discovered by searching for it just as space has no limit to be reached by grasping. 6 1 0 Zhal gdams dmar khrid don bsdus thugs kyiphreng ba in Bla rna dgongs 'dus (Gangtok ed.) vol . 5 : 835 .3 £ : lam thams cad kyi gnad nil bsgrod du med pa 'i lam du 'dus pa yinl lam gzhan ni 'gyur zhing mi rtag pa '0 1 byang chub kyi lam la bsgrod du med del byang chub kyi sems kyi ngo bo del yang dag pa 'i don phyin ci rna log par stong pa 'i dbyingsl gsal ba 'i ye shes gnyis su med pa 'i don la 'jug pa 'i don rtogs' dus nal lam zhes bya bar 'grOI ba dang bsgrod du med pa 'ol de Itar 'gro 'ong medpa 'i don rtogs pa 'i dus nal theg pa sa lam zhes bya ba 'i chos nyid dngos po 'i gzhi med pa del bya ba med pa rdo rje Ita bul 'jig pa med pa 'i sangs rgyas zhes bya ste l de Ita bu 'i don rtogs na lam thams cad gnad du tshud pa zhes bya 'al l • don pa 'i rtogs corrected to don rtogs on basis of Bla rna dgongs 'dus (mTsham brag ed.) vol. 7: 497. 5 .

254

nothing to do with a path leading somewhere else (gzhan du bgrod pa ' i lam) or to some

fixed destination. The text goes on to say:

The path of progression is described as five-fold or three-fold61 1 • T o claim that one arrives [somewhere] by travelling on it Is to claim one attains a result [or goal] from a cause . This is incompatible with the rDzogs chen [path] devoid of progression. 6 12

In his commentary on this passage, gZhan phan mtha ' yas ' od zer explains that the

progressivist models of the path presuppose that the goal, buddhahood, is extraneous to

one ' s existence and therefore wrongly construe its realization in terms of attaining

something new or unprecedented through deliberations based on erroneous presuppositions

of causal progression:

The supposition that one arrives at the goal, the level of buddhahood, by travelling on these paths that have lower and higher stages is a system of asserting that the goal reached by means of these [paths] comprised of vehicles predicated on [the relationship between] cause and effect is attained as something new and unprecedented. It is thus incompatible with the sense that the fundamental nature of Great Perfection is without progression and hence constitutes a contradiction . For this reason, [the Kun byed rgyal po] declares that there is no need to travel on the path of Great Perfection - and even if one could traverse it, there would be nowhere to arrive.6 1 3

After illustrating how the strained efforts deemed essential to pursuing these lower

*Lak�aI).ayana and Mantrayana only lead one away and astray from naturally occuring

primordial knowing, the ever-present ground and goal, the tantra advises :

61 1 As gZhan phan mtha' yas states, these are the five Lak�a1Jayana paths of accumulation (tshogs lam), application (sbyor lam), meditation (sgom lam), seeing (mthong lam) and no more learning (mi slob pa 'i lam) and the three paths described in the context of Mantrayana - view (Ita ba), meditation (sgom) and conduct (spyod pa). Kun byed rgyal po 'grel pt. vol . 2 in NyKs vol. 1 06 : 734 f..

6 1 2 Tk vol . 1 , ch. 5 1 : 1 48 .3 £: . . . de Ita bus bgrodpa 'i lam ni lnga dang gsum bstan te l de la bgrod nas phyin par 'dod pa nil rgyu las 'bras bu thob par 'dod pa yinl rdzogs chen bgrod pa med dang mi mthun te l l . . .

6 1 3 Kun byed rgyal po 'grel pt. 2, in NyKs, vol . 1 06 : 734.5 f. : . . . gong 'og rim pa can gyi lam de la bgrod pas 'bras bu sangs rgyas kyi sar phyin par 'dod pa ni rgyu dang 'bras bu yi theg pa can rnams kyis 'bras bu sngon med gsar du thob par 'dod pa 'i lugs yin pa 'i phyir na rdzogs pa chen po 'i chos nyid bgrod du med pa don dang mi mthun te 'gal bar gyur pa yin pa 'i phyir rdzogs pa chen po 'i chos nyid bgrod du med pa 'i don dang mi mthun te 'gal bar gyur

pa yin pa 'i phyir na rdzogs pa chen po 'i lam la bgrod mi dgos lal gal te bgrod par byas kyang ph yin du med par gsungs te l l . . .

255

Don 't travel the path in this wily ! Were you to travel a path based on ignorance, You would never arrive [anywhere] , never attain realization. By travelling, you never reach the state of buddhahood. buddhahood is your own mind free from conceptualization. By travelling, you don' t arrive at this concept-free mind.6 14

Summarizing the chapter, gZhan phan mtha' yas concludes :

Thus since all phenomena that appear, being of the essence of Mind as such as Great Perfection (sems nyid rdzogs pa chen po), are already buddhahood that is primordially and spontaneously present without having to search for it, there is said to be no progression on a path apart from that. 615

All paths leading away from the spontaneous way of naturally occuring primordial knowing

are alike in deriving from dualistic mind (sems) and its deliberative schemes . But these only

obscure the natural simplicity and sovereignty which dualistic mind is prone to lose sight of

and to obscure :

It is said that if you directly recognize this naturally occuring primordial knowing, Mind as such, the All-Creative Monarch, you regain complete sovereignty over the everlasting kingdom of dharmaktiya, Samantabhadra. [But] if you do not directly recognize it, you will not be free however much you may exert yourself by way of the paths of the lower vehicles .6 16

That the rDzogs chen path unfolds effortlessly and spontaneously precisely when no longer

obstructed by willful interference is proclaimed in a rDzogs chen tantra of the Man ngag gi

sde series entitled Nam mkha ' klong yangs kyi rgyud:

Through strained efforts on a path of doing something, Naturally occuring spiritual awakening (byang chub) is obstructed . Hence this primordial knowing, an awareness that comes effortlessly,

6 1 4Kun byed rgyal po 'grel vol. 1 , in NyKs vol. 1 05 : 1 49.2 f. : . . . de bas lam la bgrodpar ma byed cigl gal te ma rig lam la bgrod gyur nal phyin pa 'i dus med rtogs thob dus med te l bgrod pa sangs rgyas sa ru phyin pa med\ sangs rgyas rang sems rtog pa bral ba yinl bgrod pas rang sems rtog bral der mi phyinl l 6 1 5 Kun byed rgyal po 'grel pt. 2, in NyKs, vol . 1 06 : 734 £ : 'di ltar snang ba 'i chos thams cad sems nyid rdzogs pa chen po 'i ngo bor ma btsal ye nas lhun gyis grub par sangs rgyas zin pas de las gzhan du lam la bgrod du med pa 'di gsungs soi l 6 1 6 Kun byed rgyal po 'grel pt. 2, in NyKs, vol . 1 06 : 357.6 f. : . . . kun byed rgyal po sems nyid rang byung gi ye shes 'di nyid rang ngo shes na kun bzang chos sku 'i gtan srid la rang dbang 'byor bar 'gyur la de nyid ngo ma shes na theg pa 'og ma 'i lam gyis 'bad rtsolji tsam byas kyang mi grol bar gsungs pa 'ol l

256

Is declared to be true primordial knowing as the path . 6 17

A similar view is echoed in the sPros bral don gsal chen po ' i rgyud which goes so far as to

characterize soteriological striving as a kind of sickness , reiterating a theme emphasized in

the eighteen Sems sde scriptures6 1 8 :

Those who proceed on a path [where] no path exists are victims of the great illness of the path. Wanting to get somewhere, they are like deer chasing a mirage [in search of water] . Therefore, this is not a certain path. The implicit order of things (dgongs pa) with nothing to add or remove [and] which is fully present as a path without progression is the one great infallible path of certainty . By travelling by means of effort [to reach] awakened mind - the ultimate reality devoid of progression - one remains far from the boundary of primordial knowing. By striving to enter the path of primordial knowing of self-awareness where there is nothing to enter, one falls into the boundary [situation] of suffering .619

The tantra goes on to specify the essence, definition, classification and analogies of the path :

The essence of the path shown by me [Va jradhara] Is the yoga beyond conjunction and disjunction. Concerning the etymology of the path: It is called 'path' because one remains on it without separating from it [and] Without [having to] travel and proceed somewhere else. Its classification is two-fold: A cause-determined path and a goal-sustained certain path . Concerning its examples, [the former] is similar to a path in the world. As for the illustrative example of the effortless path,

6 1 7 Tk vol . 7: 1 32.2 f: bya byed lam gyi 'bad rtsol gyisl rang byung byang chub 'gegs yin pasl shes pa rtsol med ye shes 'dil lam gyi ye shes dam par gsungsl l 6 1 8 See for example the Khyung chen lding ba (counted as on of the five earlier (snga lnga) Sems sde tantras), Tk vol. 1 : 420.7 f. : bde ba chen po 'dod pas chags pas nad yin te l mi g.yo rang bzhin gnas pa 'i sman chen ma byas nal mtho ris bgrod pa 'i rgyu des nyon mongs zin par 'gyur lam med lam du 'jug pa rnams kyi nad che bal phyin par 'dod pas ri dags smig rgyu snyeg pa 'dral rnyed pa 'i yul med 'jug rten gsum las yang mi 'byungl sa bcur ltos pa 'i

gnas kyang byang chub sgrib pa yin l l shin tu myur ba 'i ye shes bsam pa kun dang brall Compare with similar passage from Spros bral don gsal and Thig Ie kun gsal in the following footnote.

6 1 9 Tb vol. 1 3 : 226.6 f : I here follow the corrected version of this passage from the Thig Ie kun gsal (Tb vol. 1 3 : 434. 1 f. ) which appears to be an abridged version ofthe Spros bral don gsal: lam med lam du 'jug pa rnams lam gyi nad che bal phyin par 'dod pas ri dags smig rgyu snyeg 'dral de bas nges pa 'i lam ma yinl bgrod med lam la rab gnas pa 'il 'du 'bral med pa 'i dgongs pa lal ma nor nges pa 'i lam chen cigl bgrod du med pa 'i chos nyid byang chu b semsl rtsol bas bgrod pas ye shes mtha ' las ringl 'jug tu med do rang rig ye shes laml 'jug pa 'i rtsol bas sdug bsngal mtha ' ru Ihungl l . . . The Thig Ie kun gsal it has smig rgyu snyeg (chasing after a mirage) instead of smig rgyu rgyu ba. lt also has the locative dgongs pa la which makes more sense than the ablative dgongs pa las used in the longer tantra.

257

It is like the great garuda soaring in the sky . 620

Rong zorn pa clarifies that the supreme path not travelled is nothing and nowhere apart from

the act of existing itself as a condition of ontological freedom:

[The supreme path] is not a matter of attaining an extraneous goal by training on an extraneous path, as is the case with the lower spiritual vehicles . The fact that all sentient beings are already of its nature and simply remain in this freedom naturally is what we call the ' supreme path ' . Anyone who in becoming attuned to this deeply understands and gains conviction in it and is thus equal to glorious Vajrasattva or Samantabhadra is said to be 'free in freedom ' or to be 'buddha again ' . 62 1

The problem of ' finding freedom ' , the goal of all lesser Buddhist paths , is resolved in the

recognition that human beings do not have freedom but fundamentally are free; freedom is

not an attribute of a subject, not something we have, but the ontological precondition of

human existence .

From these illustrative passages, we can highlight five propositions about the rDzogs

chen path and indicate their implications for later rNying rna path formulations : ( 1 ) The path

is endogenous - since it is found nowhere apart from existence and is only discovered to the

extent that all that obscured it has cleared, it does not depend on extraneous means or ends

as in the cause-determined vehicles . (2) It is self-emergent - since it is not already there for

us to follow but emerges in our going along, it is different from linear representations of the

path which abstract from lived space and time, relocating the path in an idealized

representational space. (3) It is spontaneous and effortless- since it arises effortlessly, it does

not require deliberative action, viz . the accumulation of virtues and knowledge advocated by

Mahayana. (4) It is non-discursive - because it discloses one ' s natural condition in its

620 Tb vol. l 3 : 228.2 f. : ngas bstan lam gyi ngo bo nil 'du 'bral med pa 'i rnal 'byor yinl lam gyi nges tshig bstan pa nil gzhan du bgrod cing 'jug tu mea'! mi 'bra! gnas pas lam zhes byal dbye ba rnam pa gnyis yin te l rgyu yi lam dang 'bras bu nges pa 'i laml dpe ni 'jig rten lam dang 'dral rtsol bral lam gyi mtshon dpe nil mkha la khyung chen lding ba 'dral l Tn this case Tb vol. l 3 : 434. 1 f has 'jug pa dang for 'jug tu med but I have adopted the latter construal because it is more consistent with the views expressed. 621 Theg pa chen po 'i tshul la 'jug pa, Rong zom gsung 'bum (Thimpu ed.) : 276.5 f.: [don de nyid kho na lam chen po yin te l ] theg pa 'og ma ltar lam gzhan la sbyangs pasl 'bras bu gzhan thob pa ni ma yin te l de 'i rang bzhin du sems can thams cad rang bzhin gyis grol ba nyid du gnas pa ni lam chen po zhes byal de nyid mal 'byor gyi skyes bu gang gis rtogs shing rdeng du gyur pasl dpal rdo rje sems dpa ' 'am kun du [correct: tu} bzang po dang mnyam par gyur pa ni grol ba grol zhes kyang byal yang sangs rgyas zhes kyang bya ste l l . . . See also ibid. (507 . 1 2) where Rong zorn states that "claiming to progress on the stages of the path constitutes a deviation from the path of no progression." . . . lam gyi rim pa la bgrod par 'dod pasl bgrod du med pa 'i lam las gol bar gyur pa nil . . .

258

unmodified simplicity only when mentalistic-linguistic proliferations have subsided, it

supercedes the mind-forged path-models adhered to by the lower vehicles . (5) It is endotelic

- since the path is the self-disclosure of an ever-present goal , it is in no sense

predetermined, having no pre-established point of departure, no trajectory and no

destination. In short , the rDzogs chen path as a process of existential disclosure is neither

teleocratic (having a predetermined goal) nor instrumental (having a preset purpose) - it is a

path that is forged in the going, without knowing precisely where or even why one is going .

It is in this sense a "path without progression" .

This brief overview of rDzogs chen non-progressivist path conceptions casts light on

how the presentational path of primordial knowing becomes the animating principle of all

rNying rna path hermeneutics . The problem of reconciling *Lak:�al).ayana and Mantrayana

here gives way to the problem of accomodating a path espousing purposive progression to

an effortless rDzogs chen path that spontaneously unfolds precisely when the willful

deliberations of dualistic mind have ceased. How is this accomodation possible? The key to

addressing this question lies in Klong chen pa' s definition of the path, cited earlier, as the

progressive familiarization with ever-present primordial knowing that reveals itself to the

extent that the turbulence of mind and its mental operations has come to rest. This

familiarization is understood as the disclosure of an unconditioned mode of being and

awareness that is nonetheless a precondition for all the conceptual representations that flow

and follow from it. This path as a disclosive clearing process is not to be confused with the

linear schemes used to represent it - to do so is to confuse the map with the territory .

259

§2 . Where the Ladder Ends : A Path Beyond its Representations

The ladder urges us beyond ourselves. Hence its importance. But in a void, where do we place it?

Edmond Jabes , The Book of Questions: Volume II

Were one to read only the Mahayana chapters of rNying rna path summaries such as

the Sems nyid ngal gso 'grel, Yid bzhin mdzod and Yon tan mdzod, one could be forgiven for

surmising that these works endorse a staunchly gradualist approach to the Buddhist path.

Indeed, Klong chen pa devotes several pages of his Yid bzhin mdzod autocommentary to

arguing, with scriptural support from a wide range of sutras and tantras , why it is necessary

to follow the stages of the path in their proper order and why it is detrimental to not do SO . 622

It is only in the later tantric chapters of these path summaries , however, that the inherent

limitations of progressivist paradigms and the way beyond them are made clear . There is

perhaps no better example of this shift in perspective than in the author ' s Sems nyid ngal gso

'grel, specifically in the contrast it draws between path models presented in the earlier

Mahayana and later rDzogs chen chapters of the text. At the beginning of the sixth chapter

on "Taking Refuge" Klong chen pa concisely summarizes why it is essential for the

beginner to follow the path in step-by-step fashion without omitting any stages :

One should train in the path of liberation in a gradual manner. Why is that? Because [ 1 ] it does not make sense to [try] to proceed by skipping steps (thod rgal du) , [2] you certainly won't be able to attain the higher qualities of the path if you haven ' t brought about the lower ones, and [3] you won 't be be able to arrive at the higher [levels] if you don't ascend step-by-step . As the Buddha stated in the Mahiipari­nirviiIJasutra :

Just as my profound teaching Is like the rungs on a ladder, So too we should strive and learn step-by-step;

622 Yid bzhin mdzod 'grel: 604.5 f . .

260

It is not by skipping steps that we reach the top ! 623

With this passage, Klong chen pa defends a gradualist step-by-step paradigm of the

Buddhist path . However, in the tenth chapter of the text, where the rDzogs chen realization

of one ' s abiding condition (gnas lugs) is introduced, Klong chen pa movingly describes how

this progressivist model of the path breaks down precisely at the point where the

subjectivizing and objectifying mode of thinking on which it has depended loses its hold:

Previously, you relied on the gradation of paths and levels leading from lower to higher like the rungs on a ladder by way of well-ordered stages and sequences of view, meditation and conduct. You also strove to acquaint your mind with how these yogas unfold from lower to higher. [But] in this present moment, the ground and root of mind has gone and given way to equality [of all that is] . So now there are no familiar points of reference and here there are no willful deliberations . Like a drunkard soused on beer, you don 't grasp for whatever occurs . Like a young child, you also don't identify with what appears . Since the orderly sequence in terms of the stages of ' doing something' no longer exists , there is only openness , naturalness and vastness . Since there is no longer [any] frame of reference, the overarching unity in which habitual grasping has been transcended, and opposing elements have collapsed, arises within oneself.624

For Klong chen pa, this breaking point, this sense of losing one ' s bearings as familiar

frames of reference fall away, marks not the end of the path but the entry into an immediacy

prior to its representation. Put another way, the vanishing point of the path of mind is the

starting point of the path of primordial knowing. The root text describes it as an experience

not unlike being lost, with nowhere and nothing to turn to, an experience in which familiar

landmarks and seemingly stable certainties and identities are all suddenly swept away . Yet it

is this precisely this loss of one ' s customary sense of self and world that makes way for a

623 Sems nyid ngal gso 'grel vol . 1 : 42 1 .5 £: . . . thar pa 'i lam la rim gyis bslab par byal ci 'i phyir na zhe na thad rgal du 'jug par mi rigs pa 'i phyir tel lam gyi yon tan 'og ma ma skyes par gong ma thob par mi nus pa nyid dangl rim pas ma 'jogs par gong du phyin par mi nus pa 'i phyir te l my a ngan las 'das pa 'i mdo lasl ji ltar skas kyi rim pa bzhinl nga yi bstan pa zab mo yangl rim gyis bslab cing nan tan byal thad rgal ma yin mthar chags soi l 624 Sems nyid ngal gsa 'gre! vol . 2 : 1 67.2 f.: sngon Ita sgom spyod pa 'i go rims dang khrigs shin tu legs pas sa lam gong 'og gi rim pa skas yi gdang bu Ita bu la brten zhingl rnal 'byor gong 'og gi skye tshul la blo goms 'dris su byed pa rnams dus 'dir sems kyi gzhi rtsa star ba dang mnyam du star basi da ni gang la 'ang gtad so dang 'dir rgyag med del ji ltar shar yang 'dzin pa med pa smyon pa chang gis bzi ba Ita bu dangl snang la 'as gzung med pa bu chung Ita bu dangl bya cha 'i rim pa rnams la khrigs su med pas phyal pa dangl lhug pa dangl yengs pa dangl gtad so med pas zhe 'dzin las 'das par phyam gcig pa ste ya cha ba 'i rnam pa zhig bdag la shar ba nil I . . .

261

more primordial kind of intelligibility and certitude . As Klong chen pa the poet expresses

this experience in his root text :

Having reached the primordial state flawless as the sky, There is no place to return to - where will I go now? Having found this point of resolution, there ' s nowhere to arrive .

. But where am I now that I am not seen by anyone? If you know this, you no longer need anything else . Those who are free like me have cut through error . I have no questions now; the ground and root of mind is gone . There is no frame of reference, no grasping, no certainty, no ' this is it ' . There is only intensity, fullness, immensity and completeness . Having realized it in this way, now I sing: I, Flawless Sunrays625, have shown this by dawning and have gone .626

Without discounting the orienting narratives used to facilitate the ascertainment of

the abiding condition (gnas lugs gtan la dbab pa), the rDzogs chen approach nonetheless

gives primacy to the primordial space of knowing that prefigures all schemes imposed on it .

This gnoseological standpoint provides Klong chen pa with an interpretive framework for

reconciling the linear teleological and nonlinear endotelic paths : although the individual

must initially rely on stages of learning (lam rim) and aspire intellectually and ethically

toward invariant modes of being and awareness (sku dang ye shes) , this abiding mode

increasingly takes over as mind ' s obscuring superimpositions, including the heuristic

fictions of paths and levels , fall away. It is precisely at this point where the elaborate

architecture of mind falls apart that primordial awareness reveals itself. In soteriological

terms , this breaking point marks the transition from the progressive paths of mind to the

non-traversable path of primordial knowing, a path that is simply the living present, having

no pre-established starting point, route or destination.

625 I .e . , Dri med 'od zer, one of the author' s many names. 626 Sems nyid ngal gso 'grel vol. 2: 1 65 .3 £ : mkha ' bzhin dri med gdod ma 'i ngang du phyin l ldog pa 'i gnas med da ni gang du 'grol zad sar thug ste 'ong ba 'ga ' yang meJl sus kyang mi mthong kho bo gang na 'dugl l de nyid shes na gzhan zhig gdos mi 'gyurl grol ba rnams ni nga bzhin 'khrul pa chadl da ni mi 'dri sems kyi gzhi rtsa storl gtad med 'dzin med nges med 'di yin medl phyal pa lhug pa yengs pa phyam gcig pal 'di ltar rtogs nas da ni glu len te l dri med 'od zer shar bas bstan nas songl l

262

Section Two

Texts and Translations

263

1 . Klong chen pa ' s Sems dang ye shes kyi dris Zan

§ 1 . 1 Introductory Remarks :

The Sems dang ye shes kyi dri Zan (Sems ye dris Zan) is a short treatise contained in Klong chen rab 'byams pa' s ( 1 308-1363) Miscellaneous WIitings (gSung thor bU)627 that is devoted to claIifying the central rNying rna distinction between sems and ye shes. Composed at the behest of Klong chen pa ' s foremost student and biographer Chos grags bzang po ( 14th c.) , it offers a concise but very lucid response to the latter's question(s) concerning this distinction. The Sems ye dris Zan synthesizes and builds on arguments for the mind/plimordial knowing distinction advanced in the author' s Shing rta chen po (Great Chariot; hereafter Sems nyid ngaZ gso 'grel) , a lengthy auto-commentary on the Sems nyid ngaZ gso (ReZaxing in Mind as such) , the first of the root texts in the author' s NgaZ gso skor gsum628 (TriZogy on ReZaxation) . The result is a penetrating and systematic investigation into the nature and scope of the distinction that calls attention to its far-reaching implications for understanding and directly realizing rNying rna view (Zta ba) and meditation (sgom pa) .

A survey of Klong chen pa' s extant writings confirms that the accounts of the sems/ye shes difference found in the Sems nyid ngaZ gso 'greZ and Sems ye dris Zan predate Klong chen pa ' s reception of the rDzogs chen sNying thig (Heart Essence) teachings and constitute preliminary and exoteIic treatments of a topic that would be a matter of abiding interest to the author throughout his lifetime. Viewed in relation to Klong chen pa 's esoteIic treatments of the mind/primordial knowing distinction, Sems ye dris Zan should therefore be regarded as a relatively early contIibution to a complex subject that he would return to again and again in his wlitings . By situating the distinction within the broader framework of Buddhist doctrine and praxis , Klong chen pa is able to employ it as a kind of helmeneutical key for understanding the nature and import of the Buddhist path in its entirety, a path consisting in the progressive disclosure of primordial knowing. Thus the chief importance of the Sems ye dris Zan lies in its concise and systematic overview of the formative elements of classical rNying rna doctIine from a scholar-practitioner who did more than anyone to define its character and detelmine its direction. Because it encapsulates many of the key doctrinal elements of the classical rNying rna system, it is worth shedding some light on its genesis , form and content.

In literary form, the Sems ye dris Zan is a classic example of the Response to Questions (Dris Zan) genre of Tibetan scholastic literature629 • Though we have no way of knowing the precise question or questions to which Klong chen pa composed this response, a short passage from the Chos 'byung of sMyo tshul mkhan po ( 1 932-1999) indicates that the proper understanding and

627 On the two extant editions of Klong chen pa' s gSung thor bu, see bibliography. Unless otherwise indicated, all references to the Sems ye dris Ian and gSung thor bu refer to the A ' dzom 'brug pa chos dgar edition.

628 For an annotated translation of the three root texts of the trilogy, see Guenther 1 975-6. 629 Works designated as dris Ian are found in many of the collected writings of Tibetan masters of all orders. There has to date been no systematic study of this genre. Works designated as dris Ian in many cases consist of a question or series of questions followed by the teacher' s replies as recorded for posterity by someone present. The Sons ye dris Ian exemplifies another, less common, type which consists in an author' s systematic written response to such question( s).

264

realization of the mind/plimordial knowing distinction was a matter of central concern to both student and teacher - one that played a formative role in their spilitual relationship:

Chos grags bzang po developed an unshakeable faith in the great Omnicient One. When Klong chen pa questioned him about the difference between mind and plimordial knowing, his erudition . . . earned the master ' s praise. Klong chen pa in tum gave extensive answers to his student' s questions about mind and plimordial knowing and discussed the classification of ground, path and goal. With this, the uncontlived conviction that his guru was truly a buddha arose in Chos grags bzang po, and he bowed at Klong chen pa' s feet, begging to be taken under his care.630

The work was composed at a relatively early period of the author' s literary career, probably during the author' s eight year tenure at the seminary (bshad grwa) of gSang pu (famous for its rigorous cumculurn of Buddhist logic and epistemology) where Klong chen pa took up residence at age nineteen. It was here that he first met Chos grags bzang po who would become his foremost disciple and successor in maintaining the rDzogs chen sNying thig lineage. On the basis of textual analysis and comparison, the Sems ye dris Ian can be chronologically placed some time after Klong chen pa had completed at least the first part of his Ngal gsa skar gsum, namely the Sems nyid ngal gsa and its two auto-commentaries, and before his introduction by his root teacher Kumaraja/dza to the sNying thig system63 1 . The place of its composition, as we learn from the colophon, is Gangs ri thod dkar ('White Capped Mountain'), site of the cave hermitage Orgyan rdzong where the majority of Klong chen pa' s writings were committed to writing. The hermitage is located about 500 meters above Shug gseb, today a flourishing nunnery with about 250 inhabitants that is a two hour road journey from gSang pu monastery and on a slope overlooking the sKyid chu river valley.

Like many of the author' s other works, the subject matter of the Sems ye dris Ian is thematically structured according to the three basic categories of ground, path and goal . The first section sets out to elucidate how primordial awareness is ever-present as the ground of being (gzhi) - our abiding, existential condition (gnas lugs, yin lugs) - despite its being obscured by adventitious cognitive-emotional defilements. The next section proceeds to clarify how this implicit mode of being and awareness is disclosed through a path (lam) of familiarization with it in which nanideatianal forms of meditation632

630 Rang bzhin rdzags pa chen po 'i chas 'byung rig 'dzin brgyud pa 'i rnam thar Nga mtshar nor bu bai du rya phreng ba, vol . 2 : 46b.5 f . . See English translation by Barron 2005 : 3 58 which is here altered slightly for sake of consistency.

63 1 This teacher introduced Klong chen pa to the seventeen Atiyoga tantras that are quoted nowhere in the first two parts of the trilogy (Sems nyid nga! gsa 'gre!, bSam gtan nga! gsa 'gre!). The third part, however, contains a few quotations from this corpus, e.g. Rig pa rang shar in sGyu ma nga! gsa 'gre!, in Nga! gsa skar gsum vol. 2 : 600 . 1 and rD a rje sems dpa ' snying gi m e !ang: 624.6. However, Wangchuk proposes that the bSam gtan nga! gsa 'gre! may have been composed after sGyu ma nga! gsa 'gre! (although the author assigns it to the second part of the trilogy in his general commentary) because the former refers to the latter. See Wangchuk 200 8 : 2 1 3 f.. The supposition that the second and third parts were written after the first is supported by the occurrence of references to the Sems nyid nga! gsa 'gre! in both bSam gtan nga! gsa 'gre! and sGyu ma nga! gsa 'gre!. 632 I here draw on David Fontana's useful distinction between meditation with ideation and meditation, on which see Fontana 2007.

265

play a crucial role. The third and final section discusses how goal-realization ( 'bras bu), the full disclosure of primordial awareness (ye shes) and its spiritual embodiments (sku), occurs once

. the

discUrsive proliferations of mind and mental factors have ceased.

Central to Klong chen pa's elucidation and justification of the distinction is the doctrine of buddha nature which he considers to be the last and highest of the three teachings of buddha-dharma in India. We will therefore conclde this introduction with a concise overview of the author' s position on this important topic.

• Klong chen pa' s hermeneutics of the three turnings

Given Klong chen pa' s emphasis on the primacy of primordial knowing and his construal of the path as the clearing of what obscures it, it is not suprising that in his interpretation of the so­called three turnings of the wheel of the dharma (dharmacakra), the meditative practices of de­identification formulated in second turning teachings on emptiness and no self are considered to be of merely provisional meaning (drang don) or in need of further interpretation. On the other hand, those third turning teachings that emphasize one ' s natural condition (yin lugs) , primordial knowing, buddha nature are taken as definitive (nges don)633 . In his Sems nyid ngal gso 'grel, Klong chen pa outlines his position on the three turnings :

Those who put on false airs and who are blind-folded by the golden veil of wrong views tum their back on the intended meanings of siitras and tantras that are of definitive meaning. They declare that what is of quintessential meaning is of provisional meaning and that the main import [of the teachings] is that the ' effect ' [goal-realization] occurs only if one trains in its ' causes ' [such as the two accumulations] . Hey handsome one, wearing your lotus garland, you truly do not understand the intentions that were conveyed in the three turnings of the buddha-word. You are certainly attached to the extreme of emptiness ! In this regard, the first turning of the buddha-word was intended for those who were neophytes and who were of lower capacity. Thus in order to have them tum away from sal1lsiira by taking the four truths in terms of things to be be abandoned [suffering and its cause] and their antidotes [the cessation of suffering and the path] , [the first turning] was a skillful means for them to gain complete liberation from what is to be abandoned. The middle [turning] was intended for those who had thoroughly cleared away [these impediments] and who were of medium capacity. Thus it taught sky-like emptiness together with the eight examples such as i llusion634 as skillful means to free them from the fetter of becoming attached to these antidotes . The final [turning] for the sake of those who had reached fulfilment and who were of sharpest capacity taught the nature of all that is knowable , as it really is . As such, it bears no similarity to the self (litman) of the Hindu heretics because (a) these people in their

633 It is worth noting that many rNying rna scholars including Rog Shes rab 'od ( 1 1 66-1244), Mi pham mam rgyal ( 1 846- 1 9 1 2) and, more recently, Dil mgo mkhyen brtse rin po che ( 1 9 1 0- 1 99 1 ) and bDud 'joms rin po che ( 1 904-1 987) have maintained that the last two turnings are both of definitive meaning, a view consonant with the rNying rna emphasis on the indivisibility of appearance and emptiness (snang stong dbyer med). See Wangchuk 2005.

634 On the eight examples, see below 276 n. 653 .

266

ignorance speak of a "self ' that does not actually exist, being a mere imputation superimposed on reality; (b) they take it as something measurable;635 and (c) they do not accept it is a quality of spiritual embodiment and primordial knowing (sku dang ye shes) . But even this preoccupation with 'no self' (aniitma) and ' emptiness ' (sunyatii) [concerns what are] merely correctives to [the beliefs in a] self and non-emptiness but which are not of definitive meaning.636

Indian and Tibetan theories of the three dharmacakras reflect varying attempts to

hierarchically distinguish stages of the Buddha' s teachings in line with corresponding levels of

intellectual-spiritual acumen and maturation in his audience. Klong chen pa' s interpretation of the

three turnings regards the first two turnings as remedial steps intended to clear the way for an

undistorted understanding of one ' s natural condition637 On this account, the Buddhist emptiness and

no self doctrines were initially formulated within a religio-philosophical climate rife with

speculations concerning the existence of a creator God, permanent true self or selves and an

unknowable absolute reality. Against this background, the Buddha' s discourses concerning aniitma

(no self) and sunyatii (emptiness) were offered as corrective measures with the express aim of

invalidating and eliminating wrong views and extreme conclusions , particularly those based on the

proclitivity to take things as enduring and independently existing. The doctrine of 'no self' was

expounded both as 1) a sectarian critique of various Hindu and Jain beliefs in a self - i .e . beliefs that

635 The idea that the self is measurable is found in Brahmanical and Jain traditions. The Ka!ha Upani$ad, for example, is quoted as saying (11.4. 1 2-13) that "A person the size of a thumb lives in the middle of the body like a flame without smoke. He is the lord of the past and the future. He is the same today and the same tomorrow". In Jainism, the self (jiva) though non-material occupies space, expanding and contracting to conform to the dimensions of the physical body. This shape is retained, though featureless, when, as the pure atman, the soul/self abandons its ties to corporeal existence and rises to the top of the universe where, according to Jain traditional cosmology, it resides for eternity. Kristi L. Wiley. Historical Dictionary of Jainism. Toronto: The Scarecrow Press, Inc . , 2004.

636 Sems nyid ngal gso 'grel vol. I : 329 f. : de la phyin ci log gi Ius sgyings shing log par rtog pa 'i gser gyi dra bas gdong g.yogs pal nges pa don gyi mdo dang sngags kyi dgongs pa la rgyab kyis phyogs pa dag snying po 'i don ni drang don te l rgyu sbyang na 'bras bu 'byung 'gyur la dgongs te gsung pa yin nol leva ye bzhin bzang pad ma 'i dra ba canl khyed kyis bka ' khor 10 gsum du gsungs pa 'i dgongs pa yang mi shes pa re bdenl stong pa 'i mtha ' la nges par 'dzin tal 'di Itar bka ' 'khor 10 dang par ni las dang po pa dangl dbang po dman pa rnams la dgongs nas bden bzhi spang gnyen du bya bas 'khor ba las bzlog pa 'i phyir spang bya las rnam par grol ba 'i thabs sol b ar bar yongs su sbyang ba byas pa dangl dbangpo 'bring po la dgongs nas gnyen por 'dzin pa 'i 'ching ba las grol ba 'i thabs su sgyu ma 'i dpe brgyad dang nam mkha ' Ita bu 'i stong pa nyid bstan tal tha mar mthar phyin pa dangl dbang po rnon po 'i ngor shes bya 'i gshisji Itar gnas pa de Itar gsungs pa yin nol de 'ang mu stegs pa 'i bdag ni 'di dang mi mthun te l de dag gis mi shes bzhin du bdag ces sgro btags pa nyid kyis gshis la med pa dangl che chung gi tshad du byed pa dangl sku dang ye shes kyi chos su mi 'dod pa 'i phyir rol khyed kyi bdag med pa dangl stong pa nyid la zhen pa 'ang bdag dang mi stong pa 'i gnyen po tsam yin gyi nges pa 'i don ni ma yin tel l 637 This point is reiterated by Klong chen pa in his later Tshig don mdzod: 897. 1 f. : "From among what was taught in the three turnings of the Buddha word by the Transcendent Conqueror, although this topic [i .e . buddha nature] was taught in the final turning, you have nonetheless failed to recognize this fact. If sheer emptiness (stong nyid rkyang pa) were the ultimate, then how does it make sense that the Buddha taught three turnings separately [and in this sequence]? Rather, he taught emptiness as being of provisional meaning with the intention of merely undermining (a) the fear of the abiding reality and (b) the belief in a self [entertained by] neophytes." ci bcom Idan 'das kyis bka ' 'khor 10 gsum du gsung pa las gnas 'di ni tha ma don dam rnam par nges pa 'i chos kyi 'khor lor gsungs pa yang khyod kyis ma shesl stong nyid rkyang pa don dam yin nal 'khor 10 gsum la tha dad du bstan pa 'angji Itar 'thad del stong nyid drang don du gsungs kyil de yang gnas lugs kyi skrag pa dangl las dang pas bdag tu 'dzin pa dgag tsam la dgongs pa ste l l

267

there is a permanent, singular, self-sufficient individuating principle that underlies and anchors the swirling flux of experience and survives death, and 2) as a psychological account of how the coarser elements of our ' sense of self' - those rooted in the sense we have of being a psychic unity that transcends actual experience - constitute fabrications or superimpositions added to our most basic experience of things and beings around us. The doctrinal belief in self can be seen to depend on the psychological sense of self; and both are undermined by realizing that things and persons lack any inherent independent nature.

Now the target of Klong chen pa' s critique of reificationism is not only the first order reification of ' selves ' (viz. identities of things and persons) but also the second order reifications of those very means (e.g . teachings on emptiness, no self) used to undermine first order reifications . 638

The point being that spontaneously present unfabrictated buddha nature - understood as self­occuring primordial knowing replete with inborn qualities - comes to the fore only to the extent that all such reifications have subsided. So, far from being comparable to the ontologized self of Hindu and Jain speculations , buddha nature is precisely what remains when dualistic superimpositions , especially the habitual sense of a self anchoring our everyday experiences , subsides . Buddha nature consists is the indivisibility of awareness and its expanse (dbyings dang ye shes 'du bral med pa) and of clarity and emptiness (snang stong dbyer med) .

In sum, the Sems ye dris lan 's clear and concise formulation of what would become an increasingly central focus of the author 's later works - the distinction between conditioned and unconditioned modes of being and awareness (sems versus ye shes) - and his attempt to show its affiliation with major currents of Buddhist thought make this text an indispensable source for understanding the development of this distinction and its place in classical rNying ma thought.

638 This is brought out more clearly in the Grub mtha ' mdzod 654.3 f. : "If we classifY [the authentic teachings] by way of temporal phases, the wheel of the Buddha-word was turned in three successive stages. Among these, there arose three teachings : at the time of the neophyte, by primarily showing the stages of rej ecting what is to be abandoned and accepting the antidotes in order to protect the mind from the emotional affliction that bind it due to the automomous [functioning of] subject and object, the teachings of the four noble truths [were given] . In the middle, in order to negate the habituation to these very antidotes, the teachings on the lack of inherent characteristics [were given] . And finally, the teachings on ascertaining ultimate reality [were given] that revealed how our basic nature is present just as is." dus kyi sgo nas dbye na bka ' 'khor 10 rim pa gsum du bskor ba rnams sol de 'ang las dang po pa 'i tshe gzung 'dzin rang rgyud pas beings pa 'i nyon mongs pa las sems bsrung ba 'i phyir spang gnyen blang dor byed pa 'i rim pa gtso bor ston pas bden pa bzhi 'i ehos kyi rnam grangs dangl bar ba gnyen po la mngon par zhen pa dgag pa 'i phyir mtshan nyid med pa dangl tha rna gshis ji !tar gnas bstan pa don dam rnam par nges pa 'i ehos kyi rnam grangs gsum du byung ba yinl l

268

§ 1 .2 Annotated Translation:

Reply to Questions Concerning Mind and Primordial knowing:

Instructions for Investigating Mind and Primordial knowing

Praise to All buddhas and bodhisattvas

I bow in homage to the Victors with their sons, an ocean Whose depth of sensitivity and caring cannot be fathomed In which the turbulence of mind and mental factors is stilled [Within] the clear oceanic expanse of their nondual Mind.

The essential meaning of the eighty-four thousand ways of teaching, The unerring intention of the siitra and tantra genres, Is summarized in terms of the distinction between mind and primordial knowing. Having investigated its meaning, I shall write about the stages of its cultivation.

[Introduction: ]

The perfectly realized buddha turned the wheel of the doctrine in three successive stages . Concerning the first discourse teachings on the four noble truths : these were primarily intended for the progression of neophytes and those of weak, inferior intelligence. [3781

They clearly conveyed the skillful means for internalizing [these truths] through the stages of things to be abandoned [i .e . the truths of suffering and is cause] and their antidotes [i .e . truths of cessation and the path] . Concerning the middle discourse teachings on the absence of defining characteristics : these were primarily intended for the stage of progress of those with some training and middling capacity. They conveyed with the antidote of teachings on the absence of intrinsic essence that those things taken as ' selves ' [or identities] are unoriginated. Amongst the final discourse teachings of definitive meaning: these primarily conveyed in extenso the teachings on how one ' s existential condition is present for the stage of progress of those belonging to the vehicle of complete fulfilment and who were of sharpest capacity.

The first [discourse] taught a path for turning away from the characteristics of sarp.sara that are to be abandoned. The middle taught the elimination of intellectual obscurations based on the fact that the natures one apprehends [and believes in] amongst what is to be eliminated are without intrinsic essence. The last disclosed our existential condition as the vital quintessence (yin lugs snying po).

269

Having thus clearly distinguished the meaning of what was taught on the basis of gradations in capacity and stages in how one progresses , one internalizes them [accordingly] . Here, the first stage is an impure condition because of its possessing defilement. [The next] is a partly pure, partly impure condition corresponding to the degrees to which defilements are purified by way of the path. [The last] is a condition of total purity divested of all defilements. With regard to these three [conditions] , they have each been elucidated according to the gradation of ( 1 ) ground, (2) path and (3) goal . [379J Among discourses corresponding to the final stage of promulgation, the Ratnagotravibhaga [ 1 .47] states

According to the phases of being impure, Partly pure and partly impure, and completely pure, One speaks of a sentient being, a bodhisattva And a Tathagata [Thus-gone] .

' Ground' refers to the presence in oneself of luminous primordial knowing during the time of being a sentient being. 'Path' refers to the four [phases] of Accumulation, Integration, Seeing and Cultivation during the time of being a bodhisattva. 'Goal ' refers to the final attainment of the inborn qualities such as the strengths at the time of being a Tathagata. Since Mind as such (sems nyid) in its luminosity within mind-governed beings (sems can) is suchness possessing defilements , it is described as "quintessence of the Tathagata," "one ' s virtuous disposition", "Mind as such", and "luminosity. "

[Part One : Ground]

Section One : A discussion of the meaning of "ground". The nature of reality in its primordial luminosity is unconditioned and spontaneously present. From the perspective of its emptiness , since it cannot be posited as any substance or characteristics and also cannot be negated as ' saqlsara' or 'nirvaT,la' and so forth, it is free from all limitations of discursive elaborations like the sky. From the perspective of its lucency, it is spontaneously and primordially imbued with the natural expression of the spiritual embodiments (sku) and modes of primordial knowing (ye shes) , and is luminous like the orbs of the sun and moon. These two facets abide primordially as the nature of reality as a unity without fusion or separation. As is stated in the sNying po rab tu bstan pa 'i mdo [M ahiiyiiniibhidharmasutra] : [380J

The beginningless element (dhiitu) Is the basis of all phenomena. Because it exists , [it allows for] all forms of life As well as the attainment of nirvaT,la.

639

639 The often quoted passage is from the Mahiiyiiniibhidharmasutra. Although no longer extant, this important sUtra is quoted at RGVV 72. 1 3-14 : aniidikiiliko dhiituh sarvadharmasamiisrayahl tasmin sati gatih sarvii nirviil)iidhigamo 'pi cal l See also RGVV 1 . 1 55 (J 1 . 1 52) See Takasaki 1 966 : 290. The Mahiiyiiniibhidharmasfttra has also been quoted in the Mahiiyiinasal71grahabhiisya (tr. by Paramartha, Taisho Edition of the Chinese Tripitaka, XXXI, no . 1 595 : l 57a f.) and the Trh!1sikiibhiisya (Skt. , ed. par Sylvain Levi : p. 37 f.) . The Tibetan translations of

270

And from the Mahiiyiinasutriilarhkiira [9.22] :

Although not different before or after. . . Suchness remains pure. 640

And [the Ratnagotravibhiiga [ 1 .5 1cd] states :

As it was before, so it is after -Such is the nature of invariance.641

As the Rin po che rgya mtsho 'i rgyud observes :

Tathiigatagarbha in its primordial luminosity is Like a jewel , perfectly replete with all qualities . And, like the undefiled sky and the orb of the sun, It is spontaneously present as kiiya[s] andjiiiina [s] .642

Thus we have ascertained by way of the view (lta ba) that primordial knowing in its luminosity constitutes the ever-present ground of being. These days , most ' spiritual friends ' and all

ROVV have dbyings instead of khams (both being accepted translations of dhiitu) . See Mathes 200 8 : 7 1 . It is interesting that Klong chen pa here and elsewhere (e.g. Sems nyid ngal gsa 'grel: 3 12 .6) refers to the text as sNying po rab tu bstan pa 'i mdo, a designation which may be a nod to his contemporary, Rang byung rdo rje ( 1284- 1 33 9) whose similarily titled sNying po bstan pa (Full title : De bzhin gshegs pa 'i snying po bstan pa zhes bya ba 'i bstan beos; in Rang byung rdo rje gSung 'bum, vol . 7: 282 £) presents (on 283 .2 f.) the above Mahayanabhidharmasiltra passage as the second of its three opening stanzas which consist of three well -known quotations concerning buddha nature. Rang byung rdo rj e is known to have been both student and teacher of Klong chen pa and both were at one time disciples of the renowned rDzogs chen master Ku rna ra dza. All that remains of their correspondence is a letter written by Klong chen pa posing critical questions to Rang byung rdo rje about the idea of a First Buddha (adibuddha : dang po 'i sang rgyas), an idea espoused in the Kalaeakra and Manjusrinamasaf(lgfti and taken up in the Rang byung rdo rje ' s Zab mo nang don and auto-commentary. Klong chen pa may have been following the lead of the Mahayanasiltralaf(lkara (MSA) which had similarily questioned the idea of a First Buddha. The letter entitled rGyal ba Rang byung rdo rje la phul ba 'i dri yig is found in gSung thor bu (A 'dzom 'brug pa ed.) vol. 1 : 3 63-377. For a French translation, see Arguillere 2007.

640 Klong chen pa begins with a line from MSA 1 0.22 but adds a l ine emphasizing the abiding purity of suchness. This gives a different sense than MSA 1 0.22 which reads snga ma phyi mar khyad med kyangl sgrib pa kun gyi dri med pal de bzhin nyid ni sangs rgyas 'dod!, dag pa ma yin ma dag mini I "Although not different before and after, I It is without defilements of al l the obscurations. 1 Suchness is accepted as Buddhahood, 1 Neither pure nor impure." 1 1 D no. 4020: 1 8 .3 £. That is to say, it cannot be considered pure (where purity connotes a loss of impurity) because it remains unchanged over time but also cannot be considered impure because it remains undefiled by obscurations.

641 Again the text is slightly different in wording (though not in sense) than ROV 1 . 5 1 cd (ROVV: 4 1 .2 1 ) which has : yatha pilrvam tathii pasead avikaritbadharmatal l ROVt : ji ltar sngar bzhin phyis de bzhinl 'gyur ba med pa 'i ehos nyid dol I 642 This possibly refers to the /)akan)avamahayoginftantraraja (Dpal mkha ' 'gro rgya mtsho 'i rgyud kyi dkyi/ 'khor gyi 'khor lo 'i sgrub thabs padma ra ga'i gter) . D no. 3 72. vol. KHA: 2 . 1 Tr. by Dharma yon tan (Dar rna yon tan?), though I could not locate this passage. The Sanskrit edition with Tibetan translation of chapter fifteen of this tantra is found in Maeda 1 995 : 147-1 69.

27 1

' great meditators ' are in agreement in taking the ground to be a sheer emptiness devoid of anything whatsover. This does not agree with the import of Buddhist discourses [of the third turning] that are of quintessential meaning. The goal, i .e . buddhahood endowed with all inborn qualities , does not alise by virtue of experiencing a ground that is simply nothing at all . [Why?] Because the three aspects of ground, path and goal are confounded and because buddhahood being an actualization of the goal of emancipation is unconditioned and endowed with spontaneously present qualities . Therefore, these [views] and the view of the peak of worldly existence643 would seem to be the same.

Here [in our tradition] , this unconditioned and spontaneously present luminosity is precisely what we call the ' ground. ' [38 1 1 From the dimension of this very ground, by failing to recognize one ' s existential condition (vin lugs) as i t is, there is ignorance (ma rig pa) . When one thereby goes astray into the [duality of an] apprehended object and apprehending subject, one circles around (sa1!lsiira) in the three realms . As is stated in the Miiyiijiila [i .e . *Guhyagarbhatantra 2 . 15 ] :

E rna ho i From the *sugatagarbha Individual divisive concepts644 manifest due to kmma.645

643 ' Peak of worldiness' (bhaviigra : srid rtse) describes the highest of the mundane formless meditations practiced by an Arhant. It is described as a sphere in which there is neither conceptualization nor nonconceptualization (naivasan:zjniiniijniisan:zjnatana) that occurs in the fourth and final formless attainment (arupya-samiipatti) . This attainment either leads to the state of cessation [of all conception and sensation] ( [san:zjnavedita]nirodhasamiipatti) in case of the Arya who is able to complete the stages of meditation that transcend worldliness (lokattara), or it represents the final destination for one unable to access this higher state and who therefore remains confined to worldly (laukika) states of mind. See AK 2.24 et passim and a illuminating comments by Seyfort Ruegg 1 989 : 1 92 f.. See also Klong chen pa' s Sems nyid ngal gsa 'grel (vol . 2 : 24 1 f) where the limited bhaviigra is distinguished from nirodha intererpreted (in light of MK v) as "cessation of discursive elaborations of mind" ( 'gog pa ni sems kyi spros pa 'gog pa 'i phyir) which, in the case of a bodhisattva, brings with it a heightened compassion for living beings.

644 Klong chen pa's quotation of this passage here and elsewhere (e.g. Grub mtha ' mdzod, Yid bzhin mdzod, Sems nyid ngal gsa 'gre!) take the Guhyagarbhatantra' s sprul (manifest, emanate) as the near-homophone (aspirated) 'khrul (elTancy) though not at sGyu ma ngal gsa 'grel (60 l .4) which correctly has sprul. In his commentary on this tantra (Phyogs bcu mun sel: 1 1 8 .6 f), Klong chen pa elucidates the passage as follows : "E ma ho is used to express the nature of kindness. ElTancy has derived from the dimension of the * sugatagarbha, one's primordial abiding condition, luminous Mind as such. Here, *sugatagarbha refers to luminous Mind as such which abides as the very essence of the three kayas which are neither conjoined nor disjoined . . . In the sGyu 'phrul rgyas pa (Tk vol. 1 4 : 67.6 f) its meaning is the actual all-ground that is unconditioned ( 'dus ma byas don gyi kun gzhi) : "It is not the all­ground of divisive conceptualizing, but the actual ground without intrinsic nature. That is called the expanse of phenomena, primordial knowing of suchness." . . . When errancy occurs due to any given conditions, since divisive concepts of individual sentient beings occur of their own accord, this great metropolis of sarpsara manifests l ike a self-appearing dream by virtue of causally efficacious karma." brtse ba 'i rang bzhin gyis e ma ho brjod nasi gdod ma 'i gnas lugs sems nyid 'ad gsal ba bde gshegs snying po 'i ngang las 'khrul 101 de 'ang bde gshegs snying po ni sems nyid 'ad gsal ba sku gsum 'du 'bral med pa 'i ngo bar gnas pa de nyid yin tel . . . sgyu 'phrul rgyas pa lasl rnam rtog kun gzhi ma yin pal rang bzhin med pa don gyi gzhil de ni chos kyi dbyings zhes byal de bzhin nyid kyi ye shes soi l zhes pa dangl 'dus ma byas don gyi kun gzhi 'i don nyia1 . . . rkyen gang gis 'khrul na sems can rang rang gi rnam par rtog pa rang shar du byung bas rgyas byas pa 'i las kyis 'khor ba 'i grong khyer chen po 'di rang snang rmi lam ltar sprul soi l 645 See critical edition in Dorje 1 987 : 1 88 .

272

Thus, the non-recognition of one ' s abiding condition is the ' fundamental ignorance ' (rtsa ba 'i rna rig pa) . From the context of what is the ground or seed or basis of the development of this incipient errancy, the [ensuing] upwelling of hypostates based on dualistic beliefs constitutes the ' conceptually elaborated ignorance ' (kun tu brtags pa 'i rna rig pa) . When from these two [modes] , there arise all the different phenomenal categories of sentient beings comprising the lower three wretched destinies , the middle human realm, and higher divine realms , then due to the potentialities imprinted in the form of various latent tendencies on the all-ground, one experiences the joys and sorrows of one ' s own vision, the heights and depths of sal!1sara, like the turning of a water mill. The RatnagulJasancayagiithii [28 .5ab] states :

Sentient beings , lower, middle and higher, however many, Are all declared by the buddha to arise from ignorance.646

Although the three realms continue separately, the *sugatagarbha without being adversely affected, remains pervasively present in all sentient beings . As the Srfrniiliidevfsif!Ihaniidas�ltra states :

All beings are totally pervaded by tathiigatagarbha .647

And as is stated in the Ratnagotravibhiiga [ 1 .27] :

All embodied being are always imbued with the buddha-quintessence Because the spiritual body of perfect buddhahood radiates , [382J Because suchness is undifferentiated, and Because the spiritual affiliation is present.

Moreover, during the phase of sentient beings , the tathiigatagarbha is obscured by [dualistic] mind and remains defiled. As is stated in the Miiyiijiila :

As water present in the centre of the earth Is always naturally uncontaminated, So one ' s spiritual potential obscured by mind, Is naturally present within all sentient beings.648

646 Full title: PrajPiiipiiramitiiratnagu/JsaYflcayagiitha (Tib. 'Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa sdud pa tshigs su bcad pa, in D no. 1 3 , shes phyin, vol. KA: 2 . 1 ) . For Sanskrit and Tibetan recensions of the text, see Obermiller 1 937 and Yuyama 1 976. The relevant passage Ratnagu/JsaYflcayagiitha 28 .5ab in Sanskrit reads : yiivanta sattva mrdu-madhyam '-ukr$ta lokel sarve avidya-prabhavii sugatena uktiibl l See Yuyama 1 976: 1 1 0; Obermiller 1 937 : 1 03 . For the Tibetan, see Yuyama 1 976: 1 85 , Obermiller: 1 03 . 647 Full title: SrfmiiliidevfsiYflhaniida-niima-mahiiyiinasutra (Tib. Phags pa lha mo dpal phreng gi seng ge 'i sgra zhes bya ba theg pa chen po 'i mdo, in D no. 92. dkon brtsegs, vol. CHA: 509. 1 ) . For English translation see Wayman and Wayman 1 974. The passage is also cited in Klong chen pa' s Grub mtha ' mdzod: 87 l .5 f. and in his Phyogs bcu mun sel: 1 1 9.4 f. where it is incorrectly ascribed to the Samiidhiriijasutra.

273

And as the Ratnagotravibhiiga [ 1 . 1 12-1 1 3] describes it:

Were there an inexhaustible treasure Underground beneath a poor man's house, Neither would he know of its presence, Nor could the treasure tell him "here I am".

Likewise, as all beings have failed to realize The most precious treasure contained within their minds -Their true nature, immaculate without anything added or removed. Thus they continually experience the manifold miseries of impoverishment.

In this context, the tathiigatagarbha is comparable to the orb of the sun while the all-ground together with its latent tendencies - the whole complex of mind and its mental factors within the mind­streams belonging to the three realms - is comparable to clouds .

Some fools who boast about their erudition [claim the following] : It is untenable [to maintain that] mind and its mental factors are obscurations because (A) one produces the mind [of awakening, i .e . bodhicitta] and because (B) Mind as such which is luminous is one ' s spiritual potential (khams) . (383) Consequently, [we reply that] it would symptomatic of not comprehending the import of the sfitras and tantras to say that [dualistic] mind is accepted as being one of the meditative absorptions (samadhi) [belonging to] the facets of nonconceptual awakening. [Our argument is as follows : ] (A) With regard to 'producing the mind ' [of awakening] , is this not also a conceptualizing that involves accepting [some things] and rejecting [others] in the context of sal1lsara [and hence obscured]? If so, it would ultimately have to cease . (B) But if one were to speak about Mind as such [in this way] then this would be inappropriate because it cannot be established given that there is neither produced nor producer [i .e . no causality] .

It seems [here] that one has not properly distinguished between mind (sems) and Mind as such (sems nyid) . Since 'mind' involves conceptual and analytic factors of mind-streams belonging to the three realms , it is that which grasps erroneous superimposed aspects together with the all­ground [comprising] the eightfold cognitive ensemble. As the Satyadvayavibhanga maintains :

'Conceptualization' consists of mind and mental factors Having superimposed aspects that constitute the three realms . 649

648 This passage is not found in the * Guhyagarbhatantra (see critical edition Dorje 1 987) but possibly belongs to another text from the Miiyajala cycle.

649 Full title : SatyadvayavibhQ/1gakiirikii. Tib. Bden pa gnyis rnam par 'byed pa'i tshig le 'ur byas pa, in D no. 3 8 8 1 , dbu ma, vol. SA: 2 . 1 . I n his Satyadvayavibhangavrtti, Jfianagarbha glosses this passage as follows : "Conceptualization refers to what arises as having superimposed aspects of mind and mental events that constitute the three realms." D Toh no. 3 882, dbu ma, vol. SA: 25.5 £ : khams gsum pa 'i sems dang sems las byung ba 'i sgro btags pa 'i rnam pa can du 'byung ba 'i rnam pa ni rtog pa yin no l l For English translation, see Ecke1 1 987.

274

'Mind as such' is luminous primordial knowing, the tathagatagarbha. Thus it is when mind ceases or no longer functions that Mind as such, luminous primordial knowing, shines forth as personally realized intuitive awareness . As the A�rasahasrikaprajiiaparamita [5b. 1-2] states :

That Mind i s not mind; Mind's nature i s luminous .65o

[Objection: ] But doesn't great Mind (sems chen po) exist on the level of buddha hood?

[Reply: ] This refers to great primordial knowing (ye shes chen po) . It agrees completely with descriptions of the ' great passions ' as [expressions of] primordial knowing that are found in the tantras . In short, [384] mind together with its mental factors belonging to the three realms and subject to latent tendencies transmitted since beginningless time are shown65 1 to have the two obscurations [intellectual and emotional] as their nature and to be produced. And thus they are explained as something to be eliminated and that must be stopped.

Moreover, it is claimed that to now depend upon a method that [itself] does not depend on the state of Mind as such in its luminosity is comparable to a cloud adrift in space. As the Ratnagotravibhaga [ l .55-57] states :

Earth is spported by water, water by air, And air is supported by space. But space is supported neither by The elements of air, water nor earth.

Likewise our psychophysical aggregates , sensory elements and sensory capacities

Are supported by actions and afflictive emotions . Actions and afflictive emotions are supported completely by The inappropriate mentation.

Inappropriate mentation is in turn supported by The purity of mind The nature of Mind, however, is not Supported by any of these phenomena.

650 The corresponding passage from the Sanskrit are given in Schmithausen 1 977: 41 as l ines E.b. I-2 tatM hi tac cittam acittami pra!qtis cittasya prabMsvariii i . This passage is commented on above 79 n. 1 97 and 1 1 8 n. 309 . 6 5 1 SYa has brten pas whereas SY d and SYk have bstan pas. Both readings are possible but the latter is better suited to the context of citing scriptural support for the distinction between sems and ye shes (or sems chen po). A reading based on the former would be " . . . mind together with its mental factors belonging to the three realms and subject to latent tendencies transmitted since beginningless time depend upon having the two obscurations [intellectual and emotional] as their nature and upon being produced."

275

As the Pramiil}aviirttika [ 1 .208ab] states :

This mind is by nature luminous. The defilements are adventious.652

This statement agrees with this [rNying rna] approach insofar as ' the nature of Mind, ' ' the basic nature of Mind, ' 'Mind as such' and ' the naturally pure expanse ' and ' the abiding condition as the nature of things ' have one and the same meaning.

Mind, on the other hand" consists of three conditional states by virtue of its classification in terms of the three realms : (A) a one-pointed conceptless [state in the realm of formlessness] , (B) a simple clarity [state in the realm of aesthetic forms] and (C) a conceptual [state in the desires realm] ' [385 ] Thus these phenomena of sarrsiira that depend on mind and appear mistakenly due to latent tendencies are unreal , deceptive, a childish delusion, compounded, hollow, insubstantial , and without essence, [like] a bubble about to burst [or] a plantain. They are therefore illustrated by way of eight examples653 such as magic , a reflected image and so forth. They constitute a distortion, a visual anomaly, apparent yet nothing as such. Being devoid of abiding nature throughout the time of their appearing, they cannot withstand intellectual analysis . They are mere appearances to

652 While the SY has sems kyi rang bzhin 'od gsal bal dri ma rnams ni glo bur bal l , my rendering is based on Pramiil)aviirttika 1 .208ab : prabhiisvaram ida/ll citta/ll prakrtyii ' 'gantavo maliibl l and corroborated by Tibetan translation in D: sems 'di rang bzhin 'od gsal te l dri ma rnams ni glo bur bal l On differing views on what Dharmaklrti may have meant by this passage, see Seyfort Ruegg 1 969 : 425-28; Schmithausen 1 987 : 1 60-62; Franco 1 997 : 85-93 ; and Wangchuk 2007 : 208.

6 5 3 Klong chen pa' s sGyu ma ngal gso (in Ngal gso skor gsum vol. 2) elaborates on the eight examples (dpe, upamiina) to illustrate the emptiness of all phenomena: ( 1 ) dream (rmi lam, svapna), (2) magical illusion (sgyu ma, miiyii), (3) reflected image (mig yor, pratibhiisa), (4) mirage (smig rgyu, marfci), (5) moon' s reflection on water (chu 'i zla ba, udakacandra), (6) echo (brag ca, pratisrutkii), (7) Gandharva city (dri za 'i grong khyer, gandharvanagara), (8) apparition (sprul pa, nirmiil)a). Varying lists of such examples are found throughout Buddhist literature from . the Pali canon (where they illustrate the lack of self in persons) through Mahayana and Vajraylina literature (where they are used to illustrate emptiness of all phenomena). On early Buddhist and Mahayana sources, see Lamotte 1 944-80 I: 357, n. 1 . The eight examples presented in Klong chen pa's sGyu ma ngal gso match the ten elaborated in MahiiprajniipiiramitiiSiistra I Ll (Lamotte 1 944-80 tome I: 357) , excluding shadow (chiiyii) and space (akiisa) and having reflected image (mig yor = pratibhiisalprodbhiisa) instead of mirror reflection (pratibimba) . See also Pancavi/llsati: p. 4-5, Satasiihasrikii: p. 5. Some references to the examples in Madhyamaka literature are noted by Tillemans 1 990, vol. 1 : 289, n. 437. Klong chen pa' s sGyu ma ngal gso together with its auto-commentary (sGyu ma ngal gso 'gre/) offers a detailed analysis of each of the eight examples (with a great many supporting quotations from siitras and tantras) in its eight consecutive chapters, correlating them with the eight negations (in four pairs) that are presented in the dedicatory stanza of Nagarjuna ' s Mulamadhyamakakiirika in order to indicate that all phenomena, insofar as i t they are dependently arisen, ultimately elude any positive assertions : "Whatever is dependently arisen is unceasing, unoriginated, unannihilated, not permanent, not coming, not going, without difference, without identity . . . " The complete opening pada reads anirodha/ll anutpiida/ll anuccheda/llasiiSvata/ll 1 anekiirtha/ll aniiniirtha/ll aniigama/ll anirgama/lll yab pratftyasamut­piida/ll prapancopasama/ll siva/lll desayiimiisa sa/llbuddhab ta vande vandatii/ll vara/ll i l See Mulamadhyamakakiirika (ed. L. de la Vallee Poussin: p. 1 1 ; ed. P.L. Vaidya: p. 4). In Klong chen pa' s arrangement, ( 1 ) dream illustrates non-origination (skye ba med pa, anutpiida), (2) illusion illustrates non-cessation( 'gag pa med pa, anirodha), (3) reflected image illustrates not coming ( 'ong ba med pa, aniigama), (4) mirage illustrates not going ( 'gro ba med pa, anirgama), (5) moon's reflection on water illustrates non-annihilation (chad pa med pa, anuccheda), (6) echo illustrates non-permanence (rtag pa med pa, asiisvata), (7) Gandharva city illustrates non­difference (tha dad pa ma yin pa, aniinartha), (8) apparition illustrates non-identity (gcig tu ma yin pa, anekiirtha).

276

conventional, erroneous [cognitions] like the visions of one who has ingested [the hallucinogenic] dhatura. Meanwhile one should recognize [these phenomena] as appearances due to grasping the apprehended object and apprehending subject as real.

The luminous vital quintessence should be understood as follows : it is ultimate reality, it is enduring, stable, without transition or change, utterly calm and non-deceptive . The very essence of primordial knowing, the ground just as is from time immemorial until the end, is free from all limitations of discursive elaborations and, like the unobscured orb of the sun, remains the same in nature - it has not been shrouded, is not now shrouded and [will remain] unshrouded by the defilements of all phenomena belonging to mind and its mental factors .

[Part Two: Path]

Section Two: How to make an experience of the path. Having realized the presence of the quintessence of buddhahood within oneself, one meditatively cultivates this state. By way of the Paramita system, one cultivates it after generating [bodhi]citta. By way of Mantra[yana] , [386J

one additionally brings about maturation by means of the empowerments and brings about freedom by means of the oral instructions . Here [in our system] , the method of internalizing it as a single essence is thus in harmony with the sfitras .

In this regard, once comfortably seated, one takes refuge and develops [bodhi]citta . After having clearly visualized in an instant the deity of one ' s predilection , [while seated in a posture] endowed with the seven qualities of Vairocana654, one becomes evenly composed in the expanse of this clear, vivid and vast state of open awareness which does not conceptualize anything, does not grasp anything, and is not identified by the mind as any apparent object. One thus relaxes in the experience of luminosity. As it is extolled by Arya Nagarjuna in his *Madhyamakaratniisukosa :

Don't conceptualize anything and don't grasp anything ! Relax freely in its nature without making it something contrived. This uncontrived state is the precious treasury of the unborn. It is the road travelled by all the Victors of the three times.655

And as the Heruka Galpo Tantra declares :

654 The seven-point posture refers to an ideal meditation posture having seven qualities of the deity Vairocana (rnam snang ehos bdun): ( 1 ) legs crossed (in vajra posture, right leg over left leg with backs of feet sitting on tops of thighs), (2) hands in gesture of equanimity (right hand rests on left four finger' s width below navel), (3) spine straight, (4) neck bent slightly forward, (5) shoulders broadened ("like the wings of a vulture") , (6) eyes gazing in direction of the nose (Le. gazing unfixedly into space twelve to sixteen finger widths in front of nose), (7) tongue touching the palate. rkang pa skyil krungl lag pa mnyam gzhagl sgal tshigs drang po bsrang bal mgrin pa eung zad gug pal dpung pa rgod gshog ltar brgyang bal mig sna rtser phab pal lee rtse ya rkan la sbyar ba ste bdun nol l

655 There is no canonical text bearing the title to which this passage is attributed (Tib. Dbu ma skye med rin po ehe 'i mdzod) although there is a very short text entitled Ratnasukosa (Tib. Skye med rin po ehe 'i mdzod) ascribed to Nagarjilna. E .g. D no. 3 839, vol . TSA: 299.4. This passage does not occur in it.

277

Devoid of thought is Mind as such as vast as space. Mind as such is space beyond all thoughts . Concerning this Mind as such [vast as] space and devoid of thought, There is no apprehension in space nor anything apprehended.656

So at this time, when mind and all its mental factors have ceased, the nonconceptual primordial knowing is present as the essence of personal self-awareness. As a scripture [i .e . Prajfiiipiiramitiistotra by Rahulabhiidra] states :

Devoid of what can be expressed in language and thought, such is PrajiUiparamita. [387] Unborn, unceasing, the essence of space itself, It is the scope of primordial knowing as individual self-awareness . Praise to the Mother of all Victors of the three times.657

In this context, ultimate truth is declared to be beyond the domain of the mind and intellect. What this implies is that when mind ceases and one transcends intellect, that primordial awareness which has been present in oneself is [revealed as] the very nature of reality (dharmatii) like the shining sun when it is free from clouds . As for settling into the composure state : at a time when there is a cloudless sky which enhances the process of separating the essence from the dregs [i .e . open awareness from obscuring thoughts] , sit with your back to the sun. By letting your eyes gaze toward the centre or expanse of the sky, a limpid nonconceptual state of awareness arises . At this time, since mind has stopped, the two types of apprehension lack any objective reference, the two types being (a) the apprehension of the ' outer' apparent object as a real entity and (b) the apprehension the ' inner ' mind as a real entity. When therefore one no longer conceptualizes entity or non-entity, there is a calm in which any third alternative type of apprehension apart from those two would [also] be without objective reference. The Bodhicaryiivatiira [9. 34] states :

When neither entity nor non-entity Is present before the mind,

656 Full Title: He ru ka 'dus pa 'i rgyud phyi ma dpal he ru ka'i gal po dur khrod mngon par 'byung ba zhes bya ba'i rgyuaj Tk vol. 25 : 93 . 1 f.. One of the eighteen Mahayoga tantras devoted to Ye shes dri med, the heruka of the Tathagata family among the five buddha families. I could not locate quotation in this source.

657 The passage which the Sems ye dris Ian here ascribes to 'a scripture' (lung) is elsewhere quoted by Klong chen pa under the title Yum la bstod pa (Skt. Prajfiaparamitastotra). See, as examples, Theg mchog mdzod vol . 1 : 1 05 1 .3 , sPyi don legs bshad rgya mtsho in Ngal gso skor gsum vol. 3 : 40. 1 , and sGyu ma ngal gso 'grel in Ngal gso skor gsum vol. 2 : 597.4. Most Indian, Tibetan and Chinese sources attribute this hymn to Rahulabhadra (Tib. sGra gcan 'dzin bzang po). The hymn is prefixed (with this authorial ascription) to a number of Prajfiaparamitasiitras in Sanskrit (though neither the Tibetan nor Chinese translations contain the praise). See Seyfort Ruegg 2004 : 1 9 . The early (9th c.?) Tibetan lDan dkar ma catalogue lists a Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa la bstod pa 'i tshig gi sdeb sbyor that it ascribes to this author. See Lalou 1 953 no. 452. In the existing bsTan ' gyur collections, however, the Prajfiaparamitastotra (Tib. Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa 'i bstod pa) is only found as one of the eighteen stotras ascribed to Nagarjuna. E.g. 0 no. 1 1 27, vol. KA: 1 5 1 . 1 f.. Nothing resembling the passage in question is found in this work. See comparison of the two Tibetan translations of the Rahulabhadra text by Seyfort Ruegg in Doboom 1 995 : 83 f..

278

At that time, since there is also no other representation, Lacking any obejctive reference , it remains thoroughly calm.658

As the Maiijusrfniimasaf!lgfti [58b] states :

[He is] to be individually intuitively known - unwavering . . . 659

A Dohii states : [388]

Relax simply in self-clarity [like] water and a lamp [reflected in it] .

Or as Kaudalika [i .e . Kotalipa] puts it:

Meditating by way of mind is not meditation. But not meditating is also not meditation. Beyond meditating and not meditating, The very absence of mentation is Mahamudra ! 660

On this occasion, "cessation of mind" means that open awareness makes evident the spiritual embodiment of primordial knowing (ye shes kyi sku : jiiiinakiiya) . [The Madhyamakiivatiira ( 1 1 . 17d)661 states : ]

658 This famous line from Santideva's ninth chapter on insight is presented as the Madhyamaka response to the Yogaclira question (Bodhicaryavatara 9.33) "When the thing investigated which is said to not exist is not perceived, then how can some no-thing, devoid of basis, be present before the mind?" The answer is that it can't; ne ither entity (thing) nor non-entity (no-thing) in fact exist. 659 'He' of course refers to Mafijusri who in this text personifies primordial knowing. D vol. KA: 7 .6 . The Skt. for the relevant part of 58b is pratyatmavedyo hy acala/:z . . . For critical edition of Sanskrit text and translation, see Davidson 1 98 1 . 660 The author to whom this passage is attributed was an Indian mahasiddha, known in Tibetan works as Tog rtse pa (Tog tse pa?) "Mattock-man", who gained fame in Tibet for his non-gradual Mahamudra teachings . sGam po pa' s grand-student 'Jig lien mgon po once commented that from among all the Indian and Tibetan adepts , it was only the Indian Kotalipa and Tibetan sGam po pa who directly pointed out mind . See Jackson 1 994a: 13 and 1 42 . Also see Roerich 1 988 : 869 f.. The quoted passage is not found in Kaudalika's oft-quoted Acintyakramopadesa (Tib. Bsam gyis mi khyab pa 'i rim pa 'i man ngag), D no. 2228, vol. 5 1 : 1 98 .5 f..

661 Text and translation corrected according to MA v: 3 6 1 . This edition is based : as Tauscher ( 1 989: p . VI) observes, " on the canonical edition of the Madhyamakavatarabha:tya [5263] of Peking, to which that of Narthang, a (seemingly) non-canonical edition which La Vallee Poussin obtained from Stcherbatsky and which I am unable to identifY, and occasionally Jaylinanda's commentary have been compared." In addition to copies of the MAv that circulated in Tibet, with or without the bha:tya, there are two different canonical translations of the MAv: an older one by Nag tsho Tshul khrims rgyal ba and KmlapaJ)Qita in Peking (P 526 1 ) and Narthang editions and a newer one by Pa tshab Nyi rna grags and Tilaka(kalasa) (P 5262 and D 386 1 ) . Although the earlier translation was largely replaced by the later, it continued to be used at least until the 1 5th century. Klong chen pa' s quotations from MAv correspond to the earlier Nag tsho translation though he invariably interprets 12 , 8d as if 'gag pa had the ergative pas.

279

Due to mind' s cessation, that [suchness] is made evident by the kaya.

This is one qualter of [of the stanza] .

Now, in the case of genuine meditative absorption, there occurs [a state that does] not stray from the sphere of open awareness which is free from the entire complex of mind consisting of the all-ground and all-ground consciousness, along with ego-based cognition, and the conscious experiences of the five sense perceptions . The Inconceivability (Skt. acintya Tib. bsam gyis mi khyab pa) chapter of the Ratnakuta states :

Though free from mind, ego-mind and dichotomizing cognition662, one has not also abandoned the state of contemplative absorption.663

By meditating in this way, the three experiences of bliss , clarity and nonconceptualization naturally emerge and, moreover, they are beyond limit. As the mDo gdams ngag 'bog pa 'i rgyal po states :

If one settles mind without thought in The nature of reality without thought, There arises a felt experience without bias or partiality.664

Now, the procedure for this meditative absorption that transcends mind belonging to the three realms[389] is as follows . In the formless [realms] the single-pointed nonconceptual [cognition] has no apparent object (snang yul med pa) . This means that although there is no conceptualization, the appearance of objects (yul snang ba) is not suppressed, rather it is the single-pointed grasping that is absent. As for mind belonging to the [realm of] forms , although there is the appearance of objects , this may involve thoughts and analyses (rtog dpyod) or be devoid of these. But even if it is imbued with the good feelings of a meditative trance, it doesn't go beyond a kind of grasping. The mind which doesn' t go beyond matters of speculation because its doubts have not been resolved and the mind belonging to the desires [realm] are predominantly conceptual and analytic. In this context, what constitutes nonconceptual primordial knowing and, moreover, the meditative absorptions of the

662 rNying rna texts often quote this passage in support of the idea that the varying accounts of dual cognition found in Buddhist texts - mind (sems : citta), ego-mind (yid : manas) and dichotomizing cognition (rnam [par] shes [pal : vijFiiina) - which that A bhidharmakosa claims are synonymous, must ultimately be abandoned in order to realize a more fundamental mode of awareness. 663 This refers to the Acintyaguhyanirdda which makes up section three of the Ratnakuta. Full title: AryamahiiratnakutadharmaparyiiyasatasiihasrikagranthetrisallJvaranirdesaparivartaniimamahiiyiinasutra (Tib. 'Phags pa dkon mchog brtsegs pa chen po 'i chos kyi rnam grangs stong phrag brgya pa las sdom pa gsum bstan pa 'i Ie 'u zhes bya ba theg pa chen po 'i mdo, in 0 no. 45 : 1 99. 1 ) . 664 The title to which this passage is attributed likely refers to the dGongs 'dus (Sangs rgyas thams cad kyi dgongs pa 'dus pa 'i mdo), a text sometimes referred to by the title [mDo] gDams ngag 'bogs pa 'i rgyal po or close variants thereof by rNying rna pa and bKa' brgyud scholars including Phag mo gru pa rOo rje rgyal po, Bu ston Rin chen grub, 'Gos 10 tsa ba, and Klong chen pa. For this identification and its problems, see Karmay 1 998 : 84-89. The dGongs 'dus is an important rNying rna tantra (despite the mdo in its title) that is regarded as as one of five principal tantras of the Anuyoga tradition ofrOzogs chen.

280

three individual realms still involve latent tendencies for mind' s apparent objects and thus the nature of one ' s abiding condition remains unknown. But here [primordial knowing and absoprtions] are nonetheless endowed with numerous special qualities such as realizing the essence of the ground whose nature is radiant clarity, being embraced by the bodhicitta, and uniting [the forces of] skill full means and discerning insight. In this regard, the four concentrations and four fOlmless states are of two sorts : (a) those subsumed under the mind of sarpsara, i .e . grasping which, in this context should stop, and (b) the transworldly formless concentrations which should be cultivated because they are the genuine primordial knowing. So as you progressively become familiar with luminous primordial knowing, [390] you successively traverse all the spiritual levels and paths and the super-knowledges665 such as the [divine] eye666 and so forth arise automatically like reflections arising spontaneously in clear water.

[Part Three : The Goal]

Once you have thus recognized the ground and have purified, through cultivating the path, the defilements of mind and its mental factors that have obscured your spiritual potential, and after experiencing the diamond-like absorption at the end of the series of ten spiritual levels , primordial knowing of buddhahood dawns . Since one ' s spiritual disposition is then free of every last defilement, this is known as the fundamental transformation of spiritual awakening (byang chub tu gnas 'gyur) . At this time, the dharmakaya in its luminosity makes true cessation in which mind has ceased clearly evident by way of primordial knowing, self-awareness as it is individually realized. As the Madhyamakavatara [ 1 1 . 17] states :

Through the incineration of the dry kindling of all that Is knowable, the [ensuing] peace is the dharmakaya of the victors . At this time there is neither arising nor cessation. Due to mind' s cessation that [suchness] is made evident by the kaya.667

665 The six super-knowledges (abhijPiil : mngon par shes pa) are: 1) capacity for miraculous transformations, 2) divine eye (that sees the deaths, transmigrations and rebirths of al l sentient beings), 3) divine ear (that hears all sounds in the universe), 4) clairavoyance (that knows all the thoughts of others), 5) remembering past lives (of oneself and others), and 6) ability to destroy imperfections (in oneself and others). These are discussed in AK 7.42ad. See de La Vallee Po us sin 1 97 1 , vol. 4: 97 f. . In his Sems nyid nga! gso 'gre! (vol. 1 : 455 .4 f.), Klong chen pa includes the six as one of the twenty-one categories of undefiled qualities of the Buddha presented in A bhisamayil!af!1kilra 8.2-6. For additional details on the six super-knowledges, see ' Jigs med gling pa' s Yon tan mdzod rang 'gre! vol. 1 : 34 1 .3 f. and Yon tan rgya mtsho 's Yon tan mdzod 'gre! vol. I : 792. 1 f.. 666 The term spyan (honorific of mig or ' eye') refers to the divine eye (divyacakous : !ha 'i mig/lha 'i spyan), one of the six super-knowledges (see preceding note). See AK 7.54cd. 667 This quotation and the following one (MA v 1 l . l 7 and 1 1 . 1 9) are here presented (with intervening pada 1 1 . 1 8) along with Candraklrti ' s auto-commentary as they are found in the critical edition MAv: 3 6 1 :

shes bya 'i bud shing skam po ma Ius pal bsregs pas zhi ste rgya! rnams chos sku stel de tshe skye ba med cing 'gag pa medj sems 'gags pas de sku yis mngon sum mdzadl l [ 1 1 . 1 7]

28 1

This spiritual embodiment (kaya) [of suchness] is of three kinds : ( 1 ) the dharmakaya, luminous by nature, (2) sa�bh6gakaya, endowed with five definite attributes668 , and (3) nirmaI)akaya, manifesting in order to train each trainee according to their aspirations . One ' s inborn qualities are thereby spontaneously present like a wish-granting jewel. So long as sa�sara persists , [39 1 l spontaneously occuring buddha-activity arises in order to fulfil the two aims of living beings669 . This [buddha activity] manifests and is actualized in the spiritual embodiment of primordial knowing that is free from all discursive elaborations . As this text goes on to say [ 1 1 . 19] :

The embodiment of calm radiates like a wish-fulfilling tree . And like a wish-granting jewel , it ever enriches the world, Without premeditation, until beings are free. This is manifest in a state free from elaboration.

Now, at the time of buddhahood, although mind and mental factors cease, since primordial knowing does not cease, it is not like space that is empty of matter. Rather, [this primordial knowing] works for the fulfillment of sentient beings by way of inconceivably great insight and compassion comprising (a) qualities of renunciation, that is, the freedom from all obscurations and

ye shes kyi rang bzhin can gyi sku shes bya 'i bud shing skam po ma Ius pa bsregs pa las shes bya 'i skye ba med pas skye ba med pa dang ldan par 'gyur ba gang yin pa 'di ni sangs rgyas rnams kyi chos kyi sku '0 1 'di nyid kyi dbang du mdzad nasi

sangs rgyas rnams ni chos nyid ltal 'dren pa rnams ni chos kyi skul chos nyid shes bya 'ang ma yin te l de ni shes par nus ma yinl l [ 1 1 . 1 8]

zhes gsungs sol chos kyi sku 'di nil de tshe skye ba med cing 'gag pa med pa ste l 'di nyid kyi dbang du mdzad nas 'jam dpal skye ba med cing 'gag pa med pa zhes bya ba 'di ni de bzhin gshegs pa 'i tshig bla dvags so zhes gsungs sol de ltar na ye shes kyi yul de kho na nyid la rnam pa thams cad du de 'i yul na sems dang sems las byung ba rnams mi 'jug pas sku kho nas mngon sum du mdzad par kun rdzob tu rnam par bzhag gol 'di ni

zhi sku dpag bsam shing ltar gsal gyur zhingl yid bzhin nor buji bzhin rnam mi rtogl 'gro grol bar du 'jig rten 'byor slad rtagl 'di ni spros dang bral la snang bar 'gyurl l [ 1 1 . 1 9]

sku gang gis de kho na nyid 'di mngon sum du mdzad par bshad pa de ni zhi ba 'i rang bzhin can du 'dod del sems dang sems las byung ba dang bral ba 'i phyir rol zhi ba 'i rang bzhin can yin yang sems can gyi don mdzad par spyod pa gsal bar byed pa nil . . . . 668 These five definites (nges pa lnga) , also known as five exquisite qualities (phun sum tshogs lnga) , specify the structure common to the varied manifestations of saJJZbhogakiiya. They are: ( 1 ) setting (gnas), (2) duration (dus), (3) teacher (ston pa), (4) his teaching (bstan pa), and (5) his retinueCkhor) . These became widespread in Tibetan exegesis on the three kayas from at least as early as the fourteenth century. See Makransky: 1 06 f ; Almogi : 242-243, n. 1 9. In classical rNying rna works from Klong chen pa onward, the five are sometimes elaborated in great detail. as in Sems nyid ngal gso 'grel vol. 2 : 322 . 1 f and Yon tan mdzod rang 'grel vol. 2 : 805.4. f.. Makransky suggests a possible source for the list of definite attributes of salJZbhogakiiya in Atisa' s eleventh century condensed commentary on the A bhisamayalalJZkara, the Prajnaparamitapirl(jarthapradipa, P 520 1 : 1 06.5 .4 f, which has a listing offour definites that includes all but duration. 669 That is. the aims/values of oneself (rang don) and others (gzhan don).

282

(b) qualities of realization including the ten strengths 670, four kinds of fearlessness67 1 , four correct discriminations672, ten powers673 and so forth, and it is unconditioned and spontaneously present. It is the actualization of a capacity which exists as a quality which you have had primordially in your spiritual potential. As the Ratnagotravibhaga [ 1 .5] states :

Buddhahood is endowed with the two aims : a) It is unconditioned, spontaneously present, And is not realized through extraneous conditions . b) It is imbued with knowing, caring and capability.

In short, the goal is what is known as spiritual awakening (byang chub) replete with[392J capabilities belonging to one ' s spiritual potential which is luminosity. For a more detailed exegesis of these matters , you should have a look at the treatise I composed called Nges don Shing rta chen p0674.

670 The ten strengths (bala : stobs) comprise: ( 1 ) knowing what is possible and what is not possible (with regard to karma), (2) knowing how actions bring about results (in minutest detail), (3) knowing the higher and lower capacities of humans (ranging from dull to sharp), (4) knowing the myriad elements (both the spiritual affinities of beings and the five elements that make up the world), (5) knowing the varying aspirations of beings (both for the teachings and for what is most profound) (6) knowing the paths that lead everywhere (i .e. the paths to evil destinies. the paths to higher destinies and the path to liberation), (7) knowing meditations and liberations (i.e. the four meditations and eight liberations), (8) knowing previous lives (the innumerable previous rebirths of oneself and others), (9) the knowledge of death and transmigration, ( 1 0) knowing that the defilements are exhausted (namely, all the obscurations together with their latent tendencies). These ten are listed among the eighteen undefiled Buddha­qualities in AK 7.28ab. See de La Vallee Poussin, vol. 4: 66 f .. In Klong chen pa's Sems nyid ngal gso 'grel (vol . 1 : 456. 1 f.), they are subsumed under one of twenty-one categories of undefiled Buddha-qualities as they are presented in Abhisamayalal!1kara 8.2-6. This and additional details given by Yon tan rgya mtsho in Yon tan mdzod 'grel (vol . 1 : 494.4 £) are summarized in the above list.

671 The four kinds of fearlessness (vaisaradhya : mi 'jigs pa) are demonstrated in the following declarations of the Buddha which he did not fear any truthful person could deny: ( 1 ) Declaration of renunciation (his abandonment of all the cognitive and affective obscurations along with their latent tendencies); (2) Declaration of realization (his perfect awakened realization of all that is to be known) ; (3) Declaration of the path that benefits other (viz. if one depends on it, there is no possibility that one will not gain deliverance); (4) Declaration of what hinders the path that benefits others (viz. if one indulges in those things that block the path, there is no possibility they will not become obstacles to the path). These are again included among the eighteen undefiled Buddha-qualities in AK 7.32ac. See de La Vallee Poussin, vol. 4: 74 f.. The presentation here is based on Abhisamayalal!1kara 8 .2-6 and its interpretations by Yon tan rgya mtsho in his Yon tan mdzod 'grel vol. 1 : 495.4 f. and Klong chen pa's Sems nyid ngal gso 'grel vol. 1 : 456.3 f . .

672 These comprise the correct analytical knowledge (pratisal!1vid : so sor yang dag par rig pa) encompassing ( 1 ) teachings (every one of the inconceivably numerous words o f the teachings), (2) meanings (every one o f the meanings based on these words), (3) vocabularies (every one of the languages and terminologies used to reveal the teachings to others); (4) confident eloquence (although he taught beginning from his first teaching until the end of the aeon and beyond, his intelligence remained inexhaustable). This presentation follows A bhisamayalal!1kiira 8 .2-6; Yon tan mdzod 'grel vol. 1 : 497. 1 f. ; Sems nyid ngal gso 'grel, vol. I : 455 .5 f . .

673 These are the power (dbang : vasita) over: ( 1 ) life, (2) mind, ( 3 ) necessities, (4) karma, (5 ) rebirth, (6 ) devotion, (7) aspiration, (8) mirculous powers, (9) primordial knowing, ( 1 0) dharma. This presentation follows A bhisamayalal!1kara 8.2-6; Yon tan mdzod 'grel vol. 1 : 493 . 1 £ ; Sems nyid ngal gso 'grel, vol. 1 : 455 .6 f . .

674 That is, the rDzogs pa chen po Sems nyid ngal gso 'i 'grel pa Shing rta chen po (see Sems nyid ngal gso 'gre/) .

283

[Colophon]

Through any virtue that may accrue from concisely elucidating The distilled meaning of ground, path and goal, May all beings without exception realize the meaning of luminosity And be victors of the dharma, spontaneously [fulfilling] life 's two aims.

In the vast ocean-isle in the jeweled sea of intelligence [dwells] The serpent[ -buddha] adorned with precious hood of the three trainings. Endowed with goodness and renowned for qualities of pure dharma675 , May this elucidation of the teaching provide a lasting foundation.

By clarifying, in accordance with my command of the subject matter, The distilled quintessence of scripture , reasoning and personal guidance, May all beings without exception traverse the path to liberation And may they spontaneously realize life 's two glorious aims.

While I have longed to meet with you , Time and place have granted few opportunities, But in future times, it is hoped we will be reunited in Pure buddha-fields oveiflowing with the riches of inborn qualities.

This reply to the question(s) you have asked Is my modest contribution to a subject difficult to understand. [393] But as far as I am able, I have put into words the subject matter Of which I am certain and offer it respectfully to you.

These Instructions on Investigating Mind and Primordial knowing have been respectfully offered by this contemplative who teaches the dharma, Tshul khrims blo gros, from [the hermitage at] Snow Capped Mountain (Gangs ri thod dkar) to the master676 Chos grags bzang po. May all beings hereby gain mastery over the exquisite worldy and transworldly splendours in all times, places and situations , and as their bright qualities expand, may they effortlessly accede the highest citadel of supreme liberation.

Sarvam Mangalam! Kusala, kusala, kusala.

675 Klong chen pa here incorporates his disciples name Chos grags bzang po [" Good one renowned for dharma"] into the kavya, a trope employed in many Indian and Tibetan verses of dedication.

676 Klong chen pa here respectfully addresses his student (slob ma) as a master (slob dpon).

284

§ 1 .3 Sources and Conventions used in Preparing Critical Edition:

Three extant versions of the Sems ye dris Ian have been consulted in preparing this critical edition:

1) Sems dang ye shes kyi dris Ian. (SYa) A xylographic copy from blockprints contained in the A 'dzom chos sgar edition of the Klong chen pa gSung thor bu vol. 1 (of 2) , 377 .2-393.

2) Sems dang ye shes kyi dris Ian. (SY d) A xylographic copy from blockprints in the Derge edition of the Klong chen pa gsung thor bu vol . 1 (of 2) , 292-304.

3) Sems dang ye shes brtag pa 'i man ngag. (SYk) A manuscript copy of Sems ye dris Ian contained in the bKa ' ma shin tu rgyas pa (NyKs) vol. 49 (of 1 20) , 344-365.

The first two versions contain only minor discrepancies and would appear to derive from a common source. The third, a reproduction of the text contained in the manuscript copy of the NyKs, contains many scribal errors and has been of limited philological value in preparing the edited text. In addition, I was able to consult a rescension of the text from the 26 volume Klong chen gsung 'bum in book format that was recently published in China. As this magnificent collection is largell77 based on existing editions of Klong chen pa' s works and no significant discrepancies were found, I saw no need to include it in the works consulted.

In my translations and critical edition of the Sems ye dris lan, page references in subscript square parentheses [ 1 within the body of the translation and edited transliteration refer to paginations in the primary source used. The A 'dzom chos sgar edition (SYa) was taken as my primary source with variant readings from the other editions (apart from the obvious scribal errors in SYk) included in the notes to the edited text. These notes also indicate variants of quotations found in Sanskrit originals or other Tibetan versions of the quoted passages. Klong chen pa' s writings present a particular challenge in this regard as he apparently (and is credited by tradition with) quoting texts from memory. I have therefore attempted as far a possible to correct quotations on the basis of Sanskrit edition and/or canonical recensions of Tibetan translations wherever these are available . For ease of reference, I have included all other citation information for quoted passages and textual­critical comments in the notes to the translation.

Abbreviations : In addition to the sigla for bibliographic references noted above and those included in the Bibliography, I have employed the following abbreviations :

add. = addidit = added om. = omittit or omisit = omits or omitted. SYadk = all editions of SY employed in this critical edition, i .e . SYa, SY d and SYk

677 I say largely because the last volume (26) contains works on the gCod system have not appeared previously.

285

§ 1 .4 A Critical Edition of Sems dang ye shes kyi dris Zan :

Sems dang ye shes kyi dri Zan zhes bya ba bzhugsl l Sems dang ye shes brtag pa 'i man ngag ces bya ba l l

sangs rgyas dang byang chub sems dpa' thams cad la phyag ' tshal lol

gang thugs gnyis med chu gter dag pa'i dbyings l sems dang sems byung myog pa rab zhi zhingl mkhyen brtse ' i gting mtha dpag gis mi lang ba'i l rgyal ba rgya mtsho sras bcas spyi bos mchodl l

chos tshul brgyad khri bzhi stong snying po 'i doni mdo dang rgyud sde ' i dgongs pa rna nor barl sems dang ye shes mam pa gnyis su 'dusl de don brtags nas sgom pa'i rim ba bri l l

de la yang dag par rdzogs pa'i sangs rgyas kyis chos kyi 'khor 10 rim pa gsum du bskor ba yangl bka' dang po bden pa bzhi'i chos kyi mam grangs las lgtso bor las dang po pa dang blo cung zad dman pa mam 'jug pa (378] la dgongs tel spang gnyen gyi rim pas nyams su len pa 'i thabs gsal bar gsungs shinglbka ' bar pa mtshan nyid med pa'i chos kyi mam grangs las lgtso bor cung zad sbyangs pa dang dbang po 'bring po mams 'jug pa'i rim pa la dgongs te lngo bo nyid med pa'i mam grangs kyi gnyen po la bdag tu 'dzin pa mams skye ba med par gsungs lal bka' tha rna nges pa don gyi chos kyi mam grangs las lgtso bor yongs su rdzogs pa'i theg pa mams dang dbang po mon po mams 'jug pa' i rim pas gshis la ji ltar gnas pa'i mam grangs rgya cher gsung te l dang pos 'khor ba'i mtshan nyid spang bya las ldog pa'i lam bstanl bar pas spang bya las 'dzin pa'i rang bzhin ngo bo med pas shes sgrib spang bar bstanl tha mas yin lugs snying por bstan te l dbang po'i rim pa dangl 'jug tshul gyi go rim la brten nas gsungs pa mams kyi don gsal rab phyed nas nyams su blang ba las I 'dir dang po dri rna dang bcas pas rna dag pa 'i gnas skabs dang I lam gyis sbyangs pas dri rna rim pa bzhin du dag pa rna dag pa dag pa' i gnas skabs dqangl dri rna thams cad dang bral ba shin tu mam dag gi gnas skabs mam pa gsum la ltos nas i gzhi dangl lam dangl 'bras bu 'i rim pa mams re zhig gsal bar mdzad pa ni l bka' (379] tha ma'i rim pa bzhin brjod pa las l rgyud bZa marl

rna dag rna dag dag pa dangl shin tu mam dag go rim bzhinl sems can byang chub sems dpa' dang I de bzhin gshegs pa zhes brjod dol l zhes gsungs te l

sems can pa'i dus kyi ' od gsal ba' i ye shes rang la yod pa ni gzhi 'o l byang chub sems dpa' i dus kyi tshogs sbyor mthong sgom bzhi ni lam mol de bzhin gshegs pa 'i dus kyi stobs sogs kyi yon tan de mthar phyin pa ni 'bras bu 'o l de yang sems can pa 'i sems nyid 'od gsal ba ni dri rna dang bcas pa'i

286

de bzhin nyid yin pas chos khams dge ba de bzhin gshegs pa 'i snying po sems nyid ' od gsal ba zhes bya 'o l l

1) 'dir dang po gzhi 'i don bshad pa nil ye nas 'od gsal ba 'i chos nyid 'dus rna byas shing lhun gyis grub pa stong pa'i ngos nas dngos po dang mtshan rna gang du 'ang rna grub cing 'khor ba dang my a ngan las 'das pa la sogs pa gang du 'ang rna chad pas spros pa' j mtha' thams cad dang bral ba nam mkha' Ita bul gsal ba'i ngos nas sku dang ye shes kyi rang bzhin ye ldan du lhung gyis sgrub cing ' od gsal ba nyi zla 'i dkyil 'khor Ita bul de gnyis ka 'ang 'du 'bral med pa' i chos nyid du ye nas gnas pa ni l snying po rab tu bstan pa ' i mdo las [3801 1

thog rna med pa'i dus kyi dbyings678 1 chos mams kun gyi gnas yin tel de yod pas na ' gro ba kunl my a ngan 'das pa679 thob pa yinl l

zhes dangl mdo sde rgyan las l

snga rna phyi ma680 khyad med kyangl de bzhin nyid ni dag gyur ba681 1 1

zhes dangl

ji ltar snga bzhin phyis de bzhinl ' gyur ba med pa'i chos nyid d0682 1 1

ces pa danglrin p o ehe rgya mtsho 'i rgyud las l

ye nas ' od gsal bde gshegs snying po ni l nor bu bzhin du yon tan rna Ius rdzogsl dri med mkha' dang nyi ma'i dkyil 'khor bzhinl sku dang ye shes lhun gyis grub pa nyidl l ces pa Ia sogs pa ' ol

de ltar ' od gsal ba ' i ye shes ni gdod ma'i gzhir Itar pas gtan Ia dbab pa 'o l ding sang ni dge ba'i bshes gnyen phal dangl sgom chen kun mthun pari stong rkyang ci yang med pa la gzhi byed pa ni snying po 'i don gyi dgongs pa dang mi mthun te l ci 'ang med pa'i gzhi nyams su blangs pas 'bras bu sangs rgyas yon tan thams cad dang Idan pa mi 'byung stel gzhi lam 'bras bu gsum 'jol ba 'i phyir rol sangs

678 RGVV khams 679 RGVV pa 'ang 680 Grub mtha ' mdzod has mar 681 MSA IX.22 D has first line but not second. See translation and annotation.

682 SYadk ' gyur ba med pa de bzhin nyid : RGVt ' gyur ba med pa 'i chos nyid do

287

rgyas de ni 'dus rna byas shing lhun gyis grub pa'i yon tan can bral ba'i 'bras bu mngon du gyur pa zhig yin pa'i phyir rol des na srid rtse'i Ita ba dang de dag rnthun par snang ngo l 'dir ni 'dus rna byas shing lhun gyis grub pa 'i 'od gsal ba nyid gzhir 'dod pa [38 1 1 yin nol gzhi de Ita bu'i ngang las yin lugs ngo rna shes pas rna rig par gyur te l de las gzung 'dzin du 'khrul nas khams gsurn du 'khor bar sgyu 'phrul drva ba 'i rgyud las l

e rna ho bde gshegs snying po las l rang gi mam rtog las kyis spru1683 1 1 zhes sol

de ' ang gnas lugs rna shes pa rtsa ba'i rna rig pa ste l dang po 'i 'khrul pa bskyed pa'i gzhi ' am sa bon narn rten gzhir gyur pa ' i ngang las l gnyis su 'dzin pa'i kun rtog langs pa ni kun tu brtags pa'i rna rig pa stel de gnyis las serns can tha rna ngang song gsurn dangl 'bring mi dang I rnchog lha marns so so ' i snang ba mi 'dra ba tha dad du shar nas kun gzhi la bag chags sna tshogs su bzhag pa 'i nus pas 'khor ba rntho drnan du zo chu 'i khyud rno bzhin rang snang bde sdug so sor spyod pa ni l sdud pa las l

serns can tha rna 'bring dang rnchog gyur ji snyed pal de kun rna rig las byung bde bar gshegs pas gsungs l l zhes so l

de Itar kharns gsurn so sor brgyud kyang bde bar gshegs pa ' i snying po ni ngan du rna song bar serns can tharns cad la khyab byed du gnas tel dbral phreng gi rndo las l

bde gshegs snying pos ' gro kun yongs la khyabl l

ces dangl rgyud bla rna las l

rdzogs sangs sku ni 'phro phyir dang I de bzhin nyid [3821 dbyer rned phyir dangl rigs yod phyir na Ius can kunl rtag tu sangs rgyas snying po canl l zhes gsungs pa bzhin nol

de ' ang serns can pa'i dus na bde bar gshegs pa'i snying po del serns kyis bsgribs te dri rna dang bcas par gnas pa ni l sgyu 'phrul drva ba las l

sa yi dkyil na yod pa'i chul rtag tu rang bzhin dri rna rnedl de bzhin serns kyi sgrib pa' i khams l ' gro ba kun la rang bzhin gnas l l

zhes pa dangl rgyud bla rna las l

ji ltar mi dbul khyirn nang sa 'og nal

683 Theg mchog mdzod has 'khrul : Guhyagarbha 2. 1 5 sprul

288

mi bzad pa684 yi gter ni yod gyur lal . mi des de685 rna shes shing686 gter de yangl de la nga 'dir yod ces mi srnra ltar l l

de bzhin yid kyi nang chud rin chen gterl dri rned gzhag dang bsal687 rned chos nyid kyangl rna rtogs pas na dbul ba'i sdug bsngal ni688 1 marn rnang689 kun tu skye rgu 'dis rnyong ngol l zhes pa har ngol

de yang bde bar gshegs pa 'i snying po ni nyi rna'i dkyil 'khor Ita bu yin lal kun gzhi bag chags dang bcas pa kharns gsurn pa'i rgyud kyis bsdus pa'i serns serns byung thams cad splin dang 'dra ba yin nol mkhas par rlorn pa 'i blun po kha cigl serns serns byung sgrib par rni 'thad de serns bskyed pa'i phyir dang I serns nyid 'od gsal ba kharns yin pa'i phyir ro l des na serns [383 ] rtog rned byang chub kyi yan lag ting nge 'dzin du 'dod do zer ba ni rndo rgyud kyi dgongs pa rna long pa'i marn ' gyur yin te serns bskyed pa 'ang 'khor ba'i gnas skabs na blang dor du byed pa'i rtog pa min narnl yin na ni rnthar thug ' gag dgos lal serns nyid la zer na ni bskyed bya bskyed byed gnyis rned pas rni ' grub pa' i phyir 'os pa rna yin nol serns dang serns nyid so sor phyogs rna byed par snang stel serns ni khams gsurn pa'i rgyud kyi rtog pa dang dpyod pa cha dang bcas pas sgro btags 'khrul pa ' i marn pa 'dzin byed kun gzhi tshogs brgyad dang bcas pa yin tel dbu rna bden gnyis las l

serns dang serns byung kharns gsurn pa'i l sgro btags marn pa can rtog yinl l zhes sol

serns nyid ni bde bar gshegs pa'i snying po 'od gsal ba 'i ye shes te l de 'ang serns 'gags shing rna rnchis pa 'i tshe serns nyid 'od gsal ba'i ye shes so so rang gi rig pa la snang ba yin no l yurn brgyad stong pa las l

serns de ni690 serns rna rnchis pa691 te serns kyi rang bzhin 'od gsal ba lags S06921 zhes gsungs pa yin nol l

sangs rgyas kyi sa nal serns chen po yod do zhes nal de ni ye shes chen po la zer te l rgyud las nyong rnongs pa chen po nyid ye shes su bshad pa dang marn pa rnthun nol rndor [384] bsdu na kharns gsurn

684 SYadk sa : RGVtpa 685 SYadk ngo : RGVt de 686 SYadk, RGVt shing : D (sastra) te 687 SYadk bsal dang bzhag : RGVt gzhag dang bsal 688 SYadk nyid : RGVt ni 689 SYadkpa : RGVt mang 690 SYadk la : 0 de ni (corroborated by Skt. see note in translation) 691 SYadk om. pa 692 SYadk ba 'o : 0 ba lags so

289

pa'i sems sems byung cha dang bcas pa thog ina med pa nas brgyud pa ' i bag chags can sgrib pa gnyis kyi ngo bo 'dzin cingl bskyed par brten693 pas spang bya yin zhing dgag dgos par bshad pa yin nol de yang sems nyid 'od gsal ba'i nang la brten pa med pa'i tshul gyis da ltar brten pa ni �am mkha' la sprin lding ba ltar 'dod del rgyud bla rna las :

sa ni chu la chu rlung lal rlung ni mkha' la rab tu gnas l mkha' ni rlung dang chu dag dangl sa yi khams la gnas ma694 yinl l de bzhin695 phung po khams dbang mams l las dang nyon mongs dag la gnas6961 las dang nyon mongs tshul bzhin mini yid la byed pa rtag tu gnas l 1 697 tshul bzhin rna yin yid byed nil sems kyi dag pa la rab gnas l sems kyi rang bzhin chos mams nil thams cad la yang gnas pa me698 1 1 zhes so l

rnarn 'grel las l

sems 'di rang bzhin 'od gsal tel699

dri rna mams ni glo bur bal l

zhes pa ' ang tshul de dang mthun te l sems kyi rang bzhinl sems kyi chos nyidl sems nyidl dbying rang bzhin kyis dag pal don dam pa'i gnas lugs mams don gcig yin pa'i phyir rol sems de yang khams gsum gyi dbye bas rtog med rtse gcig pa dangl gsa! ba tsam dangl rtog bcas kyi gnas skabs gsum mol (385 ) de 'ang sems la brten cing bag chags kyis 'khrul par snang ba 'khor ba' i chos 'di dag mi bden pal bslu bal byis pa 'drid pal gsogl gsobl ya rna brlal snying po med pal lbu ba rdos pal chu shingl sgyu mal mig yor la sogs pa dpe brgyad kyis bstan te l ra ril ' al ' 01 1 med bzhin snang bal snang dus nyid nas rang bzhin med pal bIos dpyod mi bzod pal kun rdzob 'khrul pa 'i ngor snang tsam dha du ra zos pa 'i snang ba dang 'dra barl bar skabs su gzung 'dzin la bden par zhen pa' i mthus snang bar shes par bya 'o l ' od gsal ba'i snying po ni l don dam pa'i bden pal rtag pal brtan pal 'pho 'gyur med pal rab tu zhi bal mi bslu bal thog rna med pa nas tha ma'i bar gzhi ji bzhin pa ye shes kyi ngo bo spros pa'i

693 SYa brten : SY d, SYk bstan 694 SYadkpa : RGVt rna 695 SYadk ni : RGVt bzhin 696 SYadk brten : RGVt gnas 697 line add. as per RGVt 1 . 56d

698 SYadk rna yin : RGVt pa rned

699 SYadk serns kyi rang bzhin 'ad gsal bal : D serns 'di rang bzhin 'ad gsal te l I Correction corroborated by Skt. prabhasvararn idafJl cittafJl prakrtyagantavo rnalahl l See note to translation for sources.

290

mtha ' thams cad dang bral zhingl sems dang seins las byung ba'i chos thams cad kyi dri mas rna gos mi gos gos pa med pa ' i rang bzhin mnyam pa nyi ma 'i dkyil 'khor sgrib pa med pa Ita bur shes par bya 'o l l

2) don gnyis pa lam nyams su blang ba nil de ltar sangs rgyas kyi snying po rang la yod par rtogs nas de 'ang ngang du bsgom pa stel de 'ang pha rol tu phyin pa'i lugs kyis sems bskyed nas bsgoms lal sngags kyis de ' i steng du 13861

dbang gis smin par byas te gdams pas grol bar byed pa 'o l 'dir ngo bo gcig tu nyams su len tshul mdo dang mthun te l de yang stan bde ba la 'dug nas skyabs su ' gro ba dang sems bskyed del gang la mos pa'i lhar skad cig gis gsal btab pa' i rjes lal mam700 snang gi chos bdun dang ldan pas gang la'ang mi rtog cing ci la 'ang mi 'dzin yul snang thog tu bIos rna bzung ba 'i rig pa sal le sing nge wa Ie ba'i nang la mnyam par bzhag pa ni l ' od gsal ba'i don la 'jog pa yin te l 'phags pa klu sgrub kyis dbu ma skye med rin po che 'i mdzod las l

gar yang rna rtog cir yang rna 'dzin cigl be as bcos rna byed rang bzhin lhug par zhogl rna bcos pa de skye med rin chen mdzodl dus gsum rgyal ba kun gyi gshegs shul lags l l

zhes dangl h e ru ka gal p o las l

bsam du med de sems nyid nam mkha' chel sems nyid nam mkha' bsam pa kun dang brall bsam du med pa' i sems nyid nam mkha' nil nam mkhar701 mi dmigs pa yang dmigs su medi i ces sol

de yang de 'i tshe sems dang sems byung thams cad 'gags nas mam par mi rtog pa'i ye shes so so rang rig pa' i ngo bor gnas pa stel lung las l

smra bsam brjod med shes rab 13871 pha rol phyinl rna skyes mi ' gags nam mkha'i ngo bo nyidl so so rang rig ye shes spyod yul bal dus gsum rgyal ba'i yum la phyag 'tshal lo l 1702 zhes sol

de ' ang don dam pa'i bden pa ni sems blo 'i yul las 'das pa zhes pa 'ang tshul de la zer gyi l sems 'gags shing blo las 'das pa 'i dus na ye shes rang la gnas pa de ni chos nyid de sprin dang bral bas nyi rna gsal ba bzhin nol de ltar mnyam par 'jog pa la dangs snyigs phyed pa'i bog 'byin nam mkha' sprin med pa'i tshe nyi rna la rgyab phyogs par 'dug stel mig nam mkha'i dkyil lam ngos der bltas pas shes pa dvangs la rtog med 'byung ngol de 'i tshe sems 'gags pas phyi rol snang yul la dngos po ngos bzung du 'dzin pa dangl nang sems dngos po ngos bzung du 'dzin pa gnyis dmigs pa med pas dngos

700 SYa, SY d rnam : SYk rnams

70] SYa, SY d mkha ' : SYk mkhar

702 The passage is often quoted by Klong chen pa. See note to translation.

291

po dang dngos po med pa la mi rtog pa nal de gtiyis las gzhan du 'dzin pa'i phung po gsum pa dmigs pa med pa zhi ba stel spyod 'jug las l

gang tshe dngos dang dngos med dagl blo yi mdun na mi gnas pal de tshe mam pa gzhan med pas l dmigs pa med pa rab tu zhi l l

,.

zhes pa dangl mtshan brjod las l

so so rang rig mi g.yo bal 1703

zhes pa dang I do ha las l

chu dang mar [388] me rang gsal gcig pur zhogl l

ces dangl tog rtse pasl

sems kyis bsgom pa bsgom rna yinl mi sgom pa'ang sgom pa mini sgom dang mi sgom las 'das pal yid la med do phyag rgya che l l zhes gsungs pa'i don tel

de 'i tshe sems 'gags pa'i don rig pa ye shes kyi sku mngon du gyur pa stel

sems ' gags pas 704 de sku yis mngon sum mdzad705 1 1

ces pa'i zur gcig yin nol de yang ting nge 'dzin yang dag pa zhig yin nal kun gzhi dang kun gzhi ' i mam shes kyi sems dangl yid shes dang I sgo lnga' i mam par shes pa thams cad dang bra! ba'i rig pa'i ngang las mi g.yo ba 'byung ste l dkon mchog brtegs pa 'i gsang ba bsam gyis mi khyab pa 'i le 'u las l

sems dang yid dang mam par shes pa thams cad dang bral lal ting nge 'dzin gyi gnas kyang mi 'dor ba ste l l zhes gsung pa yin nol

703 Skt. pratyi'itmavedyo hy acalal;z . . . See translation n. 60.

704 SYadk 'gags pa : P n. 5262 : 'gags pa; D, P n.526 1 'gag pas; Db 'gag pa. See n. 62 and n. 1 04 for text critical comments on variant readings.

705 This oft-quoted line is generally given as sems 'gag pa de sku yis mngon sum mdza� in Klong chen pa' s works. See Sems nyid ngal gso 'grel, Sems ye dris lan, Grub mtha ' mdzod, Chos dbyings mdzod, Theg mchog mdzod, 2ab don snying po with occasional variants, e.g. Sems nyid ngal gso 'grel vol 1 : 1 32 : sku yi though not Sems nyid ngal gso vol. 2 : 3 1 4 : sku yis; Grub mtha ' mdzod: 799 : dgag pa instead of 'gag pa, though not Grub mtha ' mdzod 992 : 993 : 'gag pa.

292

de ltar bsgoms pas nyams bde bal gsal bal nii rtog pa gsum ngang gyis 'byung zhing gzhan yang tshad med del mdo gdams ngag 'bog pa 'i rgyal po las l

bsam du med pa 'i chos nyid lal bsam du med pa 'i blo gzhag nal phyogs ris med pa'i nyams myong skye l l zhes so l

de ' ang ting nge 'dzin 'di nyid khams gsum pa'i sems dang bral ba ' i tshul nil [389 ) gzugs med na rtog706

med rtse gcig pa snang yul med pa yin lal 'di ni mam rtog med kyang yul snang ba mi ' gog pa dangl rtse gcig pa'i ' dzin pa med pa'o l gzugs kyi sems ni yul snang ba yin yang rtog dpyod kyi cha dang bcas pa dang I rtog dpyod med cing bsam gtan gyi dga' bas brgyan kyang 'dzin pa las rna 'das pa ste l mtha ' rna chod pas blo 'i yul las rna 'das pa dang 'dod pa' i sems ni gtso bor rtog dpyod dang bcas pa stel ' dir ni rni rtog pa'i ye shes yin pa dangl gzhan yang khams gsum so so'i ting nge ' dzin de ni sems kyi snang yul bag chags dang bcas pas l gnas lugs kyi rang bzhin rna shes bzhin du gnas lal ' dir ni rang bzhin 'od gsal ba'i gzhi 'i ngo bo rtogs pa dang sems bskyed pas zin pa dang I thabs dang shes rab zung du 'brel ba la sogs pa'i khyad par du rna dang bcas pa 'o l de yang bsam gtan bzhi dang gzugs med pa bzhi yang gnyis te l 'dzin pa 'khor ba'i sems kyis bsdu pa ni 'dir ' gag dgos lal 'jig rten las 'das pa'i bsam gtan gzugs med ni yang dag pa'i ye shes yin pa'i phyir blang bar bya ba yin nol de Itar na ' od gsal ba'i ye shes rim gyis goms pa [390) las l sa dang lam thams cad gong nas gong du bgrod cingl spyan dang mngon par shes pa la sogs pa rang chas su yod pa mams 'char ba ni l chu dvangs pa las gzugs bmyan ngang gis 'char ba bzhin nol l

3) don gsum pa 'bras bu ni l de ltar gzhi shes nas lam bsgoms pas khams la sgrib pa'i sems sems byung gi dri rna cha dang bcas pa dag nas i sa bcu rgyun gyi tha mar rdo rje Ita bu 'i ting nge 'dzin gyi rjes la sangs rgyas kyi ye shes 'char ba ni khams nyid dri rna mtha' dag dang bral bas byang chub tu gnas ' gyur ba zhes bya 'o l de 'i tshe chos kyi sku 'od gsal ba so so rang gi rig pa 'i ye shes kyis707 sems ' gag pa ' i ' gog pa dam pa mngon du mdzad dol 'jug pa las :

shes bya 'i bud shing skom po rna Ius pal bsregs708 pas zhi ste709 rgyal mams chos sku ste l de tshe skye ba med cing 'gag pa medl sems ' gags pas 710 de sku yis mngon sum mdzadl l ces so l

sku de yang mam pa gsum ste l chos kyi sku rang bzhin gyis 'od gsal ba dangl long spyod rdzogs pa'i sku nges pa lnga ldan dang I sprul pa 'i sku gdul bya so so ' i mos pa ltar gang la gang 'dul du snang ba ste l yid bzhin gyi nor bu Itar yon tan lhun gyis grub pal 'khor ba ji srid par ' gro [39 1 ) ba'i don gnyis

706 SYa, SYk rtogs : SYk rtog 707 SYa kyi : SY d, SYk kyis 708 SYadk bsreg : MAy bsregs 709 SYadk de : MAy ste 7 1 0 SYadk 'gag : MAy 'gags

293

lhun gyis grub pa'i phrin las 'byung ba 'di ni spros pa thams cad dang bral ba' i ye shes kyi sku la snang zhing mngon du mdzad pa ni l de nyid las l

zhi sku dpag bsam shing Itar gsal gyur cingl l yid bzhin nor bu ji bzhin mam mi rtogl ' gro grol bar du 'jig lten 'byor slad rtagl ' di ni spros dang bral la snang ba 'gyur71 1 1 1 zhes so l

de ' ang sangs rgyas pa'i tshe sems dang sems byung 'gags kyangl ye shes mi 'gag pas bems stong nam mkha' Ita bu rna yin te l spangs pa 'i yon tan sgrib pa thams cad dang bral zhingl rtogs pa'i yon tan stobs bcu dang I mi 'jigs pa bzhi dangl so so yang dag pa'i rig pa bzhi dang I dbang bcu la sogs pa bsam gyis mi khyab pa'i mkhyen rab dang thugs rjes sems can gyi don mdzad cing l 'dus rna byas shing lhun gyis grub pa ni khams la yon tan ye ldan du yod pa'i nus pa mngon du gyur pa stel rgyud bla ma las l

'dus rna byas shing lhun gyis grubl gzhan gyi rkyen gyis rtogs min pa7 I2 1 mkhyen dang brtse dang nus par713 ldanl don gnyis ldan pa'i sangs rgyas nyidl l ces so l

mdor na 'od gsal ba ' i khams kyi nus pa rdzogs [392] pa ' i byang chub ces bya ba ni 'bras bu 'o l 'di dag gi mam par bzhag pa rgyas par nil kho bos by as pa'i bstan bcos Nges don Shing rta chen por blta bar bya 'o l l

de Har gzhi lam 'bras bu 'i don bsdus pal cung zad gsal bar by as pa'i dge ba des l rna Ius ' gro kun ' od gsal don rtogs nas i don gnyis lhun grub chos kyi rgyal por shogl l blo gros chu gter yangs pa'i mtsho gling nal bslab gsum klu dbang rin chen gdeng kas mdzes l chos dkar yon tan grags pa bzang po canl bstan pa'i gsal byed yun du gnas gyur cig l l lung rig man ngag snying po ' i bcud bsdus te l ji Har sbobs bzhin gsal bar byas pa des l rna Ius ' gro kun thar pa ' i lam bgrod de l dpal ldan don gnyis lhun gyis grub par shogl l dam pa khyed dang mjal bar spro na yangl dus dang gnas kyis cung zad skal par gyurl phyi dus yon tan 'byor pas yongs gang ba'i l

71 1 SYadkyin : MAv 'gyur

71 2 SYadk dang : RGVt pa

71 3 SYadkpa : RGVt par

294

dag pa ' i zhing du lhan cig mjal bar smonl l dam pa khyed kyis dris pa'i Ian 'di nil rtogs dka' i gnas te 'on kyang cha shas tsaml ji ltar nus shing [393 [ kho bos nges pa'i gnas l yi ger bkod nas phyag tu gus pas 'buI l l

sems dang ye shes brtag pa 'i man ngag ces bya bal gangs ri thod dkar nas chos smra ba 'i bsam gtan pa tshul khrims blo gros kyis l slob dpon chos grags bzang po 'i phyag tu phul ba phyogs dus gnas skabs thams cad du 'jig rten dang 'jig rten las 'das pa' i dpal phun sum tshogs par mnga' dbang 'byor zhingl ' gro ba thams cad kyi dkar po mam par 'phel bas thar pa chen po ' i grong khyer mchog tu 'bad pa med par phyin par gyur cigl l

sarvam mangalaml dge 'o l dge 'o l dge 'o l l

295

2. Klong chen pa ' s Theg mchog mdzod XIV (excerpts)

§ 2 . 1 Introductory Remarks :

Among Klong chen pa's extant writings , the Theg mchog rin po che 'i mdzod stands as

something of a monument to the author's vast erudition and extraordinary skills in doctrinal

synthesis and interpretation. The architectural metaphor is appropriate here for the work is

constructed, as Klong chen pa explains in his colophon, as a Tibetan stupa (mchod rten) , a

monument to the enlightened mind of a buddha (thugs kyi rten) , which the author has assembled and

reverentially offered for the sake of preserving the sNying thig teachings for posterity out of fear

that they would otherwise dis appear. 7 14 Its twenty-five chapters which are referred to as ' stories '

(rim khang)715 throughout the text are said to be organized like five ascending steps of a stupa, each

adorned with five subsidiary parts .7 16 The scope of the work is also monumental. In two volumes

with a combined total of 2 179 folia sides , this massive treatise elaborates on virtually every element

of the rDzogs chen sNying thig system as presented in the seventeen tantras . The author ' s Tshig don

mdzod covers some of the same ground but not nearly as much of it and in not nearly as much detail.

Among the works of Klong chen pa's predecessors one also finds few extant attempts to systematize

the sNying thig system, apal1 from mKhas pa Nyi rna 'bum's Tshig don bcu gcig pa, and certainly

none with anything like the attention to detail that marks the Theg mchog mdzod.

The sections included here are from the fourteenth chapter of the treatise which consists in a

lengthy explication ( 1 66 folia sides) of the nature of primordial knowing and its place in rDzogs

chen soteriology. In this pivotal chapter, Klong chen pa takes up the two principal rDzogs chen

distinctions as key points for understanding the scope and complexity of ye shes, both in doctrine

and contemplative praxis . The chapter concludes with fifteen examples (dpe) used to illustrate the

sems/rig pa distinction based on the Rig pa rang shar (Ati vol. 1 , 667 .4) followed by sixteen key

points for realizing its meaning (don) so that one does not confuse the two. Given the constraints of

this thesis, I have confined my focus to Klong chen pa' s brief introductions (mdor bstan) to the two

7 1 4 Theg mchog mdzod vol. 2: 2 1 65 .5 f.: gnas gzhan grub pa 'i goms tshugs 'khyor zhing zab mo 'i gnad mams 'thor dogs nasi ring por rna thogs bka yi bsdu ba rim khang nyi shu lnga pari snying po 'i don mams phyogs gcig bsdus nas thugs kyi rten du gus pas bsgrubs l l

71 5 The term rim khang (literally ' level-house ') is not attested in dictionaries but is likely similar to bang rim, the steps of a stupa.

71 6 Theg mchog mdzod, vol. 2 : 2 1 66. 1 f. : theg mchog mnyam pa 'i sa gzhi lal 'od gsal rdo rje snying po 'i rtsel rim khang lnga phrag lngas brgyan pal zab cing rgya che 'i bdkod pas mdzadl chos mchog rin chen snying po las grub pal rang bzhin rdzogs pa chen po 'i mchod rten nl snang srid 'khor 'das zhing kun thag grus khyab l l

296

distinctions where he summarizes the essence ' and characteristics of sems/ye shes and kun gzhi/chos

sku and advances some of his most cogent arguments to justify these distinctions .

§2.2 Annotated Translation: Treasury of the Supreme Vehicle XIV (excerpts)

Theg pa 'i mchog rin po che 'i mdzod (Tea: pp. 101 9.4- 1027 .3) :

Chapter Fourteen: Exposition on the Topic of the Founded Cognition (excerpts)

Thus , having explained in detail the body as a founding basis (rten Ius) and its other associated phenomena, we shall now ascertain the nature of the cognition founded on it (brten pa shes pa) by way of three [topics] :

1 ) The distinction between all-ground (kun gzhi) and dharmakiiya (chos sku) [ 1020] 2) The distinction between mind (sems) and primordial knowing (ye shes) 3) A detailed explanation of other distinctive phenomena717

1 ) The first is two-fold:

A) A brief Indication B) A detailed Explanation

A) First, when we look at [what is] the ground of sentient beings (sems can) and the ground of buddhas (sangs rgyas) , we should understand that the all-ground and dharmakiiya are of two types in that [the latter] is the essence of open awareness (rig pa) in its mode of being as undefiled original purity and [the former] is the ground of all mistaken appearances and mistaken apprehensions which are contaminated by defiled ignorance and a morass of conceptual fabrications . As the sGra thai 'gyur [Ati vol. 1 , 128 .5718] states :

Concerning the vital points of the all-ground and the dharmakiiya . . . 7 19

The all-ground, characterized by ignorance, is like a resevoir since it is serves as a receptacle of latent tendencies , being the initial basis, intermediate locus , and final abode of everything comprising mind and its mental factors . By contrast, the dharmakiiya is characterized by the reversal

71 7 This section comprises two sets of teachings on the distinction between dualistic mind and open awareness (semslrig pa) : the first consists of fifteen examples illustrating the distinction as presented in the Rig pa rang shar with commentary on each by Klong chen pa; the second consists in an elaboration on sixteen specific points of comparison and contrast between open awareness as realized in the sNying thig system and the operations of dualistic mind in lower siitric and tantric Buddhist traditions. The source for these is a passage from the Kun tu bzang po klong drug.

71 8 Tk vol. 1 0 : 473 . 3 ; Tb vol. 1 2 : 1 07.2.

71 9 This line introduces a passage that Klong chen pa quotes at length and comments on later in the text.

297

of ignorance . It transcends the domain of mind and its mental factors [1021 J and is thoroughly purified of all actions (karman) and their latent tendencies . The all-ground is the ground of multifarious appearances , like a carpet of silk brocade720. It embraces the various objects , i .e . , what appears as an [outer] habitat, and the many subjects , i .e . , the six classes of beings that appear as inhabitants of the three realms along with their bodies , their joys and their sorrows, and the many erroneous features of their minds . By contrast, the dharmakaya is the absence of all this and is not associated with ego­mind and the other [modes of consciousness] . As the Rig pa rang shar [Ati vol. 1 , 737.5721 ] states :

The all-ground embraces dichotomic thoughts . It is vitiated by mistaken cognitions of myriad things .722

The all-ground is a state of fundamental ignorance. The term ' all-ground' is to be taken in this sense.

The text also states [Ati vol. 1 , 736.4723] :

Surely the ground of a sentient being and ground of a buddha Are demarcated by a single distinction.

As the Mu tig phreng ba [Ati vol. 2, 5 18 .4724] states

It is all-ground because it accumulates [contaminated phenomena] . The dharmakaya is the elimination of contamination (zag pa) . Empty 1 1022 1 and clear, it is clear and [all-]pervasive.725

720 The sense of za 'og gi bar gding which I render as ' carpet of silk brocade' is not completely clear. A similar expression za 'og gyi 'ding ba occurs in Klong chen pa' s Zab don rgya mtsho 'i sprin where it is l ikewise employed as an anology (alongside ' earth' sa gzhi) for the all-ground in its role as the source of myriad phenomena stemming from the indeterminate cognition characterized by ignorance. mKha ' 'gro yang tig vol. 2 : 93 .4 f. : . . . kun gzhi ni ma rig pa 'i shes pa lung ma bstan las sna tshogs pa 'i rten byed pas sa gzhi 'aml za 'og gi 'ding ba Ita bu yin pa 'i phyir rol l

72 1 Tk vol . 10 : 246.6 f. ; Tb vol . I I : 594.4 f..

722 I follow the Theg mchog mdzod' s sna tshogs 'khrul pa 'i shes pas bsladl that helps clarity the sense of sna tshogs pa yi shes pas bsladl that is found in the canonical recensions I have consulted (Ati, Tk, Tb) .

723 Tk vol. 1 0 : 246. 1 ; Tb vol. 1 1 : 593 .5 .

724 Tk vol . 9 : 569 .4 f. ; Tb vol . 12 : 3 80.3 f..

725 The Mu tig phreng ba 'grel ascribed to Vimalamitra (NyKs vol. 1 1 2 : 436. 1 f.) explains this and the preceding line as follows : " It is called dharmakaya due to the fact that it is without corporeal limitations. Since the contamination of the elemental forces is depleted, it is not confined to materiality and atoms. S ince the contamination of afflicitive emotionality is depleted, there is no [determinate] link between earlier and later [predicated on] subj ect and obj ect. And since the contamination of temporal succession (snga phyi) of latent tendencies is depleted, habitual attachments freely resolve themselves. In this way, since real entities (dngos po) are themselves depleted, [dharmakaya] prevails as emptiness and the abiding nature of everything. It is luminous (gsa!) due to the presence of the effulgence of the five modes of primordial knowing and it shines forth directly in its clarity (gsal ba) due to the presence of the guru' s esoteric instructions. In thus realizing this [dharmakaya] all at once (Gig char du rtogs), it is all-pervading, even in the absence of the guru' s scriptural transmissions." chos kyi sku nil Ius kyi mtha ' stong pa 'i phyir nal 'byung ba 'i zag pa zad pasa sa rdut dang rdut phran la mi gnasl nyon mongs

298

Uncontaminated by thinkillg, it is cleansed of reflections.726

Free from discursive elaborations727, It is pervasive and empty like space. Intrinsically pure, it is beyond description.728

The all-ground together with [its] causes and conditions729

Is similar to a resevoir because it accumulates latent tendencies .730 The dharmakaya is free of latent tendencies . From the consolidation of ego-mind, mind and so forth, The all-grounds of embodied beings appear as multiple things . 73 1

Since the dharmakaya is free from ego-mind and so forth, It is without corporeality appearing in many forms .732

pa 'i zag pa zad pas bzung 'dzin snga phyi 'i bsdebs med pa dangl bag chags snga phyi 'i zag pa zad pas zhen pa rang thog tu grol ba 'o/de Ita bu de dngos po zad pas stong zhing thams cad kyi bdag nyid du byung pa dangl ye shes Inga 'i gdangs yod pas gsal lal bla ma 'i man ngag yod pas gsal ba mngon sum du snang bas de nyid cig char du rtogs la bla ma 'i lung med kyang kun la khyab pa '0 1 1 'text has pa 'i. Interlinear interpolations in Ati vol . 2 : 5 1 8 . 5 give the following interpretation of the second line: stong zhing (rang dangs) gsal ba (rig pa) gsal zhing (thugs rje) khyab l l . This is suggestive of the rDzogs chen triad of empty essence (ngo bo - stong pa), luminous nature (rang bzhin - gsal ba) and all-encompassing responsiveness (thugs rje - kun khyab). Interlinear interpolations in Tb gloss gsal ba as referring to primordial knowing as spontaneously nature (rang bzhin Ihun grub kyi ye shes) and primordial knowing as all-encompassing responsiveness (thugs rje kun khyab kyi ye shes), and gsal as referring to the five modes of primordial knowing.

726 An interlinear note (Ati vol. 2: 5 1 8 .6) specifies that "dharmakiiya which transcends reflective thinking is bliss supreme" dran bsam las 'das pa 'i chos sku bde ba chen pol . Further clarification is found the Mu tig phreng ba 'grel (NyKs vol . 1 12 : 436.4 f.) : "Now, since this dharmakiiya which transcends reflective thinking manifests as bliss supreme, open awareness shines in its own clarity, unadulterated by conceptual differentiations. Concerning the cleansing of adventitious reflections, the nature of things which is naturally devoid of discursive elaborations is free from the proliferation of language itself insofar as it is without any superimpositions. And since it is free from intellectual elaborations, it is [also] devoid of the freely arising, independently existing elements." de yang drana bsam las 'das pa 'i chos sku bde ba chen por shar bas rnam par rtog pa tha dad pas ma sbags par rig pa rang ngo na gsal lal glo bur gyi dran pa rnams sangs pa nil rang bzhin du spros pa med pa 'i chos nyid lal tshig gi spros pa nyid dang bral ba ste sgros btags su medj blo 'i spros pa dang bral bas 'byung ba rang rgyud pa thai byung du medi i a text has bran

727 An interlinear note (Ati vol. 2 : 5 1 8 .6) glosses " free from discursive elaborations" (spros pa nyid dang bral ba) as meaning "beyond words and letters" (tshig dang yi ge las 'das pa).

728 The Mu tig phreng ba 'grel explains (NyKs vol . 1 1 2 : 436.6 f.) : "For example, l ike space, [the dharmakiiya] is all­pervasive and empty in essence. Since is essence is pure by nature, it is free from all the blessings and the symbols, the skillful means used to reveal it. Consequently, it is said to have not departed from the single ground" dper na nam mkha ' Ita bur kun la khyab cingl ngo bos stong pa '0 1 ngo bo de rang bzhin gyis dag pasl thabs kyis mtshan pa 'i brda dangl byin rlabs la sogs pa kun dang bral bas gzhi gcig las ma g.yos pa zhes bya ' 0 I I

729 An interlinear note (Ati vol. 2 : 5 1 9 . 1 ) glosses ' cause(s) ' (rgyu) as referring to ignorance (ma rig pa) and ' conditions ' (rkyen) to the five elemental forces ( 'byung ba Inga).

730 According to the Mu ti phreng ba 'grel (NyKs vol. 1 1 2 : 437.3) , just as water collects everything, so the all ­ground collects all of sarpsara and nirval)a.

73 1 This interpretation ofthe last line follows Mu tigphreng ba 'gre/: de yang Ius can kyi gzhi du mar byung ba 'ol l

732 This reading follows Theg mchog mdzod, Ati and the Mu tig phreng ba 'grel (NyKs vol. 1 1 2 : 437 .5 f) which states : "Since dharmakiiya is free from the many afflictive emotions such as ego-mind and the rest, it is without the flesh and blood corporeal elements appearing as the forms of many things such as the subtle and coarse elements

299

Moreover, the all-ground is the source of mind while the dharmakiiya is the source of primordial knowing. As is stated in the Kun tu bzang po Klong drug pa 'i rgyud [Ati vol. 2, 165 . 3733] :

Hey Great being ! The source of mind is the all-ground. Why? Because the all-ground gathers all objects of representational thought and because it is conceived of as mental . The source of primordial knowing is the dharmakiiya. Why? [ lO23[ Because dharmakiiya is not subject to any reflective thought patterns (dran rtog) and because it lacks any thought that grasps objects as being different.

Some blatantly arrogant people assert that "the all-ground is the dharmakiiya". In this regard, on the one hand, in [certain] exoteric treatises it is claimed that the all-ground is the founding basis of all that is pure and impure . And within the 'pure ' [category] , dharmakiiya is held to be undefiled thusness .734 On the other hand, in certain Mantra[yiina sources] , the fundamentally transformed all­ground (kun gzhi gnas gyur) is claimed to be the pure factor (dag pa 'i cha), i .e . primordial knowing belonging to the dharmadhiitu (chos dbyings) and the svabhiivikiiya (ngo bo nyid kyi sku). It is said that:

The all-ground is the ground of everything. It is also the ground of nirviil).a. 735

It is also said that "the fundamentally transformed all-ground is primordial knowing belonging to the dharmadhiitu, i .e . , the svabhiivikiiya." Thus amongst [types of] difference too, they assert that substantial [difference between the all-ground and the dharmakiiya] is contradictory.

There are ways to invalidate these [claims] : If the all-ground were the dharmakiiya, [ 1 024] this would entail the absurd consequence that the dharmakiiya is subject to defilement. Also , just as the errors of the habitat and its inhabitants are produced by the all-ground, so it would follow absurdly that errors are likewise produced by the dharmakiiya. And if it is agreed [that errors are produced by the dharmakiiya] , then this would be invalidated by various logical reasonings , such as the absurdity

and so forth. " chos sku yid la sogs pa 'i nyon mongs pa du ma bral bas nil 'byung ba phra rags la sogs pa 'i du ma 'i gzugs kyi snang ba 'i 'byung ba sha khrag gi Ius med pa '0 1 1

733 Tk vol. 1 0 : 642 .3 ; Tb vol. 1 2 : 433 .5

734 This assumes that the dharmakiiya, when conceived as the pure aspect of an all -ground seen as encompassing all that is both pure and impure, is founded on the all-ground as one of its derivative qualities. The reversal of this asymmetrical founding-founded (rten-brten) relation is a hallmark of the rDzogs chen sNying thig system.

735 Compare with the passage attributed to the 'Jam dpal ye shes dri ma med pa 'i mdo that is quoted in certain of Klong chen pa's works (see above p. 1 49 but also 1 56 n. 394) : kun gzhi kun gyi gzhi yin te l 'khor dang my a ngan 'das pa dangl l . It is possible that Klong chen pa is here merely paraphrasing statements made in this and other works such as the Mahayiiniibhidharmasutra to the effect that the all-ground (or dhiitu) is the source of all that is conditioned and unconditioned, a view that became increasingly problematic within classical rNying rna soteriology, as I have shown above in chapter four.

300

that after buddhahood one would once again err as a sentient being. It is also invalidated by unsurpassed scriptures . According to the Kun tu bzang po Thugs kyi me long [Ati vol. 1 , 258 .2736] :

The claim that the all-ground is the dharmakiiya is a deviation from me.

And according to the Rig pa rang shar [Ati vol. 1 , 736.6737] :

Some people claim "the all-ground is the dharmakiiya". In order to show how to respond to this , [one may ask] : "What are the characteristics of this all-ground?" To this they may then reply: "It is ' ground of all ' because everything is perfected [in it] . " You may then retort with this line of questioning: "Then it stands to reason that buddhas can change. Why? Because the all-ground manifests in myriad ways . Given that everything is perfected [in it] , It would stand to reason that sentient beings are in fact buddhas .738 Why? [ 1025J Because everything is perfected [in the all-ground] . Moreover, buddhas739 would alternate [with sentient beings] . Why? Because [the all-ground] manifests in myriad ways : Sometimes it would become buddha and Sometimes it would become a sentient being. Why? Because it alternates ." In response to [such] questioning, [the opponent] may then argue : "Well then is the all-ground non-existent or what?" The reply to this question may be framed [as follows] : "The all-ground embraces dichotomic thoughts. It is vitiated by mistaken cognitions of myriad things .

736 Tb vol. 1 0 : 594 .5 ; Tb vol . 1 2 : 26 1 .5 .

737 Tk vol. 1 0 : 246.3 £ ; Tb vol . 1 1 : 593 .7 L 738 This view would appear to be supported by the widespread claim in buddha nature and Mantrayana discourses that sentient beings are in fact buddhas but that this is obscured by adventitious obscurations. It is important to note, however, that such statements characterize buddhahood as a mode of being implicit in sentient beings that has to be made explicit through the clearing of emotional and cognitive defilements. This contrasts with the kind of strong identity claims repudiated in the Rig pa rang shar that collapse the difference between buddha and sentient being into an identity relation. In the buddha nature and Mantrayana perspective, the difference between buddhas and sentient beings is to be understood as a distinction without separation, along the lines of the difference between ye shes as a superoordinate category term and sems as a suboordinate one. The point is to preserve the asymmetrical relation between the referential domains referred to by the terms ' sentient being' and ' buddha' in order to reveal how recovery of the latter from the obscuring factors that collectively define the former is possible. Such a view maintains a kind of intermediary position between strong claims of identity or difference, acknowledging the plasticity of the category sentient being (sems can) as a differentiated and derivative (khyab bya) mode of being while preserving the invariance of buddhahood as an undifferentiated and encompassing (khyab byed) mode of being.

739 Add. as per Ati, Tk, Tb.

301

The all-ground is the fundamental state of ignorance."

It is therefore crucial to distinguish between the all-ground and the dharmakaya. As the Klang drug [Ati vol. 2, 165 .5740] maintains :

Therefore, if one fails to distinguish between the all-ground and the dhamwkaya, it is similar to a cognition that apprehends a single fOlm as different [ones] ; these [latter, being unreal,] cannot appear as [perfOlming] their individual functions .741

To illustrate these two using examples , they are like the ocean and a boat. The dharmakaya, originally pure open awareness, is like the clear expanse of the ocean which has never known the existence of defilement. [ 1026] While it is not established as anything whatsoever it unceasingly [makes] room for the emergence of anything whatsoever. Since the original ground (thag ma 'i gzhi) is thoroughly pure by nature and also free from the defilements of adventitious conditions , this expanse is the factor endowed with twofold purity where the citadel [of realization] has been attained. By contrast, the all-ground is like a boat [adrift] on the surface of the ocean that has been boarded by men. During the time of going astray from the originary expanse, the non-recognition of the ground (gzhi ma rig pa) is similar to the boat insofar as it is the basis , encompassing [mileu] and fundamental source of everything [conditioned] . It is filled with a multitude of men [who personify] the errancy of mind and mental factors , and their latent tendencies . As it says in the Rig pa rang shar [Ati vol. 1 , 667 .6] :

740 Tk vol. 1 0 : 642 .5 ; Tb vol. 1 2 : 434. 1

741 This example is explained in the Klong drug 'gre! ascribed toVimalamitra (Dilgo Khyentse ed. : 232.6 f. ; NyKs vol. 1 09 : 564.5 f.): " Query: What is the drawback of this [failure to distinguish kun gzhi and chos sku] ? Reply: It would be like a cognition that apprehends the single form of any given being as [many] different ones - i .e . as three or four or ten or a hundred thousand; these [derivative and unreal forms] are unable to appear as performing individual functions. Likewise, since the dharmakflya does not become differentiated by way of the separate categories deriving from the all-ground, all phenomena would be emptiness and would not perform any [functions] at all . Consequently, in all the ways the all-ground thus appears or does not appear and emerges as everything and accordingly exists or does not exist, there is not the slightest thing that is not pervaded by dualistic mind together with its all-ground. Similarly in its universal nature (rang gi chos nyid), while no property possessors (chos can) are established, whatever appearances there may be do not cease. Thus, all that appears as differentiated bases, i .e . , as external property possessors, is included in the all-ground alone. There being no change in the very essence of mind it is self present and thus is the primordial knowing that does not depend upon dualistic mind. Since the nature of this [primordial knowing] occurs of its own accord as the unchanging path, it is the skillfull means of Mantra[yfma] ." de 'ang skyon cir 'gyur zhe nal 'gro ba gang yang rung ba ' i gzugs cig la gsum mam bzhi 'am bcu 'am brgya stong la sogs pa tha dad du 'dzin pa 'i shes pa dang 'dra ste l de dag gis don byed so sor snang bar mi nus sol de bzhin du kun gzhi las so so 'i bye brag gis chos sku tha dad du 'jug pa ma yin pas chos thams cad stong pa nyid gang du yang mi 'byed pasl de yang kun gzhi ni 'di ltar snang ba dangl mi snang ba dangl thams cad du byung ba dangl de bzhin du yod pa dang med pa thams cad la kun gzhi dang bcas pa 'i sems kyis ma khyab pa gang yang med dol de ltar rang gi chos nyid brdal ba chen po lal chos can grub pa med la cir yang snang ba ma 'gags pas nal phyi chos can gyi gzhi tha dad du snang ba thams cad kun gzhi gcig tu 'dus te l sems kyi ngo bo la gnas mi 'gyur bar rang 'dug pas sems la bltar med pa 'i ye shes sol de 'i rang bzhin lam mi 'gyur bar rang byung bas gsang sngags yi thabs

soi l

302

Examples of the dharmakiiya and all-ground are as follows : the aspects of the ocean and a boat because [the all-ground] occurs as a pathway [of the dharmakiiya F42 • • • and the aspects of falling asleep and waking because of the differerices in their [respective] capacities .

In this regard, open awareness , the very essence of the undefiled dharmakiiya, remains incontrovertible throughout time and is present as the ground of ultimate freedom. By contrast, it is necessary to arouse oneself from the sleep-like all-ground [ 1027] that serves as the basis of all the manifestations of dreams of deluded appearances . Hence, it is very important to distinguish [the dharmakiiya and all-ground] . In this regard, it is necessary to return [or revert] from sleep and dreaming but not necessary to return from open awareness . Therefore, one should realize this dharmakiiya as the ground. One in this way familiarizes oneself with its abiding nature and comes to recognize the goal as a state of freedom. One should thus understand the all-ground and all phenomena that depend on it to be defilments that are to be purified.

Theg pa 'i mchog Tin po che 'i mdzod (Tea: pp . 1037.2 - 1050. 1 ) :

2 ) The distinction between mind and primordial knowing. This has two parts :

A) A Brief Indication of their Essences B) A Detailed Explanation of their Individual Natures

A) A Brief Indication: As the Mu tig phreng ba [Ati vol. 2, 5 17 . 1 743] states :

The distinction between mind and primordial knowing Must be known by those who are learned.

Mind (sems) is closely associated with fundamental ignorance (rtsa ba ma rig paY; it is simply sa:q:tsiira as defiled phenomena, similar to clouds insofar as it obscures the sun of primordial knowing. Primordial knowing (ye shes) is closely associated with dharmakiiya. Similar to the sun, it is undefiled and does not coexist with the reflective thought patterns of mind. [ 1038] As the [Mu tig phreng ba] goes on to say [Ati vol. 2, 5 17.2744] :

Mind is the ground of all latent tendencies , It is the defilement of all embodied beings .

742 This interpretation follows Klong chen pa's commentary on the verse in Theg mchog mdzod (vol . 1 : 1 1 72 .5 £) where he says that "the all-ground arises in the manner of an obscuring factor or pathway or expressive energy of dharmakaya." chos sku 'i sgrih cha 'am lam mam rtsal gyi tshul du shar.

743 Tk vol . 9: 568.6; Tb vol. 1 2 : 379.4.

744 Tk vol. 9 : 568.6 £ ; Tb vol. 1 2 : 379.5 £.

303

It also states :

It is what is apprehended and the apprehender.745

Therefore, it is the very nature of sarp.sara.

Primordial knowing is free from the very basis of discursive reflection.

The Klang drug states [Ati vol. 2, 1 64.6746] :

If one fails to distinguish the instrinsic essences of mind and primordial knowing, then like the sun obscured by masses of clouds, [primordial knowing] will be unable to perform its function of shining outwardly.747

Now, mind is the ground, source, accumulator and activator (kun nas slang ba) of all actions , afflictive emotions and latent tendencies . Since it always dwells within the abode of ignorance, it is opposed to and obscures the sun of primordial knowing. As the Rig pa rang shar [Ati vol. 1 , 676 . 1 ] states :

Mind consolidates all latent tendencies . Mind activates all latent tendencies . Mind accumulates all afflictive emotions . Mind is the ground of all latent tendencies. [1039] Since these latent tendencies are also difficult to stop, they serve to obscure the illumination in oneself. They coexist with ignorance . . .

As the Mu tig phreng ba, Ati vol. 2, 5 16 .6748] states :

Because mind comes about through consolidated collections749 , And since it is also contaminated with defilements , The mind and so forth750 that gather [in] the all-ground. Are counted among the defilements .75 1

745 I follow the reading found in the canonical recensions, gzung ba yin la 'dzin pa yin which implies the two kinds of serns that Klong chen pa explains in the text. See note in edited text below.

746 Tk vol. 1 0 : 64 1 .7 ; Tb vol. 1 2 : 433 .2.

747As the Klong drug 'gre! (Dilgo Khyentse ed. : 229.5 ; NyKs vol . 109: 556.6 f.) explains: "To give an example, it is like the sun 's being obscured by masses of clouds: given that the very essence of primordial knowing does not shine forth directly in its inherent purity, it has been obscured by the myriad representational thoughts [of] cloud-like dualistic mind; these grasp [and believe] in object and subject as identities. Thus primordial knowing is unable to perform its function of manifesting outwardly." de yang dper na nyi rna sprin phung gis sgribs pa dang 'dra ste l ye shes kyi ngo bo rang dag tu rnngon du snang du rna ster basi serns sprin pa dang 'dra ba bsarn pa sna tshogs pas bsgribs te l yul dang yul can bdag tu 'dzin par gyur te l de yang ye shes phyir snang ba 'i don byed rni nus soi l 748 Tk vol. 9 : 568 .6 f. ; Tb vol. 1 2 : 379.4 f..

749 An interlinear note in Ati (5 1 6.6) clarifies that mind collects afflicitive emotions.

750 An interlinear note in Ati (5 1 7. 1 ) states "the body develops by way of [this] accumulation" .

304

In this regard, the term "minded being" (sems can) means one that is endowed with, i .e : has , that mind which obscures open awareness . Since this mind collects karma, it is in error: it sets in motion the process of cyclical existence where one blunders from one confused situation to the next. This mind is divorced from open awareness . When clarified to the point of purity and exhausting [all errancy] , one calls it buddha (sangs rgyas) because open awareness is then divested of defilement. Therefore, the actual contaminated phenomena to be eliminated are simply mind. As the Mu tig phreng ba [Ati vol. 2, 5 1 7] states :

When free from this mind, there is buddhahood. The defilements of all embodied beings are then exhausted, Animate beings are [ 1040) animated by this mind, Without which there could be no animation. Hence animate beings are similar to machines .

This 'mind' i s subsumed under two types : 1 ) an apprehended object-Oliented mind that grasps apparent objects as ' this ' or ' that ' using symbols , names and universals , and 2) an apprehending subject-oriented mind that analyzes the specific features of that [apparent object] and introduces [increasingly] subtle distinctions . It is therefore explained that 'mind is the apprehended object and the apprehender' . These [two aspects of mind] being presupposed, the exoteric literature also states [e.g . Madhyamakiivatiira XI. 17d] :

Due to mind's cessation, that [suchness] is made evident by the kaya.

And as it says in the Prasannapadii,

The succession of mind and mental factors is interrupted.

As the Ratnaku{a states :

Though free from mind, ego-mind and dichotomizing cognition, one has not also abandoned the state of contemplative absorption. This is the inconceivable mystery of the Mind of the Tathagatas .752 [ 1041 ]

' Primordial knowing' is like the sky in which discursive proliferations subside, and is the ground and source of immeasurable buddha qualities . It always dwells together with its vast ensemble of affiliated modes of plimordial knowing within the abode of dharmakiiya . Thus it is

75 1 Interlinear annotations in Ati (5 1 7 . 1 ) specifY that defilements here refer to the cogmtlve and emotional obscurations. I have rendered the l ine without the ergative-conditional ending gyur bas na which anticipates the next two l ines : "The distinction between mind and primordial knowingl Must be known by those who are learned."

752 See above p. 28 1 and n. 663 .

305

present like a [blazing] fire since it bums away all the dense thicket of afflictive emotions and their latent tendencies . According to the Mu tig phreng ba [Ati vol . 2, 5 17 .6] :

Burning away all divisive concepts , Primordial knowing is [all- ]consuming like a fire. It is comparable to the sky. It is imbued with emptiness, clarity and open awareness .

In this context, some ignorant people Claim "when there is no mind, there is [a state] similar to being inanimate (bems po) or in a stupor (mun pa)" but they have [evidently] studied little : even in the absence of mind, since primordial knowing is present, it is not the case that open awareness [also] ceases . Moreover, through the cessation of ignorance that is one ' s deluded mind, the sun of luminous primordial knowing dawns just as with the fading of night comes the dawning of day. [ 1042 1

Some [othersF53 claim that because ignorance is a pervader (khyab byed) of open awareness, when mind ceases, open awareness also ceases . This is a very grave error: while open awareness (rig pa) does pervade (phar khyab) ignorance (ma rig pa) , ignorance does not in tum pervade (tshur ma khyab) open awareness , [the counter-example being] the case of a buddha' s primordial knowing. Since mind is pervaded by ignorance, it is correct that [ignorance] is a pervader of mind, but ignorance does not pervade open awareness. Hence we maintain ignorance is excluded from the sphere of open awareness and radically cut off from it. Therefore, when mind ceases [is negated] , then the basis [i .e . mind] along with its quality, ma rig pa [ignorance] , also ceases [is negated] . But rig pa [open awareness] does not cease [is not negated] . Why? Because the basis of the negation [in the negative term ma rig pa] is rig pa [open awareness] . If rig pa were also to be non-existent, then please consider: with regard to what would there be a negation? Here by negating ma rig pa [ignorance] along with its quality, sems [mind] , rig pa [open awareness] unfolds as primordial knowing and one enjoys the two kinds of sensitive knowing [quantitative and qualitative] . The Mu tig phreng ba [Ati voL 2, 5 17] states :

[Enlightened] Mind (thugs) is free from all agitation but [ 1043] Is not like some inanimate thing. Rather it is cognizant and aware, an illuminating light.

Such is the differentiation between mind and primordial knowing. Even the exoteric texts make a distinction between mind and naturally pure Mind as such. In that case, 'mind' (sems) refers to satpsaric phenomena that are conceptual fabrications . 'Mind as such' (sems nyid) refers to nirvi:iJ.lic phenomena that are free from discursive elaborations . As the A:ftasiihasrika Prajiiiipiiramitii 5b. 1 -2 states :

753 Compare with Grub mtha ' mdzod 244.3 f..

306

In Mind there is no [dualistic] mind because the nature of Mind is luminous . 754

The passage is [to be interpreted] as follows : 'Mind' . [in the locative case] is first shown to be the inclusive basis , i .e . one 's essential abiding condition. Next, [dualistic] 'minds ' that are subject to discursive elaborations - such as those that project and reabsorb phenomena that are defiled due to conceptual fabrication and those that are single-pointed like [the absorptions] that function in the higher realms - [all these] are without any inherent natures . [Finally,] 'nature of Mind' (sems kyi rang bzhin) , ' abiding condition of Mind' (sems kyi gnas lugs) and 'Mind as such' (sems nyid) [ 1044] are synonyms in so far as they [commonly] abide as [Mind's] intrinsic nature present as luminous primordial knowing.

Also , as for fools who do not know how to distinguish between mind and Mind as such, they are just blatantly arrogant people who pride themselves in knowing the canon. Thus, having properly distinguished mind and primordial knowing, they nonetheless proceed to take mind as the ground, path and goal in the context of an exoteric vehicle concerned with objective references ; but they all fail to discover what these [three] are all about. So in this [rDzogs chen] vehicle, we are swiftly free from sa:rp.siira because we posit that primordial knowing is ground, path and goal of buddhahood. For those others who hope for spiritual awakening from what is fundamentally sal11sara, it is difficult for them to attain it even after a long time because of their confusion about how to construe the ground. As the Kun tu bzang po Thugs kyi me long declares :

Those who claim buddhahood derives from mind deviate from me !

Such ways of deviation are invalidated [1045] both by a) logic and b) scripture as follows . a) If you construe the triad of buddhahood, the path and goal as deriving from mind, then because this very mind, the basis of [your] construal, is mingled with subject and object, it logically follows that your ground, path and goal are entirely bound up with subject and object as well . If so claimed, there is the absurd consequence that one does not realize buddhahood and, even if one did, it would be of a perverse kind given that it would not be free from subject and object. Further, just as mind amasses a variety of latent tendencies and karma, it logically follows that ground, path and goal do so as well . If so claimed, there is the fallacious consequence that these [latter] are in error.

One could respond to this by arguing back [as follows] : If there were no mind, then there could not be any buddhahood on account of it either, for you too must accept that buddha is characterized as having a mind that undergoes purification. Reply : It is not the case that one is or

754 The line in the original Sanskrit, Schmithausen 1 977, 4 1 , E.b. I -2 , reads tathii hi tac cittam acittaml prakrtis cittasya prabhiisvariil which is rendered in the D as sems de ni sems ma mchis pa stel sems kyi rang bzhin ni 'ad gsal ba lags soi l . See above notes 309 and 650. All instances of this passage in Klong chen pa' s works begins with sems lao I have in the present instance retained this (wrong) locative construction in my English rendering of the passage because the author ' s interpretation depends on this reading. His interpretation is in fact a learned play on the classical grammatical terminology used to specifY the locative case, namely the locus (gnas gzhi) that is specified. Here Mind in the locative refers to the inclusive basis (gzhi bsdu ba), i .e . Mind as such which is one ' s essential abiding condition (ngo bo 'i gnas lugs), and this is said to be without dualistic mind which is subject to discursive elaborations and reifications and without inherent nature.

307

isn't a buddha by viltue of [dualistic] mind being present or absent. But it is due to the presence or absence of primordial knowing belonging to dharmakaya. [ 1046[ Let us grant it true that one is characterized as a buddha (sangs rgyas) by virtue of the errors of mind having been cleared away (sangs) . But it is not definitive [that buddhahood only implies a cleansed mind] because there is still buddhahood that consists in the spontaneously present ground. Thus [this cleansed mind] is not the de facto true [buddhahood] either. And although that which should be purified may have been cleared away (sangs) , that [mind] to be purified which has been cleared away is not [itself] the buddha. And thus buddhahood does not delive from mind.755

b) Concerning the invalidation by scripture, even exotelic sCliptures [such as] the Madhyama­kava tara XL I7 d states :

Due to mind' s cessation that [suchness] i s made evident by the kiiya.

Among esoteric scriptures , the Vajrasikharamahaguhyayoga-tantra756 explains fundamental transformation (gnas 'gyur) in passages such as [the following] : "The five elements of dichotomizing cognition are, in their pure state, the nature of the five modes of primordial knowing." Now, if it were an entity 'mind' that realized buddhahood, then [concepts such as] "what is to be purified" and "fundamental transformation" would be quite pointless . Among unsurpassed scriptures , the eighty­sixth chapter of the Rig pa rang shar entitled "The Refutation of All Adversaries" [ 1 047] Echo 69 in Ati vol. I , 730.6757] has this to say :

Concerning the claims of certain people, [Some] claim that goal-realization is to be sought in mind. This [claim] may be countered as follows . "To what extent is mind a real entity?" They may develop an answer to this question as follows: "Given that nothing entitative exists in the mind . . . " "Well then, [we say] what are the defining characteristics of mind?" They may develop an answer to this question as follows : "The charactelistic of mind is the basic nature (chos nyid) ." You can counter this by stating:758 "Given that nothing entitative exists in the mind, Do subject and object exist within its basic nature or not?" In response to this question they may elaborate :759

755Here the author bases his argument on a learned gloss on the Tibetan rendering of the Sanskrit buddha by sangs rgyas which means dissipation (sangs) of cognitive and emotional obscurations and expansion (rgyas) of inborn qualities and capabilities.

756 See P 0 1 1 3 ; D 0480.

757 Tk vol. 1 0 : 24 1 .5 f.; Tb vol. 1 1 : 588.7 f . .

758 I have inserted this and the previous line as found in Tb though not in Tk, Ati, Theg mchog mdzod or Tshig don mdzod. These additional lines are integral to the debate and make the argument more intelligible. See critical edition.

308

"How could the subject object duality exist in the basic nature? For example, it is like the characteristics of space Because subject and object do not exist [therein] ." You may then respond with these words : "Do subject and object exist in mind or not?" They may develop an answer to this question as follows : "Although subject and object are present in mind, Its basic nature is without subject and object ." You may then utter the following response : "You thereby violate your previous thesis : Why? Because mind and its basic nature were [deemed] identical. If subject and object occur in mind, Then one could not discover buddhahood by striving for it. [ 1048] Why? Because subject and object exist in mind." In response to this question, they may elaborate: "But, if the absence of mind is buddhahood itself, Then how could it be discovered by you?" In reponse to this question, one may elaborate: "The goal is not to be sought in mind. Why not? Because myriad things arise from mind, Mind is the consolidation of latent tendencies . Why? Because the subject moves toward objects , Mind is the root of sarpsara. Mind is [also] the stages of abandoning [obscurations] . Why? Because of the presence of the actual self-awareness . Mind i s the root of error Because everything branches out from that. Why? Because it marks a deviation from a pure common ground. Mind is shown to possess defilements . Why? Because divisive thoughts are present. Mind is like a [drifting] bird feather. Why? Because it is without focus76o ." They may then utter these words in response : "Well how can you then assert Mind as such?" In response to this question one may elaborate: [ 1049] "We do not assert that mind is the goal Because there is primordial knowing of open awareness." "Well then, concerning this open awareness :

759 This line and the previous occur in Tb and Tk but not in Theg mchog mdzod or Tshig don mdzod. 760 The meaning ofthis l ine is unclear. Tb and Tk have sems dpa ' (sattva: being) instead of the homophone sems pa (cetana: motivation, intentionality). I have retained the Theg mchog mdzod reading (TCagdms) because the idea that mind loses its focus makes better sense of the drifting feather simile.

309

Does it have any kind of characteristics?" One should then respond in this manner: "The characteristics of plimordial knowing of open awareness Are emptiness , clarity and pervasiveness ."

Query: If open awareness is taken as ground, taken as path and taken as goal, then wouldn't this open awareness be characterized as an entity? Reply: No it wouldn't because it is empty and clear and yet altogether devoid of any grasping and fixation. As the text goes on to say [Ati vol. 1 , 733 . 1 ] :

The knowing awareness is present as clarity itself. On what account? If it is present as clarity, Wouldn't it be something characterized? Why? Because it is adomed by clarity. One should respond to this questioning as follows : It would not be anything characterized because There is no attachment to it. Moreover, one should understand it in this way. For example, it is like the orb of the sun, It shines clearly [ 10501 but without partiality . Why? Because it is without inclination.

3 10

§ 2 . 3 Sources and Conventions Used in Preparing the Edited Text:

Four extant versions of the Theg mchog mdzod have been consulted in preparing the edited text of the translated excerpts:

1) TCa: Theg pa 'i mchog rin po che 'i mdzod. Oddiyana Institute edition published by Tarthang Rinpoche based on blockprints from Khreng tu'u : 1999?

2) TCg: Theg mchog rin po che 'i mdzod. A xylographic copy from A 'dzom chos sgar blockprints contained in Mdzod bdun, Gangtok: Dodrup Chen Rinpoche, n.d. [Reprint: Thimphu: National Library of Bhutan, n.d.]

3) TCd: Theg mchog rin po che 'i mdzod. A xylographic copy from blocks carved at sDe dge printery and published as Mdzod bdun: The Famed Seven Treasuries of Vajrayiina Buddhist Philosophy. 6 vols . Gangtok: Sherab Gyaltsen and Khyentse Labrang, 1 983 .

4) TCm: Theg mchog rin po che 'i mdzod. Mang yul Gung thang edition of the Theg mchog rin po che 'i mdzod. Reproduced in The Oldest Block Print of Klong-chen rab- 'byams­pa 's Theg Mchog Mdzod. In Lumbini International Research Institute Facsimile Edition Series 1 . Lumbini International Research Institute, Lumbini, 2000.

All editions consulted contain only minor discrepancies and would appear to derive from a common source, possibly TCm which is now considered to the oldest block print of this text. In addition to these sources , I was able to consult the rescension of the Theg mchog mdzod included in volumes 17-1 8 of the recently published 26 volume Klong chen pa gsung 'bum (TCs) but found no discrepancies from the other editions . Page references in subscript square parentheses [ 1 within the body of the translation and edited transliteration refer to paginations in the primary source used. I have used the exquisite Khreng tu 'u edition (TCa) published by the Oddiyana Institute as the main source for the selected passages with variant readings from the other editions included in the notes to the edited text. These notes also indicate variants of quotations found in Sanskrit originals or other Tibetan versions of the quoted passages.

Abbreviations : In addition to the sigla for bibliographic references noted above and those included in the Bibliography, I have employed the following abbreviations :

add. = addidit = added om. = omittit or omisit = omits or omitted. TCadgms = all editions of Theg mchog mdzod employed in this critical edition

3 1 1

§ 2 .4 Edited text of Theg mchog mdzod 14 (excerpts)

Theg pa 'i mchog rin po che 'i mdzod (Tea: pp . 101 9.4- 1027 .3)

de ltar rten Ius dang de ' i chos tshogs pa gzhan yang mam par bshad nas i da ni de la brten pa shes pa'i rang bzhin gtan la dbab pa la gsum stel [ 1 ] kun gzhi dang chos sku' i khyad pari [1020] [2] sems dang ye shes kyi khyad pari [3] khyad par can gyi chos gzhan mam par bshad pa 'o l l ) dang po la gnyis tel [A] mdor bstan pa dangl [B] rgyas par bshad pa'o l l

[A] dang po ni l sems can gyi gzhi dang sangs rgyas kyi gzhi la ltos nas rig pa ' i ngo bo yin tshul ka dag dri rna med pa dangl dri bcas rna rig pa rtog tshogs dang bcas pas sbags pa 'khrul snang 'khrul 'dzin kun gyi gzhir gym pa'i cha nas i kun gzhi dang chos sku mam pa gnyis su shes par bya stel thai 'gyur las l

kun gzhi dang ni chos sku'i gnadl l ces sol

de la kun gzhi ni rna rig pas khyad par du byas pa sems dang sems byung thams cad kyi dang po 'i rtenl bar gyi gnas l tha ma'i khyiml bag chags kyi snod du gym pas rdzing dang 'dra la l chos sku nil rna rig pa log pas khyad par du byas pal sems dang sems byung gi yul las 'das pal [1021 ] las dang bag chags thams cad las mam par dag pa'ol kun gzhi nil za 'og gi bar gding ltar du mar snang ba'i gzhir gym pal yul sna tshogs snod du snang ba dang I yul can du rna rigs drug khams gsum bcud du snang ba dang de ' i Ius dangl bde sdug dang I sems kyi 'khrul pa'i cha shas mang po 'dzin lal chos sku ni l de thams cad med pal yid la sogs pa dang lhan cig mi gnas pa stel rang shar las l

kun gzhi mam rtog 'dzin pa lal sna tshogs 'khrul pa'i76 1 shes pas bsladl kun gzhi rna rig dngos po yinl kun gzhi zhes kyis762 de la byal l

zhes pa dang I yangl

sems can gzhi dang sangs rgyas gzhil khyad par gcig gis phye bar nges l l

mu tig phreng ba las l

kun gzhi nyid ni bsags pa'i phyirl chos kyi sku ni zag pa zadl [!O22] stong zhing gsal la763 gsal zhing khyabl

761 Ati, Tk, Tb sna tshags pa yi 762 Ati kyang; Tk kyi; Tb ni

3 12

zhes pa dangl

bsams pas rna sbags dran pa764 sartgs l spros pa nyid dang bral ba ste765 1 nam mkha' Ita bur khyab766 cing stongl rang dag mtshon pa kun dang brall rgyu dang rkyen bcas kun gzhi lal bag chags767 sog768 phyir rdzing dang 'dral chos kyi sku ni bag chags braC69 1 yid dang sems sogs 'dus pa las l Ius can kun gzhi du mar snangl chos sku770 yid sogs bral bas nal du ma771 gzugs snang772 Ius med pa 'o l l zhes so l

de yang kun gzhi nil sems kyi gnas yin lal chos sku ni ye shes kyi gnas yin tel kun tu bzang po klong drug pa 'i rgyud las l

kye sems dpa ' chen pol sems kyi gnas ni l kun gzhi yin nol de ci 'i phyir zhe nal 773 kun gzhi ni bsam pa'i yul thams cad sdud cingl sems su shes pa' i774 phyir rol ye shes kyi gnas ni chos kyi sku yin nol [ 1023J de ci ' i phyir zhe nal chos kyi sku ni dran775 rtog776 thams cad rni mnga' zhingl yul777 tha dad du 'dzin pa'i shes pa med pa'i phyir rol l zhes sol

de la mngon pa 'i nga rgyal can kha cig nil kun gzhi chos skur 'dod del 'di la thun mong gi bstan bcos las kyangl kun gzhi dag rna dag thams cad kyi rten du 'dod lal chos sku dag pa'i nang nas kyang dri rna med pa'i de bzhin nyid du 'dod cingl sngags kha cig las kyangl kun gzhi gnas gyur te dag pa'i cha chos kyi dbyings kyi ye shes dang ngo bo nyid kyi sku ' dod del l

763 Ati, Tk, Tb b a

764 Tb pas

765 Tk de

766 Ati kun tu khyab

767 Ati here and in next line has bag chag

768 Ati bsog; Tk sogs

769 Tk bags

770 Ati, Tk, Tb chos sku

771 Ati dum

772 Tk gzugs brnyan

773 Tk om. de ci 'i phyir zhe nal

774 Tk, Tb sems su 'du shes pa 'i

775 Tk !dan

776 Tb rtogs

777 Tk, Tb yu! can

3 13

kun gzhi kun gyi gzhi yin te l my a ngan 'das pa 'i gzhi ma'ang yinl l

ces pa dangl kun gzhi gnas gyur pa ni l chos kyi dbyings kyi ye shes ngo bo nyid kyi sku ' 0 zhes bshad pas tha dad kyi nang nas kyang rdzas 'gal bar bshad dol l 'di la gnod pa yod del gal te kun gzhi chos sku yin [1024J na chos sku dli ma can du thaI ba dangl kun gzhis snod bcud kyi 'khrul pa bskyed pa Itar chos skus 'khml pa bskyed par thal lal 'dod nal sangs rgyas nas slar sems can du 'khrul par thaI ba la sogs pa'i ligs pas gnod cingl bla na med pa' i lung gis kyang gnod del kun tu bzang po thugs kyi me

long las l

kun gzhi chos skur 'dod pa nga las gol ba yinl l

ces pa dangl rig pa rang shar Ias l

Ia Ia kun gzhi chos skur 'dodl de la Ian gdab778 bstan pa 'i phyirl kun gzhi ' i mtshan nyid ji779 ltar yinl de nas de yis 780 Ian smras pal thams cad rdzogs phyir kun gzhi yinl de nas dris pa'i tshig gis bzlogi sangs rgyas ' gyur ba yod par rigs l [ci phyir]n1 kun gzhi sna tshogs 'char ba' i phyirl de Ias782 thams cad rdzogs pa 'i phyirl sangs rgyas nyid du sems can rigsl [ 1025 1 ci phyir thams cad rdzogs pa 'i phyirl yang na [sangs rgyas]783 res 'jog can du 'gyurl ci phyir sna tshogs 'char ba'i phyirl res ' ga ' sangs rgyas yin par 'gyurl re 'ga ' sems can yin par 'gyurl 784

ci phyir res 'jog yod pa'i phyirl de nas dris pa bzlog785 ste smrasl '0 na kun gzhi med dam cil

778 Ati, Tk: btab

779 TCagdm 'di : Ati, Tk, Tb ji

780 Ati, Tk, Tb yi

78 1 add. Ati, Tk, Tb

782 Ati la

783 add. Ati, Tk. MGm

784 om. Tk

785 Tb zlog

3 14

de nas dris pa ' i Ian btab pal kun gzhi mam rtog 'dzin pa lal sna tshogs 'khrul pa'F86 shes pas bsladl kun gzhi rna rig dngos po yinl l ces so l

des na kun gzhi dang chos sku phyed pa gces te l klong drug pa las l

de 'i phyir na kun gzhi dang chos sku rna phyed na gzugs gcig la tha dad du 'dzin pa'i shes pa787 dang ' dra stel don so sor snang bar mi nus so i l zhes sol

' di gnyis kyi dper brjod ni l rgya rntsho dang gru'i mam pa 'dra ste l chos sku ka dag gi rig pa dri rna yod rna rnyong ba dbyings rgya rntsho [1026] dangs pa 'dra bal gang du 'ang rna grub la gang du 'ang 'char ba'i go rna 'gags pal thog rna'i gzhi rang bzhin mam dag dangl rkyen glo bur gyi dri rna bra! bas dbyings der btsan sa zin pa dag pa gnyis ldan gyi cha yin lal kun gzhi rntsho'i steng na grur mi zhugs pa ltarl thog rna' i dbyings las 'khrul dus gzhi 'i rna rig pa tharns cad kyi rten dangl khyab byed dangl ngo bor gnas pa gru Ita bul serns serns byung las dang bag chags 'khrul pa ' i rni rnang pos gang ba ste l rang shar las l

kun gzhi dang chos sku 'i dpe nil rgya rntsho dang gru 'i tshul te lam byungl gnyid log pa dang sad pa'i tshul tel dbang po'i khyad yod pa'i phyir zhes so i l

de ' ang rig pa dri rna rned pa chos sku 'i ngo bo dus tharns cad du ldog bya rna yin zhing rnthar thug grol gzhir yod lal kun gzhi gnyid Ita bu 'khrul snang gi rmi lam thams cad [1027] ' char ba'i rten du gyur pa las sangs par byed dgos pas khyad shin tu che 'o l de 'i gnyid dang rmi lam ldog dgos kyangl rang gi rig pa ldog mi dgos pas l chos sku gzhi rtogs bya yin lal de 'i ngang gorns byar gyur zhingl 'bras bu grol sar ngos gzung ngol kun gzhi dang de la brten pa'i chos mams dag bya dri mar shes par bya 'o l l

Theg pa 'i mchog rin po che 'i mdzod (Tea: pp. 1 037.2 - 1050. 1 ) :

[2] don gnyis pa serns dang ye shes kyi khyad par l a gnyis tel [A] ngo bo rndor bstan pa dangl [B] s o s o ' i rang bzhin rgyas par bshad pa' 0 1 [A] dang po ni l m u tig phreng ba las l

serns dang ye shes dbye ba nil mkhas pa mams kyis shes par byal l

786Ati, Tk, Tb sna tshags payi 787 Ati, Tk, has 'dzin pa instead of 'dzin pa 'i shes pa

zhes 'byung bas i

3 15

serns ni l rtsa ba rna rig pa dang rntshungs par ldan pa dri rna dang bcas pa'i chos 'khor ba rang ka rna ye shes kyi nyi rna sgrib pas sprin dang 'dra lal ye shes nil chos kyi sku dang rntshungs par Idan pa dri rna rned cing serns kyi dran bsarn dang lhan cig rni gnas pa nyi rna Ita bu stel [1038]

de nyid las l

serns ni bag chags kun gyi gzhil Ius can marns kyi dri rna yinl gzung ba yin la ' dzin pa yinl788 de phyir 'khor ba' i chos nyid dol l

zhes pa dangl yangl

ye shes dran gzhi nyid dang bral l l

klong drug pa las kyangl

ces sol

serns dang ye shes rang gi ngo bo789 rna phyed nal nyi rna sprin phung gis bsgribs790 pa dang 'dra ste phyir snang ba' i don byed mi nus sol 1791 zhes sol

de ' ang serns nil las dang nyon rnongs pa dang bag chags tharns cad kyi gzhi dang 'byung khungs dang sog byed dang kun nas slong ba dangl rna rig pa 'i khyirn na rtag tu gnas pas ye shes kyi nyi rna dang 'gal zhing sgrib pa stel rang shar las l

serns ni bag chags tharns cad792 sdud pa'o l serns ni bag chags tharns cad slong ba'o793 1 serns ni nyon rnongs pa tharns cad sog794 pa 'ol serns ni bag chags tharns cad kyi gzhi [ 1039] yin tel bag chags de yang 'gegs795 par dka' bas i rang gi snang ba sgrib796 par byed pal rna rig pa dang797 mnyarn du gnas pa798 1 1

zhes dangl mu tig phreng ba las l

788 TCagdms gzung ba yul la 'dzin pa semsl : Ati, Tk, Tb gzung ba yin la 'dzin pa yinl

789 Tk bar

790 Tk gi sgribs

791 add. I I

792 Ati, Tk bag chags thams cad : TCa bag chags dang thams cad

793 Tk, Tb klang pa 'a

794 Ati gsags; Tk: sags

795 Ati 'gag; Tk, Tb dgag

796 Ati 'grib; Tk: bsgrib

797 TCa, Ati ma rig pa mnyam du : Tk, Tb ma rig pa dang mnyam du

798 TCa, Ati pas : Tk, Tb : pa

3 16

sems ni 'dus tshogs 'byung ba 'i phyirl dri rna nyid dang yang sbags799 pas l kun gzhi sdud pa'i sems la sogsl dri ma 'i grangs su gyur pas nai l zhes sol

de 'ang rig pa la sgrib byed sems de yod par ldan pas sems can zhes bya lal sems des las bsags pas 'khrul pa nyid 'khrul gcig nas gcig tu 'khor ba'i las byed dol sems de rig pa las groll dag zad byang na sangs rgyas zhes bya stel rig pa dri rna dang bral ba'i phyir rol des na bral bya dri ma'i chos yang dag pa nil sems kho na yin tel de nyid lasl

sems de bral na sangs rgyas sal Ius can kun gyi dri rna zadl ' gro ba mams ni sems [I(40) des 'grol de min ' gro bar nus min tel de phyir ' gro mams 'khrul 'khor bzhinl l ces so l

sems de yang yul snang 'di dang 'di ' 0 zhes brda dang ming dang spyi 'dzin pa gzung ba yul gyi sems dang I de ' i khyad par dpyod cing zhib mor 'byed pa 'dzin pa yul can gyi sems gnyis su 'dus pa yin pas l gzung ba yul la 'dzin pa sems l zhes bshad pa yin nol 'di dag dgos par thun mong gi gzhung las kyangl

sems 'gags pa de sku yis mngon sum mdzadl l

ces pa dangl tshig gsal dul

sems dang sems las 'byung ba'i 'jug pa yang rgyun chadl l dang zhes pa dangl

dkon mchog brtsegs pa lasl

sems dang yid dang mam par shes pa dang yang bral lal ting nge ' dzin gyi gnas kyang mi 'dor ba ste l 'di ni de bzhin gshegs pa'i thugs kyi gsang ba bsam gyis mi khyab pa'o i IROO zhes gsungs pa yin nol l l1041 )

ye shes nil nam mkha' ltar spros pa zhi zhing sangs rgyas kyi chos tshad med pa 'i gzhi dang 'byung khungs 'khor ye shes rgya mtsho 'i tshogs dang Than cig chos sku'i khyim na Itag tu gnas pas nyon mongs pa dang bag chags kyi tshang tshing thams cad bsregs pas me ltar gnas pa stel mu tig phreng ba las l

799 Ati sngags 800 add. I I

mam par rtog pa kun bsregs pas I ye shes nyid ni me bzhin zal

3 17

narn mkha' nyid dang rntshungs pa yinl stong gsal rig bcas nyid yin nol l zhes sol

' dir mi shes pa kha cigl serns rned na berns po 'arn rnun pa Itar ' gyur ro zhes pa'ang thos pa chung ba yin tel serns rned kyang ye shes yod pas rig pa 'gag pa rna yin pa'i phyir rol de ' ang rna rig pa 'khrul pa ' i serns 'gags pas l ye shes gsal ba'i nyi rna ' char tel rntshan rna sangs pas nyin rna shar ba [1042] bzhin nol kha cig nil rna rig pa rig pa'i khyab byed yin pas l serns 'gags dus rig pa 'gags par 'dod pa' ang shin tu nor ba chen po stel rig pas rna lig pa la phar khyab kyangl rna lig pas rig pa la tshur rna khyab ste sangs rgyas kyi ye shes bzhin nol serns la rna rig801 pas khyab pas l serns kyi khyab byed du ' thad kyil rig pa la rna khyab pasl rna rig pa lig pa 'i dbyings nas ldog pa'arn rgyun ' chad par 'dod dol des na serns 'gags dus gzhi rna rig pa cha dang bcas pa ' gags kyangl rig pa rna 'gags te ' gag gzhi rig pa yin pa'i phyir ro l rig pa 'ang rned na gang gi steng du 'gag pa bsarn par 'as so l 'dir rna rig pa serns kyi cha dang bcas pa 'gags pas rig pa ye shes su rgyas te mkhyen pa gnyis la longs spyod pa nil mu tig phreng ba las l

thugs ni bskyod pa kun bral bas i [ 1043] berns po Ita bu rna yin tel shes shing rig la gsal byed snangl l zhes gsungs pa yin nol

des na serns dang ye shes so so yin te l thun rnong gi lung las kyangl serns dang serns nyid rang bzhin gyis dag pa gnyis su 'byed dol de la serns ni kun rtog pa 'khar ba' i chosl serns nyid ni spros pa dang bral ba rnya ngan las ' das pa ' i chos tel 'phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa stong phrag brgyad pa las kyangl

serns la serns rna rnchis tel serns kyi rang bzhin ni 'ad gsal ba lags soi l zhes gsungs sol

serns la zhes pa ni gzhi bsdu ba ste ngo bo 'i gnas lugs su rntshon nas i serns spros pa can kun rtog pa dri rna'i chos 'phro 'du dang rtse gcig pa kharns gong rna'i 'jug pa Ita bu marns rang bzhin rned del serns kyi rang bzhinl serns kyi gnas lugs l serns nyid ces [10441 pa rning gi mam grangs te de nyid kyi gshis ' ad gsal ba ' i ye shes su gnas so zhes 'byung ngol l

serns dang serns nyid 'byed par mi shes pa'i blun pos kyang sde snod shes par rlorn pa marns mngon pa'i nga rgyal can du zad dol de ltar serns dang ye shes legs par phye nas thun rnong ba dmigs bcas kyi theg par serns la gzhi lam 'bras bur byed kyangl de tharns cad don thog tu rna phebs pas l theg pa 'dir ye shes la sangs rgyas kyi gzhi lam 'bras bur marn par 'jog pas l rnyur par 'khor ba las grol lal gzhan dag 'khor ba'i lisa ba la byang chub re bas ring rna zhig na'ang de thob pa dka' ste l gzhi 'cha' lugs 'dzol ba'i phyir rol kun tu bzang po thugs kyi me long las l

serns las sangs rgyas 'dod pa nga las gal ba yinl l

801 TCg rigs

3 18

ces gsungs so l

gol lugs ni l rigs pa lung [10451 gnyis kas gnod pa can zhig ste l 'di ltar sems las sangs rgyas dang lam dangl gzhi gsum 'cha ' nal 'cha' gzhi sems de nyid gzung 'dzin dang bcas pa'i phyir khyed kyi gzhi lam 'bras bu ril por gzung 'dzin dang bcas par thaI 101 'dod na sangs rgyas mi 'grub pa dang grub kyang phyin ci log tu thaI tel gzung 'dzin las rna grol ba'i phyir rol yang sems bag chags dang las sna tshogs sdud pa ltarl gzhi lam 'bras bu yang der thal lal 'dod na 'khrul par thaI ba'i skyon yod dol l

tshur rgol bas ' di skad dul sems med na des kyang sangs rgyas mi rigs lal sangs rgyas de dag bya sems kyi khyad par du byas par khyed kyang 'dod pa' i phyir ro zhe nal lan smras pal sems med pa dang yod pas sangs rgyas pa rna yin gyil chos sku'i ye shes yod med kyis de ltar byung ba'o l [ 10461 sems kyi 'khrul pa sangs pas sangs rgyas khyad par byas pa bden du chug kyang da dung gzhi lhun grub kyi sangs rgyas kyis rna nges pas bden po dngos kyang rna yin lal dag byar sangs kyang sangs pa'i dag bya de sangs rgyas rna yin pas l sangs rgyas sems las byung ba rna yin no l l ' dir lung gis kyang gnod del thun mong gi lungl dbu ma 'jug pa las kyangl

sems ' gags pa de sku yis mngon sum mdzadl l ces pa dangl

ces pa dangl thun mong rna yin pa'i lungl rdo rje rtse mo las kyangl

mam par shes pa'i khams lnga dag pa ni ye shes lnga'i rang bzhin nol l 802

zhes pa la sogs pa gnas ' gyur bshad del sems dngos la sangs rgyas ' grub nal dag bya dang gnas gyur don med dol bla na med pa 'i lungl rig pa rang shar gyi rgyud le 'u brgyad cu rtsa drug pa ' i phyir rgol ba thams cad sun dbyung ba 'i le 'u las l [ 1047 1

la la dag gi 'dod pa nil sems laso3 'bras bu tshol bar 'dodl de la ldogS04 pa ' di Ita stel sems kyi dngos po ci805 tsamS06 lags l dris Ian rgyas par btab807 pa nil sems la dngos po med pa'i phyirl ' 0 na sems kyi mtshan nyid cisosl dris Ian rgyas par gdab pa nil [sems kyi mtshan nyid chos nyid yinl

802 add. I I 803 Ati, vol. 1 , 730.6 las 804 Ati bzlog 805 Tkji 806 Ati ci ltar 807 Tb gdab; 808 Tk kyi

3 1 9

de Ia bzIog par smra ba nil ]S09 sems la dngos po med pa 'i phyirl 8 JO

[ehos nyid gzung 'dzin yod dam medl dris Ian rgyas par gdab pa nil ] S I I

ehos nyid gzung 'dzin ga Ia yodl dper na nam mkha'i mtshan nyid bzhinl gzungS 12 dang 'dzin pa med pa'i phyirl de Ia IdogS 13 pa'i tshig smras pal sems Ia gzung 'dzin yod dam medl dris Ian rgyas par gdabS 14 pa nil sems Ia gzung dang 'dzin yod kyangl ehos nyid gzung 'dzin med pa'i phyirl de Ia Idog8 15 pa yang smras pal gang8 16 gi dam bea' nyams par 'gyml [ei phyir] S 17 sems dang ehos nyid geig pa'i phyirl sems Ia gzung 'dzin byung gym nal sangs rgyas 'bad pas rnyed mi 'gyurs 1s l [ 104S[ [ei phyir]8 19 sems Ia gzung 'dzin yod pa 'i phyirl dris Ian bzlog820 ste smras82 1 pa ni l gal te sems med sangs rgyas nyidl khyod kyis rnyed dam gang gi822 phyirl de la dris Ian rgyas btab823 pal sems la 'bras bu mi 'tshoIS24 tel

809 Tb sems . . . smra ba ni : am. in Ati, Tk, TCagdms, and in Tshig don mdzod. These two lines are integral to the debate and make it more intell igible.

8 1 0 This line occurs in TCagdms but not in Ati, Tk or Tb or Tshig don mdzod. 8 1 1 T b chos nyid . . . gdab p a n i : am. i n Ati, Tk, TCagdms, TD.

8 1 2 Tk consistently has bzung instead of gzung which occurs in Ati, Tb, Theg mchog mdzod and TD.

8 1 3 Ati, Tb, Tk bzlog 8 1 4 Ati bstan 8 1 5 Ati , Tb bzlog; Tk: zlog 8 1 6 Ati, Tb gong 8 1 7 add. as per Ati, Tb, Tk

8 1 8 Tb mi rnyed 'gyur 8 1 9 add. as per Ati, Tb and Tk

820 Tb ldog 821 Ati bstan 822 Tk gis 823 Ati gdab 824 Ati 'tshal

320

[ci phyir]825 sems las sna tshogs 'by'ung ba'i phyirl sems ni bag chags sdud pa yinl [ci phyir]826 'dzin pa yul la 'gyu ba'i827 phyirl sems ni 'khor ba 'i rtsa ba yinl sems ni spang ba' i828 rim pa yinl ci phyir rang rig dngos po yod pa'i phyirl 829 sems ni 'khrul pa'i rtsa ba stel thams cad de las gyes pa yinl [ci phyir]830 'dra gzhi dag las83 1 gol ba'i phyirl sems ni dri rna can du bstanl ci phyir832 mam rtog yod pa'i phyirl sems ni bya sgro Ita bu yinl ci phyir sems pa833 med pa'i phyirl de nas834 bzlog835 pa'i tshig smras pal ' 0 na ji ltar836 sems nyid 'dodl de nas dris Ian rgyas gnang ba8371 [10491 sems la838 'bras bu mi 'dod del rig839 pa' i ye shes840 yod pa' i phyirl ' 0 na rig pa 'di nyid lal mtshan nyid841 mam pa du dang ldanl de nas dris Ian 'di ltar byal rig pa'i ye shes mtshan nyid nil

825 add. as per Ati, Tb, Tk

826 add. as per Ati, Tb, Tk

827 Ati, Tb and Tk 'gyus pa 'i 828 Tb spangs pa 'i

829 Corrected as per Ati, Tb; Tk ci phyir rang rig dang po yod pa 'i phyirl ; TCagdms ci phyir sems su yod pa 'i phyirl 830 add. as per Ati, Tb, Tk

83 1 Tb, Tk la 832 Tb duplication ci phyir ci phyirl 833 Tb sems dpa ' (sattva: 'a being') ; Ati spangs pa ( , abandonmenf).

834 Ati, Tk de nas tshur la 835 Ati bzlog; Tb zlog 836 Ati ci ltar 837 Ati btab pa; Tk snang ba 83 8 Tk las 839 Tk rigs 840 Tb rig pa ye shes 841 Tk 'dzin

321

stong dang gsal dang khyab pa yinl l ' ces sol

rig pa la gzhi byed lam byed 'bras bu byed nal rig pa de nyid dngos po mtshan mar rni ' gyur ram zhe nal rni ' gyur te l stong pa dang gsal ba dang 'dzin zhen gang yang med pa'i phyir rol yang de nyid las l

842 Ati nas

shes rig gsal ba nyid du yodl ci phyir gsal bar yod gyur nal mtshan rna can du rni 'gyur rami ci phyir gsal bas mdzes pa'i phyirl de la842 dris Ian 'di har byal mtshan rna can du rni ' gyur tel de la chags pa med pa 'i phyirl de yang 'di ltar shes par bya'o l dper na nyi ma' i dkyil 'khor bzhinl gsal yang phyogs su [ 1050] rna lhung ba ' 01 ci phyir zhe 'dod med pa'i phyir l l ces so l

322

3 . 'Jigs med gling pa ' s Yon tan mdzod XII.9- 1 3 with Yon tan rgya mtsho ' s

Commentary

§ 3 . 1 Introductory Remarks :

What follows is an annotated translation and edited text of 'Jigs med gling pa ' s ( 1729- 1 798) Yon tan mdzod XII.9- 1 3 with commentary from mKhan chen Yon tan rgya mtsho ' s (b. 19th c.) Zab don snang byed Nyi ma 'i 'od zer, the third part (huf!1) of his Yon tan rin po che 'i mdzod kyi 'grel pa in which the Vajrayana and rDzogs chen systems (chs . 10- 1 3) are treated. This excerpt covers the first three of ten basic rDzogs chen distinctions introduced by Yon tan rgya mtsho as topical headings for structuring 'Jigs med gling pa' s presentation on rDzogs chen distinctions in chapter twelve. My translation of the commentary on the third distinction terminates before a series of quotations that have already been encountered in previous parts of this thesis . I have chosen not to include the section on the kun gzhi/chos sku distinction because it consists largely in a recasting of material found in Klong chen pa' s Theg mchog mdzod, Tshig don mdzod and Chos dbyings mdzod that has also been dealt with previously. Among the ten distinctions , the three included here provide the most cogent treatment of the difference between mind and primordial knowing. In style and content, these excerpts reflect the revitalizing spirit that animates the renaissance of sNying thig teachings in the 1 8th century visionary movement of 'Jigs med gling pa and his successors that was known as Klong chen snying thig ("sNying thig as systematized by Klong chen pa") . As this designation would suggest, the subject matter found in the works of this tradtion is profoundly indebted to earlier rDzogs chen sNying thig presentations , above all the summaries of Klong chen pa. The originality of the renaissance works lies less in their content than in the multifarious styles , directness of expression, and syncretistic spirit with which i t i s presented. The illustrious lives and prolific writings of a succession of luminaries in the Klong chen snying thig lineage - a long list that includes 'Jigs med 'phrin las 'od zer ( 1745- 1 821) , dPal sprul 'Jigs med chos kyi dbang po ( 1808-1 887), A 'dzom 'brug pa ( 1 842- 1924) and 'Jam dbyangs mkhyen brtse'i dbang po ( 1 820- 1 892) - are powerful testimony to the breadth of leaming (mkhas pa) and depth of personal realization (grub pa) that are hallmarks of this tradition.

§3 .2 Annotated Translation of Treasury of Qualities (XII.9-23) with Commentary from Yon tan rgya mtsho ' s Sun 's Rays Illumining the Profound Meaning (vol. 3, 6 16 .6-625 .5) :

Part two. [6 17] This explanation of the distinctions has ten parts . [Specifically,] we will explain the distinctions between:

1 ) Mind and open awareness (semslrig pa) 2) Stability and essence (gnas palngo bo) 3) Proliferation and expressive energy ( 'phro balrtsal) 4) Mode of freedom and key points (grol tshul gnad) 5) All-ground and dharmakiiya (kun gzhilchos sku) 6) States of errancy and freedom Ckhrullgrol skabs)

323

7) Spontaneity as ground and goal (gzhil'bras lhun grub) 8) Original purity as path and goal (lam/'bras ka dag) 9) Intennediate state and deities (bar dollha) 1 0) Resting place and [buddha-]fie1d (dbugs 'byinlzhing)

[ 1 ] The distinction between mind and open awareness :

This open awareness beyond anyone's mind Is the special teaching of natural Great Perfection. Those who realize it are free in open awareness from the ground. Sentient beings who do not realize it circle in an [occluded] state of that. [ 12.9]

First we shall explain the distinction between 'mind' and ' open awareness ' . After the tenn anyone (gang dag) , we tum our attention to [the senses of] the two tenns realize and not realize. In this regard, mind refers to the conditioned factor, that is , the clear and knowing consciousness (gsal rig gi shes pa) that harbours a complex variety of latent tendencies and possesses aspects of apprehended object and apprehending subject stemming from those [tendencies ] . Now, from object­oriented mind, apprehended objects that are non-existent yet clearly apparent manifest as the five aspects of fonns , sounds , smells, tastes and tactile sensations . From subject-oriented mind appear limitless actions , their ripened [consequences] and afflictive emotions .843 Open awareness that is beyond this [mind] is present as the unceasing self-effulgence of all nirvii1}ic phenomena within the sky-like dimension, the unconditioned which is empty and luminous . According to the Yid bzhin rin po che 'i mdzod [ 1 .3] :

From this sugatagarbha, original luminosity, The genuine all-ground, unconditioned by nature, Primordially pure in every respect like space,844 [6 18

1

The direct urimediated introduction to this open awareness is the special teaching of natural Great Perfection. Those who properly realize the nature of open awareness do not analyze the external objects while they manifest as a playing forth (rol pa) from the expressive energy (rtsal) of open awareness that is the ground, and also do not grasp for an ' inner mind' . They are thereby free from grasping at appearances and cognitions . The agent of the apprehending subject and apprehended object [simply] collapses . When actions and emotions have been voided, all sarpsiiric phenomena are free in this state of open awareness devoid of inherent independent nature. When such [practioners] attain the state of the dissolution [of phenomena] into the very nature of things (chos nyid zad pa) , they have arrived in the realm of Samantabhadra (Kun tu bzang po) . This is known as taking one ' s place in the ever4asting kingdom of the monarch dharmakiiya. As stated in the Chos dbyings rin po che 'i mdzod [X.39] :

843 This passage is taken almost verbatim from Chos dbyings mdzod 'grel: 495 .3 £ .

844 Yid bzhin mdzod ch. 1 . 3 : 4 . 2 £ .

324

At that time, you have arrived at the implicit intent that is dharmakiiya, Like space in which no elToneous phenomena of outer and inner are perceived. Since you have attained the state of dissolution - without any coming or going, You have finally reached the sublime citadel of the dharmakiiya, The realm of Samantabhadra [where] everything is infinite vastness . 845

Since those who do not realize the very nature of open awareness grasp the [apparently] external and internal entities that manifest from the all-ground as ' appearances ' and 'mind' and as ' self' and ' other' , they are known as mind-govemed beings (sems can) . They circle in this state of the all-ground, all the while having never strayed from thatness846 , the expanse of open awareness.

[6 19J According to the [Seng gel rtsal rdzogs [Ati vol. 2, 3 14.2]

The ignorant in their childishness, Make great efforts to tie knots in the sky. They take as appearance what is devoid of objective appearance. They take as conceptual what is devoid of concepts . 847 They mistakenly take as self and other What is devoid of self and other.848

If distinguished using images, they are like water and bubbles in water. Mind and awareness are alike to the extent that both can be non conceptual, However, awareness being without intrinsic nature is totally unrestricted, Whereas mind swirls around and obscures like a small pond. [ 12 . 10]

Stated briefly, if we indicate [how] these two, mind and open awareness, are distinguished using illustrative images, open awareness is like the water of an ocean, a great open expanse of ultimate reality, not chumed up by waves of ignorance with its eightfold ensemble [of cognitions] . So once those who have entered the path of Atiyoga, the pinnacle of spiritual vehicles , recognize [how] to preserve the immediacy of this [reality] ; they no longer need to resort to the various antidotes used in renunciation that are just conceptual mind, like pictures drawn on water. There is no transition or change from the implicit intent that is dharmakiiya. And in all the vehicles belonging to the eight gradations ranging from the efforts by sravakas to accept or reject things in accordance with the four truths after having seen the defects and qualities in sal11sara and nirval).a [respectively] , up to the completion stage (rdzogs rim) meditation on bliss and emptiness belonging to the

845 Chos dbyings mdzod: 58 .3 f. .

846 Yon tan rgya mtsho here takes liberties with de nyid by interpreting it as thatness or suchness. In the root text de nyid could refer either to the sentient beings (though a plural marker de dag or de rnams would be more correct) or to the ground of the preceding as Yon tan rgya mtsho has read it. On his reading, which I have loosely followed in my rendering of the line, the state of that ground in which beings circle is the all -ground which is a derivative occluded state of the ground itself.

847 This line is missing in Yon tan mdzod 'grel but present in canonical editions . See edited text. 848 Tb vol. 1 2 : 6 1 9 .6 f.; Tk vol. 9: 287.6 f..

325

Anu[yoga] path, it is just this incidental conceptual mind that has never known the natural state of the ever-present dharmakaya and which has the nature of impermanence and change , like froth or bubbles in water, that has been taken as the path. If orie is then freed from mind' s defilements , it is claimed that primordial knowing of the dharmakaya becomes directly present right now' [620] Such is the difference between the two. According to the Rig pa rang shar [Ati vol . 1 , 667.5] :

Examples of open awareness and ignorance are water and drawings on it.849

And [it continues] [Ati vol. 1 , 667.5] :

Examples of mind and open awareness are water and froth. [Awareness] is not under the power of mind. 850

According to the Mu tig phreng ba [Ati vol. 2, 5 17. 1 ] :

The distinction between mind and primordial knowing Must be known by those who are learned. Mind is the ground of all latent tendencies , It is the defilement of all embodied beings . It is what is apprehended and the apprehender. Therefore, it is the very nature of satp.siira. When free from this mind, there is buddhahood. The defilements of all embodied beings are then exhausted, Animate beings are animated by this mind, Without which there could be no animation. Hence animate beings are similar to machines . 85 1

Further, in the state of meditative equipoise (mnyam par bzhag pa) , the one-pointed mind and objectless open awareness would seem to be the same to the extent that the unceasing conspicuous flickering of mind' s conceptual [activity] has ceased and is no longer present. However, objectless open awareness is essentially a thorough understanding whose fundamental nature is to be without intrinsic nature (rang bzhin med pa 'i chos nyid) and it present in a totally unrestricted way, being free from shrouding obscurations due to mind. Thus, because it transcends the causality of views and meditation, if you become familiar with that state, all the karma and latent tendencies for rebirth will be exhausted. [621 ] Whereas, mind when it is one-pointed at the time of nonconceptual absorption apprehends the various referential objects as one, but it is not at one (ro gcig) with the deep dharmadhatu that is free from limits . It thus swirls around like eddies in a small

849 Tb vol. 1 1 : 537 .4; Tk vo!' 1 0 : 1 93 . 5 .

850 Tb vo!' 1 1 : 537.4; Tk vo!' 1 0 : 1 93 . 5 .

85 1 This passage is analyzed in separate sections by Klong chen pa in Theg mchog mdzod chapter 14 . See translation and edited text of relevant passages above sections 3 .2 and 3 .4 .

326

pond and becomes murky so it obscures the self-occuring light of open awareness . This is because it is latently present as the anchor of the subject-object duality with its associated ignorance . According to the Klang drug:

Views are defilements of the mind. In pure ultimate reality which is undefiled One is free from the dualism of the viewed and a viewer. In viewing itself there is nothing viewed. Why? Because if there is anything to be viewed, The lamp of open awareness will be absent.852

Open awareness is like the deep glow of the new moon. Mind is similar to the full moon mixing with objects. The quality of open awareness is pristine clarity without objects. The distinctive trait of mind is to mingle thoroughly with objects. [ 12 . 1 1 ]

Furthermore, to give an example, since open awareness does not enter into the objects of ego-based consciousness that are manifestations of its expressive energy, it is known as primordial knowing of individual self-awareness. It is like the deep glow of the self-luminous [new] moon on the thirtieth day [of the month] 853 that does not shine outward. Although in the unceasing lucent aspect of self-abiding open awareness , the five modes of primordial knowing are spontaneously present, it initially does not conceptualize the natures of objects . Since it subsequently does not analyze them, does not grasp them continuously, even though all apparent objects like reflections of one ' s own face in a mirror are unceasingly displayed, it does not lose itself in these outer objects . [622] Since mind goes after the variety of objects that are seen as ' out there ' , then apprehends and analyzes them as this and that, it is similar to the self-radiant [full] moon on the fifteenth day of the month which shines outward pervading and mingling with all of its objects from the earth up. Therefore, since the clarity aspect of direct deeper insight (lhag mthang) has none of the turbidity of ignorance, in its pristine clarity, it remains uncontaminated by aspects of objects . As such it exists in primordial uncontrived harmony with the single-pointed calm abiding (zhi gnas) . Thus, the fact that the foundation of subject and object has been voided is the quality of open awareness . There are no nirval).ic phenomena apart from this. The distinctive trait of mind is to mingle thoroughly with objects of the six modes of consciousness, to spread out into all sorts of coarse notions together with their mental factors [and to thereby] consolidate myriad causes of worldliness through the building up of all manner of good and evil karma.

But that is not all. When discerned by means of an acute analytical awareness that conceptually analyzes formulations such as 'existence ' and 'non-existence ' , one may attain the unity of the so-called [ 1 ] ' abiding calm' , i .e. the factor of one-pointedness that is based on meditative equipoise within the framework of the epistemic certainty of thinking "it is selfless" or "it is empty"

852 I have been unable to locate this passage in the Klang drug or any ofthe seventeen tantras.

853 gnam stong zla ba, 'moon ofthe empty sky' refers to the new moon on the thirtieth day of the month.

327

or "free from elaboration" and [2] ' deeper insight' , i .e . the factor of analyzing things as being without intrinsic nature. However, [623J this [analytical meditation] is still bound up with subject and object and thus does not transcend the worldly concentrations . So although one has not simply abandoned the cause of hue deeper insight belonging to the ordinary path, this [meditation] is nonetheless a pitfall on this path that takes open awareness as the path. Thus as the Kun byed [ri.val po] states :

Since self-occuring primordial knowing does not conceptualize objects , Latent tendencies of divisive conceptualizing do not modify it. 854

[2] The distinction between stability and essence :

Similarily, open awareness as self-abiding insight does not depend On concentration techniques and is free from elation and depression Since mind is has a one-pointed focus on intentional objects, Its absorptions stand in a relationship of founding and founded. [ 1 2. 1 2]

Similarily, if one abides in the state of having directly recognized unimpeded open awareness , that is known as appreciative insight abiding plimordially as one ' s own fundamental nature or as deeper insight (lhag mthong) . Since in essence it is beyond removing or positing [anything] , it does not depend on techniques such as suppressing thought proliferations and achieving mental stability by forcing mind into a state of concentration. Since it is endowed with the intensity of being naturally knowing and lucid, it is devoid of depression; [and] since thought movements are purified away in being self-liberated, it is free from elation.

With regard to the concentration that takes mind as the path: since it has entered the one­pointed state by having a fixed apprehension ( ,dzin stangs) of its intentional object - be it a deity or a nonconceptual [state] or anything else - both the [resulting] meditative absorptions and the pre­established object of vision stand in a relationship such that there is [ 1 ] a founding basis that is of the nature of seeing a meditative object [624J and [2] a founded absorption that is the meditating subject. Since [this dualism] consequently becomes what obscures the open awareness that is free from subject and object, it is celtainly ineffective apart from providing temporary reprieve from divisive thoughts . According to the rDzogs chen po Ye shes nam mkha ' dang mnyam pa 'i rgyud:

Confusing the non-active stable awareness of concentration and The deeper insight and open awareness of rDzogs chen Leads to deviation.855

854 Tk vol. 1 : 1 46. 1 ; Tb vol. 1 : 1 69 .5 .

855 The full title of this tantra is rDzogs pa chen po nges don thams cad 'dus pal Ye shes nam mkha' dang mnyam pa'i rgyud/ ITa sgom thams cad kyi snying po rin po che rnam par bkod pal The title is found in Tb vol. 7 : 2 . 1 -433 .5 (but not in Tk) . I was unable to locate this passage in it.

328

[3] The distinction between proliferation and expressive energy :

Although open awareness experiences objects, it is not overwhelmed By their appearances, like mercury that has fallen on the ground. Mind, however, with its subject and object aspects, Mingles with the appropriating inclination of divisive thinking. [ 12 . 13]

Open awareness experiences objects means that although the effulgent expressive energy of responsiveness manifests unceasingly, it [does not] split into the dualitl56 of [ 1 ] its intrinsic essence and [2] the manifesting of its expressive energy. This is because [ 1 ] one has not failed to cut off [mind] at the root857 through retracing thoughts involving the supposed externality of objects , and [2] all thought movements become naturally purified, non-entitative , since they do not become anything other than the naked disclosure of the nature of Reality where there is no analyzing the external, investigating the internal, or positing anything in between. So [awareness] is not overwhelmed by the aspects of appearance. To give an example, it is like mercury that has fallen on the ground: although it lands in the dirt, it does not mingle with the dirt, so it remains uncontaminated by it. In the case of mind, however , when apparent objects manifest in open awareness, since one has not fully mastered the state of directly recognizing this self-manifestation to be without intrinsic nature, one becomes attached to the aspects of objects . Consequently, the flow of divisive thoughts with their subject and object aspects coming one after another [625J it is never cut off at the source. [Mind] thus mingles with the tendency for appropriating worldly existence and thereby builds up karma. According to the Klang drug [Ati vol. 2, 143 .4] :

Open self-awareness free from thought and The myriad embodied sensations of mind -What a mistake take these two as similar ! Insight complete in its own expressive energy and The externally straying reflections of ego-mind858 -What a mistake to take these two as similar ! 859

Now, one may wonder whether to take the factor of what arises unceasingly in mind as the path or rather the factor of responsiveness [wherein thoughts are] freed upon arising. One should [definitely] base one ' s path on the factor of responsiveness since it is described as the bare open awareness which is the very basis for the arising [of thought] which does not stray from its natural resting

856 Corrected in accordance with Yon tan mdzod rang 'grel ( 1 65 .6) ·'Although open awareness experiences obj ects, since its intrinsic essence and expressive energy do not bifurcate"

857 Literally, "because it is not the case that you have not severed the root . . . ".

858 I here follow the line yid kyi dran pa phyir shor gnyisl found in Ati, Tb, Tk. The line given in Yon tan mdzod 'grel yid kyi dran bsam sna tshogs gnyisl would read "The myriad thematic reflections of ego-mind . . . "

859 Tb vol. 1 2 : 4 1 6 .3 £; Tk vol. 1 0 : 628 .2 f . .

329

place. On the other hand, one should not base one ' s path on the factor of thoughts , already arisen in mind due to the expressive energy [of open awareness] , by way of all its aspects . As I have explained again and again, when you relax in the essence, open awareness , just let mind go where it likes and it will dissipate on its own. This key point is very important.86o

860 This passage is adopted almost verbatim from Chos dbyings mdzod 'grel: 496 .3 f.

330

§3 . 3 Sources and Conventions Used in Preparing the Edited Text

Two recensions of 'Jigs med gling pa' s Yon tan mdzod Xll.9- 1 3 were consulted in preparing the edited text of the excerpts herein translated:

1) Yon tan rin po che 'i mdzod dga ' ba 'i char. ill 'Jigs gling gsung 'bum A 'dzom edition: The A- 'dzom chos-sgar redaction of the Collected Works of Kun-mKhyen 'Jigs-med gling-pa Rang-byung rdo-rje mkhyen-brtse 'i 'od-zer. 14 vols. Paro : Lama Ngodrup and Sherab Demy, 1 985-, vol. 1 , 1 38. 1 - 1 38.6 .

2) Yon tan rin po che 'i mdzod dga ' ba 'i char. ill Yon tan rin po che 'i mdzod kyi rgya cher 'grel rNam mkhyen shing rta Larungar edition. 2 vols . (book format) , Bla rung sgar: gSer ljongs bla rna rung lnga rig nang bstan slob grwa chen mo, 1 999? , vol. 1 ,

No discrepancies were noted in these rescensions or in the occurrence of these passages in 'Jigs med gling pa's Yon tan mdzod 'grel (editions listed in Bibliography) .

The rescension of Yon tan rgya mtsho ' s Zab don snang byed Nyi ma 'i 'od zer (vol . 3 (huf!l) of the author' s Yon tan mdzod kyi 'grel pa) from which the present excerpt was drawn is found in bKa ' ma shin tu rgyas pa (NyKs), vol. 55 . It is identical to the xylographic copy of the block print edition published by Dilgo mKhyentse Rinpoche, Shechen Monastery, Bodhnath, in three volumes (n.d.) .

As in the preceding edited texts and translations , page references in subscript square parentheses [ 1 within the body of the translation and edited transliteration refer to paginations in the Zab don snang byed Nyi ma 'i 'od zero Variant readings based on relevant sources are included in the notes to the edited text. These notes also indicate variants of quotations found in Sanskrit originals or other Tibetan versions of the quoted passages . For ease of reference, I have included all other citation information for quoted passages and textual-critical comments in the notes to the translation.

Abbreviations : ill addition to the sigla for bibliographic references noted above and those included in the Bibliography, I have employed the following abbreviations :

add. = addidit = added om. = omittit or omisit = omits or omitted.

§3 .4 Edited text of 'Jigs med gling pa ' s Yon tan mdzod XII.9- 1 3 and relevant section from Yon tan rgya mtsho' s Zab don snang byed Nyi ma 'i 'od zer (vol. 3 , 6 16.6-625 .5) :

[IT. ] gnyis pa [6 17] shan 'byed kyi 'phyong bshad pal shan 'byed kyi 'phyong bshad pa la bcu stel [ 1 ] sems rig don gyis l [2] gnas pa ngo bo 'i l [3] 'phro ba rtsal gyil [4] grol tshul gnad kyi l [5] kun gzhi chos sku 'i l [6] 'khrul grol skabs kyil [7] gzhi 'bras lhun grub kyil [8] lam 'bras ka dag gi l [9] bar do lha yil [ 10] dbugs 'byin zhing gi shan 'byed bshad pa'o l l

33 1

[ 1 . sems rig don gyi shan 'byed]

[gang dag sems las 'das pa'i rig pa nil rang bzhin rdzogs pa chen po'i khyad chos yinl rtogs pa mams ni gzhi las rig par groll rna rtogs sems can de nyid ngang du 'khorl ll [12 .9]

dang po sems rig don gyi shan 'byed bshad pa nil gang dag zhes pa' i 'og tu rtogs pa zhes dang I rna rtogs zhes pa gnyis la bsnyegs pa yin lal de la sems zhes bya ba ni bag chags sna tshogs pa 'dzin pa'i gsal rig gi shes pa 'dus byas kyi cha dangl de las shar ba'i gzung 'dzin gyi mam pa can tel de yang bzung ba'i sems las gzung yul med pa gsa! snang gzugs sgra dri ro reg bya sngar snang lal ' dzin pa'i sems las las dang mam smin nyon mongs pa dpag tu med pa snang bar ' gyur rol de las 'das pa'i rig pa nil stong gsal 'dus rna byas pa nam mkha' Ita bu ' i ngang na my a ngan las 'das pa'i chos thams cad rang gdangs ' gag pa med pa'i tshul du gnas pa stel Yid bzhin rin po che 'i mdzod [1. 1 ] las l

thog ma' i ' od gsal bde gshegs snying po nyidl don gyi kun gzhi rang bzhin 'dus rna byasl [6 18] ye nas mam dag nyid mkha' Ita bu las \ \ zhes sol

de Ita bu 'i rig pa car phog tu ngo sprad pa ni rang bzhin rdzogs pa chen po'i khyad chos Yi!! te rig pa' i chos nyid tshul bzhin du rtogs pa mams ni gzhi rig pa'i rtsal las rol par shar dus phyi yul du rna dpyadl nang sems su rna bzung bas snang shes kyi ' dzin pa las groll gzung 'dzin gyi mkhan po ' gyel tel las dang nyon mongs pa stongs nas 'khor ba'i chos thams cad rig pa rang bzhin med pa'i ngang der grol te l chos nyid zad pa'i sar thug pa na kun tu bzang po ' i zhing du phyin te chos sku rgyal po 'i gtan srid zin pa zhes bya stel chos dbyings rin po che 'i mdzod [X.39] las l

de tshe mkha' 'dra phyi nang 'khrul pa'i chosl gang yang mi dmigs chos sku'i dgongs par phyinl zad pa'i sar thug 'gro dang 'ong med pasl thams cad klong 'byams kun tu bzang po'i zhingl chos sku'i pho brang mchog tu phyin pa yin\ \ zhes so l

rig pa'i chos nyid rna rtogs pa mams kyis kun gzhi las shar ba'i phyi nang gi dngos po mams la snang sems dangl bdag gzhan du bzung bas sems can zhes bya stel rig pa'i dbyings de nyid las rna g.yos bzhin kun gzhi ' i ngang du 'khor bar 'gyur tel [6 19] rtsal rdzogs las l

mi shes byis pa'i ngang nyid kyis l nan gyis mkha ' la mdud pa borl yul snang med la snang bar bzungl [rtog pa med la ItOg par bzunglJ 861

bdag dang gzhan du med pa lal

861 add. as per Ati, Tb, Tk

332

bdag dang gzhan du 'khrul pas bzung8621 1 zhes sol

[rnam pas dbye na chu dang chu Ibur bzhinl rtog med tsam du sems rig mtshungs na'angl rig pa rang bzhin med par zang thai lal sems ni lteng ka Ita bur 'khyil zhing rmongslJ [12 . 10]

rndor na rig pa dang serns gnyis po de dpe yi rnam pas dbye ba phye ste bstan nal 'di ltar rig pa ni rna rig pa tshogs brgyad dang bcas pa'i rlabs kyis marn par rna dkyugs pa'i chos nyid yangs pa chen po rgya rntsho 'i chu lta bu yin pas theg pa'i rtse rno a ti yo ga'i lam du zhugs pa marns kyis de nyid thad drang du skyong shes nas serns rtogs chu la ri rno bris pa lta bu 'i spang gnyen sna tshogs pa la ltos mi dgos par chos sku'i dgongs pa las 'pho 'gyur rned pa dangl nyan thos pa marns kyis 'khor 'das la skyon yon du bltas nas bden pa bzhi 'i blang dor la brtson pa nas i a nu 'i lam du bde stong gi rdzogs rim bsgorn pa'i bar gyi rim pa brgyad po 'i theg pa tharns cad du nil gdod rna nas chos sku 'i gshis la grub rna rnyong ba' i serns rtog glo bur ba chu 'i bdu ba'arn chu Ibur bzhin rni rtag cing 'gyur ba'i chos can de lam du byas nas serns kyi dri rna dang bral na chos sku 'i ye shes gzod mngon du 'gyur bar ' dod pa [6201

gnyis kyi khyad par tel rang shar las :

rig pa dang rna rig pa'i dpe ni l 863 chu dang ri rno 'i tshul tel l

zhes dangl

serns dang rig pa'i dpe ni l 864Chu dang bdu865 ba'i tshull serns kyi dbang du rna gyurl l

zhes dangl mu fig phreng ba las l

serns dang ye shes dbye ba nil mkhas pa marns kyis shes par byal serns ni bag chags kun gyi gzhil Ius can marns kyi dri rna yinl gzung ba yin la 'dzin pa yinl 866 de phyir 'khor ba 'i chos nyid dol l serns de bral na sangs rgyas sal Ius can kun gyi dri rna zadl ' gro ba marns ni serns des ' grol de min 'gro bar nus min tel

862 Ati, Tb, Tk bzung ba 'i 'khrul 863 add. as per Ati, Tb, Tk 864 add. as per Ati, Tb, Tk 865 Ati, Tb, Tk lbu 866 Yon tan mdzod 'grel, TCagdms: gzung ba yul la 'dzin pa semsl ; Ati, Tk, Tb : gzung ba yin la 'dzin pa yinl

333

de phyir ' gro mams 'khrul 'khor 'bzhinl l zhes sol

yang mnyarn par bzhag pa'i gnas skabs na serns rtog gi 'gyu ba rngnon 'gyur ba 'gags nas med pa tsam du sems rtse gcig tu zin pa dang I rig pa yul rned du zin pa gnyis mtshungs pa ltar yod na'angl rig pa yul rned du zin pa ni rang bzhin med pa'i chos nyid yongs shes kyi ngo bor serns kyi sgrib g.yogs dang bral bar zang thaI du gnas pas Ita sgom rgyu 'bras las 'das pa' i phyir de 'i ngang la gorns na yang srid len pa'i las dang bag chags thams cad zad par 'gyur ba yin (621 ] la l sems ni mi rtog par bzhag pa'i tshe rtse gcig tu zin na' ang gting mtha' dang bral ba' i chos kyi dbyings dang ro gcig tu rna gyur par dmigs pa'i yul bye brag pa gcig la bzung bas rgya chung ba Iteng ka'i chu bran Ita bur 'khyil zhing rna rig pa dang rntshungs par ldan pa 'i gzung 'dzin gyi brtod phur bag nyal gyi tshul du yod pas rig pa rang byung gi sgron rna la rmongs nas sgrib par ' gyur te l klong drug pa las l

Ita ba serns kyi dri rna yinl dri rned dag pa'i chos nyid lal bIta bya Ita byed gnyis dang brall Ita ba nyid la bIta ru rnedl ci phyir blta ba yod gyur nal rig pa'i sgron rna rned par ' gyurl 1 867 zhes sol

[rig pa gnam stong zla ba gting gsal 'dral sems ni bco lnga'i zla ba yul 'dres mtshungsl dangs la yul med rig pa'i yon tan tel yul dang kun nas 'dres pa sems kyi khyadl l] [12 . 1 1]

gzhan yang dper na rig pa ni rtsal snang yid shes kyi yul la mi 'jug pas so so rang gi rig pa'i ye shes zhes bya stel gnam stong gi zla ba rang 'od phyir mi 'gro bar gting na gsal ba dang ' dra bar rang gnas kyi rig pa'i gsal cha rna 'gags pa la ye shes lnga po lhun grub tu yod kyang yul gyi rang bzhin la dang por mi rtogl rjes su mi dpyod rgyun chags su mi 'dzin pas rang ngo rna la me long gi gzugs bmyan Itar snang yul tharns cad rna 'gags par bra yang phar yul thog tu ' chor (622] lal sems ni kha phyir bItas su yul sna tshogs pa'i rjes su 'brangs nas de dang der 'dzin cing dpyod pas tshes bco lnga'i zla ba rang 'od phyir 'phros te sa gzhi 'i bar gyis yul thams cad la khyab cing 'dres pa dang mtshungs pa des na mngon sum pa'i lhag rnthong gsal ba' i cha la rna rig pa'i myog pa rned pas dvangs868 la yul gyis mam pas gos pa med par rtse gcig tu gnas pa'i zhi gnas dang ye nas bcos pa rned par zung 'breI du yod pas gzung 'dzin gyi gzhi stongs pa ni rig pa'i yon tan yin tel de las gzhan pa'i rnya ngan las 'das pa' i chos rned lal tshogs drug gi yul dang kun nas 'dres te serns byung dang bcas pa'i rtog pa rags pa du rna rnched de dge sdig gi las du rna 'du byed pas srid pa'i rgyu sna tshogs pa sdud par byed pa ni sems kyi khyad par yin lal

der rna zad yod rned la sogs pa 'i spros pa rtog dpyod kyi dpyad rig mon pos bcad nas i bdag rned pa' arnl stong pa 'aml spros pa dang bral lo snyam pa'i nges shes de 'i ngang la mnyarn par gzhag nas

867 Passage not found in Klang drug or any of the seventeen tantras.

868 Alternative rendering of dangs found in root text with identical meaning.

334

rtse gcig pa 'i cha la zhi gnas dangl rang bzhirt med par dpyod pa'i cha la lhag mthong zhes zung 'jug tu bsgrub kyangl gzung 'dzin dang bcas pas [623] 'jig rten pa'i bsam gtan las na mi 'phar ba 'i phyir thun mong ba'i lam du yang dag pa'i lhag mthong gi rgyu tsam du mi spang mod kyang rig pa lam du byed pa'i lam 'di ' i ni gol sa yin nol de ltar kun byed lasl

rang byung ye shes yul la mi rtog pas l mam par rtog pa' i bag chags gos mi ' gyurl l

[2. gnas pa ngo bo ' i shan 'byed]

[de bzhin rig pa rang gnas shes rab stel bsam gtan thabs la rna Itos bying rgod brall sems ni dmigs pa'i yul la rtse gcig pasl ting nge 'dzin dang rten dang brten par 'brell D

zhes sol

[12 . 12]

gnyis pa gnas pa ngo bo ' i shan 'byed nil de bzhin du rig pa zang thaI du ngos zin pa'i ngang la gnas na de ni rang gi chos nyid kyi gshis la ye nas gnas pa'i shes rab bam lhag mthong ste ngo bo bsal bzhag dang bral bas bsam gtan gyi ngang du sems gcur nas 'phro ba dgag pa dang gnas pa sgrub pa sogs kyi thabs la rna ltos par rang bzhin gis rig pa gsal ba'i ngar dang ldan pas bying ba yang med la 'gyu ba rang grol du dag pas rgod pa dang bral ba yin zhingl sems lam du byed pa ' i bsam gtan ni l lha dang mi rtog pa la sogs dmigs pa'i yul la 'dzin stangs dang bcas pas rtse gcig tu 'jog pa yin �I bsgom pa'i ting nge 'dzin dang sngar gtan la dbab par byas pa'i Ita ba'i don de gnyis yul bsgom bya Ita ba'i rang bzhin rten dang yul can sgom [624] byed ting nge 'dzin brten pa Ita bur zung du 'breI bas na gzung 'dzin dang bral ba' i rig pa'i sgrib byed du song nas gnas skabs mam rtog ngal gso ba'i bsti gnas tsam las chod chung ba nyid de l rdzogs pa chen po ye shes nam mkha ' dang mnyam pa 'i rgyud las l

bsam gtan shes gzhi byar med dangl rdzogs chen lhag mthong rig pa gnyis l ' dra dang nor bas gol te 'gro l l

[3 . 'phro ba rtsal gyi shan 'byed]

[rig pa yul la shar kyang snang ba yil zil gyis mi non dngul chu sar Ihung 'dral sems ni gzung 'dzin cha dang beas pa yil rnam rtog nye bar len pa'i phyogs dang 'dresl D

zhes sol

623 624

[12 . 13]

gsum pa 'phro ba rtsal gyi shan 'byed nil rig pa ni yul la shar ba ste thugs rje ' i rtsal mdangs rna ' gags par snang ba yin kyang rang ngo dang rtsal shar ba gnyis tha dad du gyes te yul gyi phyi bzhin rtog pa rjes mthud nas rtsa ba rna chod pa rna yin par phyir rna dpyadl nang du rna b11ags l bar du rna bzhag pa'i chos nyid rjen par bud pa las gzhan du mi 'gyur bas 'gyu ba thams cad dngos

335

med rang dag la ' gro ba'i phyirl snang ba y! chas zil gyis mi non pa dper na dngul ehu sar Ihung ste rdul gyi gseb tu tshud kyang de rdul dang mi 'dres bas de la gos pa med pa dang ' dra ba yin lal sems ni yul snang rig pa la snang dus rang snang l;ang bzhin med par ngo shes pa' i ngang ma 'khyong nas yul gyi mam pa la zhen te gzung 'dzin gyi eha dang beas pa y! [625 ] mam par .rtog pa gcig rjes su gcig mthud de gzhi rtsa ma chod par srid pa nye bar len pa'i phyogs dang 'dres nas las sogs par ' gyur te l l klong drug las l

rang rig bsam pa bral ba dang I sems kyi byung tshor sna tshogs gnyis l ' dra 'o 'dra 'o nor ra rei shes rab rang rtsal rdzogs pa dangl yid kyi dran pa phyir shor gnyis l869

' dra 'o 'dra 'o nor ra re l l zhes sol

' 0 na sems ' char ba mi ' gags pa' aml shar grol thugs rje ' i cha de lam du mi byed dam zhe nal thugs rje ' i cha ' char gzhi 'i lig pa zang ma rang mal las ma g.yos pa la zer bas de lam du byed kyi l rtsal las sems su shar zin rtog pa'i cha de mam pa thams cad nas lam du mi byed del ngo bo rig pa la bzhag dus sems gar dgar rang sangs la bskyur ba yin no zhes yang yang bshad pa yin gsungsl gnad 'di shin tu gal ce ste l l

869 Yon tan mdzod 'grel has yid kyi dran bsam sna tshogs gnyisl : Ati, Tb, Tk yid kyi dran pa phyir shor gnyisl

336

Bibliography and Abbreviations

1. Abbreviations of Canonical Collections, Journals and Online Sources

Ati : rNying ma 'i rgyud bcu bdun: Collected Nyingmapa Tantras of the Man ngag sde Class of the A ti yo ga (rDzogs chen) . 3 vols. New Delhi : Sanje Dorj e, 1 973 .

Bg : The rGyud 'bum of Vairocana: A Collection of Ancient Tantras and Esoteric Instructions Comp iled and Translated by the Eighth Century Tibetan Master. 8 vols. Leh, Ladakh: S. W. Tashigangpa, 1 97 1 . Published as vols. 1 6-23 ofthe Smanrtsis shesrig spendzod.

0: Derge edition of bsTan 'gyur. The Tibetan Tripi/aka, Taipei Edition. Taipei, Taiwan: SMC Publishing 1 99 1 .

P : Peking edition o f Bstan 'gyur. The Tibetan Tripi/aka, Peking Edition. Tokyo/Kyoto : Tibetan Tripitaka Research Institute 1 957.

IDPd: International Dunhuang Project Database, http://idp.b l .ukldatabasc

IOL: India Office Library

Bla ma dgongs 'dus (Gangtok ed.) Disc. Sang rgyas gling pa. Gangtok, Sikkim, 1 972.

Bla ma dgongs 'dus (mTshams brag ed.)

dGongs pa zang thaI

NyK: rNying ma bka ' ma rgyas pa. H. H. Bdud-'joms Rin-po-che, ed. , Kalimpong, West Bengal : Dupjung Lama, 1 987.

NyKs : bKa ma shin tu rgyas pa, 1 20 vol . Edited by Mkhan po ' Jam dbyangs. Chengdu, 1 999.

NyG: rNying ma rgyud 'bum

Tk: gTing skyes edition of the NyG. rNying ma 'i rgyud 'bum: A Collection of Treasured Tantras Translated during the Period of the First Propagation of Buddhism in Tibet. 36 vols. Thimbu, Bhutan: Dingo Khyentse Rimpoche, 1 973-75 .

Tb: mTshams brag edition of the rNying rna rgyud 'bum. The Mtshams brag Manuscript of the rNying ma rgyud 'bum, 46 vols. Thimphu, Bhutan: National Library, Royal Government of Bhutan, 1 982.

Primary Sources : Indian Works'

AK: Vasubandhu. See de la Vallee Poussin under Secondary Sources.

Anguttara-Nikiiya. 1 96 1 . Part I . ed. R. Morris . 2nd ed. rev. by A.K. Warder. PTS 3. London.

Bodhipathapradfpa. Atisa Dipall)karasrTjffilna. P: vol . 1 03 , n. 5343 .

* Works alleged by tradition to be of indian origin but with no reconstructed Sanskrit title are under Primary Sources: Tibetan Works.

337

Bodhimiirgapradfpapan7ikii. Atisa Dipan)karasrTjffiina. P: vol . 1 03 , n. 5344.

BodhisattvamiirgakramasalJlgraha. SakyaSrIbhadra. P : vol. 8 1 , n . 4543 .

* Guhyagarbhatantra. See Dorj e 1 987.

Jinamiirgiivatiira. Buddhasrljfiana. P : vol. 1 03 , n. 5372

Mahiiprajniipiiramitiisiistra. See Lamotte, Etienne.

MahiiyiinasalJlgraha. Asanga. See Lamotte, Etienne.

MAv: Madhyamakiivatiira par Candraklrti : Traduction Tibetain. Bibliotheca Buddhica. IX. Publiee par Louis de 1a Vallee Poussin, St. - Petersbourg, 1 907- 19 12.

MAvBh: Candraklrti. Madhyamakiivatiirabhii$Ya. Tibetan, Derge edition, translated by Pa tshab Nyi rna grags and Tilaka(kalasa), D no . 3 862.

MSA: MahiiyiinasutriilalJlkiira. Edited by S. Levi. Paris: Champion 1 925 .

Mulamadhyamakakiirikii: Nagarjuna. Miidhyamikavrtti (with Mulamadhyamakakiirikii). ed. Louis de la Vallee Poussin, Bibliotheca Buddhica 4, St. Petersburg: The Imperial Academy of Sciences, 1 903-1 9 1 3 .

PramiilJaviirttika. Dharmaklrti . See PV.

PramiilJaviniscaya. Dharmaklrti . See PVin.

PV: PramiilJavarttikakiirikii (Sanskrit and Tibetan) . ed. Miyasaka, Yiisho. Acta Indologica II. Narita: Naritasan Shinsho j i , 1 97 1 /2 .

PVin: Dharmakfrti 's PramiilJaviniscaya Chapters J and 2. Critically edited by Ernst Steinkellner. Beij ing and Vienna: China Tibetology Publishing House and Austrian Academy of Sciences Press, 2007.

RatnagotravibhiigalUttaratantra. See ROV.

ROV: Ratnagotravibhiiga Mahiiyiinottaratantrasiistra. Asailga/Maitreya. ed. E. H. Johnson. Patna: B ihar Research Society, 1 950 . (Includes Ratnagotravibhiigavyiikhyii.)

ROVt: Critical edition of Tibetan translation of Ratnagotravibhiiga Mahiiyiinottaratantrasiistra. See Nakamura, Zuiho.

ROVV: Ratnagotravibhligavylikhyli (see RGV).

Vijnaptimiitratiisiddhi. re Partie, Texte, Bibliotheque de l 'Ecole des Hautes Etudes, vol. 245 . Paris: Librairie Ancienne Honore Champion, 1 925 .

Primary Sources : Tibetan Works

Bi ma snying thig. 4 vols. Klong chen rab 'byams pa. In sNying thig ya bzhi vols. 3 - 6.

bKa ' ma rgyas pa. ed. H. H. Bdud 'joms Rin po che, ed., rNying ma bka ' ma rgyas pa, Kalimpong, West Bengal : Dupjung Lama, 1 987 .

Bla ma dgongs 'dus (Oangtok ed.) :

338

Bla ma dgongs 'dus (mTshams brag ed.) :

Bla ma yang tig (2 vols). Klong chen rab 'byams pa In sNying t/:zig ya bzhi vols. 1 -2 .

Bod rje 'bangs dang btsun rnams la spring yig. Buddhaguhya In P 5693 .

bSam gtan mig sgron. gNubs chen Sangs rgyas ye shes . Sgom gyi gnad gsal bar phye ba bSam gtan mig sgron. Smanrtsis Shesrig Spendzod series, vol. 74. Leh, 1 974.

bSam gtan ngal gso 'grel. Klong chen rab 'byams pa rDzogs pa chen po bSam gta ngal gso 'i 'grel pa shing rta rnam par dag pa. In Ngal gso skor gsum vol. 3 .

bsDus don gy i gnas rgya cher dbye ba. Klong chen rab 'byams p a rDzogs p a chen po Sems nyid ngal gso ' i 'grel pa Shing rta chen po 'i bsDus don gyi gnas rgya cher dbye ba Padma dkar po 'i phreng ba. Ngal gso skor gsum vol. 2, 3 8 1 -439 .

bsTan pa ' i sgron me: Rog Bande Shes rab 'od . Grub mtha ' so so 'i bied gzhung gsal bar ston pa chos 'byung grub mtha ' chen po bsTan pa 'i sgron me . In NyKs vo1 1 l 4, 1 07-3 1 8 . See also Nemo Leh: Tshul krims 'jam dbyangs, 1 977.

Byang chub lam bzang. Klong chen rab 'byams pa. rDzogs pa chen po Sems nyid ngal gso 'i gnas gsum dge ba gsum gyi don khrid Byang chub lam bzang. In Ngal gso skor gsum vol . 2, 44 1 -546.

Byang chub sems dpa 'i spyod pa la 'jug pa 'i rnam par bshad pa Theg chen chos kyi rgya mtsho Zab rgyas mtha ' yas pa 'i snying po. dPa' bo gTsug lag 'phreng ba. Rumtek: Dharma Chakra Centre, 1 975.

Chos 'byung me tog snying po sbrang rtsi 'i bcud. Nyang Nyi-ma 'od-zer. Gangs-can rig mdzod Series 5 . Lhasa: Bod-Ij ongs bod-yig dpe-mying dpe-skrun-khang, 1 988 .

Chos dbyings mdzod 'grel : Klong chen rab 'byams pa. Chos dbyings rin po che 'i mdzod kyi 'grel pa Lung gyi gter mdzod. mDzod bdun vol. 3 , 83-765 .

Dam chos yid bzhin nor bu thar pa rin po che 'i rgyan. sGam po pa bSod nams rin chen. Chengdu: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1 989.

Dri ba snga phyi tha dad mdzad pa 'i dri Ian thor bu 'i skor. rTse Ie sNa tshogs rang grol. In: dKar rnying gi skyes chen du ma 'i phyag rdzogs kyi gdams ngag gnad bsdus nyer mkho rin po che ' i gter mdzod Rtsib ri 'i spar ma, 3 1 vols . Redacted by 'Khrul zhig Padma chos rgyal. Darj eeling: Kargyud Sungrab Nyamso Khang, 1 978, vol . 26, 3 l 3 -673 .

dGongs 'dus pa 'i mdo : Sangs rgyas thams cad kyi dgongs pa 'dus pa 'i mdo chen po. Full title : De bzhin gshegs pa thams cad kyi thugs gsang ba 'i ye shes; Don gyi snying po rdo rje bkod pa 'i rgyud; Rnal 'byor grub pa 'i lung; Kun 'dus rig pa 'i mdo; Theg pa chen po mong par rtogs pa; Chos kyi rnam grangs rnam par bkod pa zhes bya ba 'i mdo. In Tb, vol. 1 6, 2-6 1 7.

gNyug sems 'od gsal gyi don la dpyad pa rdzogs pa chen po gzhi lam 'bras bu 'i shan 'byed blo grol snang ba. Mi pham ' Jam dbyangs mam rgyal rgya mtsho. (Part 2 of gNyug sems skor gsum). In Collected Writings of Jam-mngon 'Ju Mi-pham rgya-mtsho. Gangtok 1 97 1 , vol. 24, 4 1 1 -566.

gNyug sems zur dpyad skor gyi gsung sgros thor bu rnams phyogs gcig tu bsdus pa rdo rje rin po che 'i phreng ba (Part 3 of gNyug sems skor gsum). Mi pham ' Jam dbyangs mam rgyal rgya mtsho. In Collected Writings of Jam-mngon 'Ju Mi-pham rgya-mtsho. Gangtok 1 97 1 , vol. 24, 567-773 .

Grub mtha ' mdzod. Klong chen rab 'byams pa Theg pa mtha ' dag gi don gsal bar byed pa Grub mtha ' rin po che 'i mdzod. mDzod bdun vol. 2.

339

gSang ba 'dus pa rgyud: dPal gsang ba 'dus pa rgyud kyi rgyal po. In Tb vol. 1 8 , 752 .3-969.7 .

'Jigs gling gsung 'bum. 'Jigs med gling pa Rang byung rdo rje. The Collected Works of Kun-mkhyen 'Jigs-med­gling-pa. 9 vols. Lha sa edition. (Ngagyur Nyingmay Sungrab series, vols. 29-37). ed. Sonam T. Kazi . Gangtok, India, 1 970-75 . Also consulted: The A- 'dzom chos-sgar redaction of the Collected Works of Kun-mKhyen 'Jigs-med gling-pa Rang-byung rdo-rje mkhyen-brtse 'i 'od-zer. 14 vols. Paro : Lama Ngodrup and Sherab Demy, 1 985-.

Khyung chen lding ba. Tk vol. 1 , 4 19 .4-423 .3 ; Bg vol . 5, 308 . 1 -3 1 4. 1 .

Klong chen gsung 'bum. 2 6 volumes. Klong che rab 'byams pa. Peking: Krung go ' i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009.

Klong chen gsung thor bu : Klong chen rab 'byams pa Kun mkhyen Klong chen pa Dri med 'od zer gyi gsung thor bu. Reproduced from xylographic prints from A 'dzom 'brug pa chos sgar blocks. 2 vols. Pema Thinley, Gangtok, 1 997. Other editions consulted are: (2) sDe dge edition: Kun mkhyen Klong chen pa Dri med 'od zer gyi gSung thor bu. Reproduced from xylographic prints from sDe dge blocks. 2 vols. Lama Ngodrup and Sherab Drimey, Delhi, 1 982; (3) Klong chen gsung 'bum, vols. 24-25, Pe cin: Krung go ' i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009.

Klong drug 'grel. Vimalamitra (ascribed) . Kun tu bzang po klong drug rgyud kyi 'gre! pa. NyKs vol. 1 09, 5-930 . Dilgo Khyentse ed. refers to a different rescension published by Samdrup Tsering for Dilgo Khyentse, New Delhi: 1 988 .

Kun byed rgyal po : Chos thams cad rdzogs pa chen po byang chub kyi sems Kun byed rgyal po. Tk vol. 1 , 2 . 1 - 1 66.6 . Tb vol. 1 , 2. 1 - 1 92 .5 .

Kun byed rgya! po 'gre!: Phan yon mTha' yas 'od zer. rDzogs pa chen po byang chub kyi sems Kun byed rgyal po 'i 'grel pa Kun bzang dgongs rgyan. 3 parts: Pt. 1 (Om) in NyKs vol . 1 05, 7-896; Pt. 2 (Ah), vol. 1 06, 7-920; Pt. 3 (Hum), vol. 1 06, 923 - 1 452.

Kun mkhyen chos kyi rgya! po gter chen dri med 'od zer gyi rnam par thar pa cung zad spros pa ngo mtshar skal bzang mchog gi dga ' ston. New Delhi : 1 984.

Kun mkhyen dri med 'od zer gyi rnam thar mthong ba don ldan . In Kun mkhyen klong chen rab 'byams kyi rnam thar, 1 67-232. Also in sNying thig ya bzhi vol . 6, 499-5 89.

Kun mkhyen klong chen rab 'byams kyi rnam thar. Chengdu: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1 994. Comprises bSod nams chos ' grub ' s ( 1 862- 1 944) Kun mkhyen chos kyi rgyal po rig 'dzin klong chen rab 'byams kyi rnam thar dad pa gsum gyi 'jug ngogs, 1 - 1 66 and Chos grags bzang po ' s ( 1 4th c.) Kun mkhyen dri med 'od zer gyi rnam thar mthong ba don ldan (see next entry), 1 67-232.

Lam gyi rim pa mdo tsam du bstan pa. Tsong kha pa Blo bzang grags pa. In Tsong kha pa gsung 'bum vol . 2 .

Lam rim chen mo: Tsong kha pa Blo bzang grags pa. Byang chub lam rim che ba (Lam rim chen mo)1 sKyes bu gsum gyi nyams su blang ba 'i rim pa thams cad tshang bar ston pa 'i byang chub lam gyi rim pa. In Tsong kha pa gsung 'bum. In Tsong kha pa gsung 'bum vol 1 3 .

Lam rim chung ngu: Tsong kha p a Blo bzang grags pa. In Tsong kha p a gsung 'bum. In Tsong kha p a gsung 'bum vol 1 4.

Mahiivyutpatti. Sakaki Ry5zabur5, ed. , Honyaku myogi taishu (Mahavyutpatti). 2 vols. 1 9 1 6 . Reprint: Tokyo: Kokusho Kanak5kai, 1 987.

mDzod bdun: Klong chen rab 'byams pa. mDzod bdun. 7 volumes. Based on the Oddiyana Institute edition published by Tarthang Rinpoche, Khreng tu'u: 1 9997. Other editions consulted are: (2) Gangtok edition: Gangtok: Dodrup Chen (from A 'dzom chos sgar blocks); volumes published separately 1 964-69; (3 ) Derge edition: Mdzod bdun: The Famed Seven Treasuries of Vajrayana Buddhist Philosophy. 6 vols. Gangtok:

340

Sherab Gyaltsen and Khyentse Labrang (from blocks carved at sDe dge printery), 1 983 ; and (4) Klong chen gsung 'bum, vols. 1 3 - 1 9, Pe cin: Krung go ' i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009.

mKha ' 'gro yang tig. (3 vols). Klong chen rab 'byams pa. In sNying thig ya bzhi vols. 7-9.

Mu tig phreng ba rgyud. Vimalamitra (ascribed). rDzogs pa chen po Mu tig phreng rgyud gsal byed. NyKs vol. 1 1 2, 5-749.

Mun pa 'i go cha : gNubs Sangs rgyas ye shes. Sangs rgyas thams cad kyi dgongs pa 'dus pa 'i mdo 'i dka ' 'grel Mun pa 'i go cha Ide 'u mig gsal byed rnal 'byor nyi ma. In NyKs: Pt. I (stod cha), vol. 93, 7 - 680; Pt. I I (smad cha), vol. 94, 7- 666. Also in NyK, vols. 50-5 1 .

Nam mkha 'i mtha ' dang mnyam pa 'i rgyud: rDo rje sems dpa ' Nam mkha 'i mtha ' dang mnyam pa 'i rgyud. Bg vol. 1 , 1 73 . 1 -290.5 ; Tk vol. 3, 433 .7-537.2.

Ngag dbang blo bzang gsung 'bum: The Collected Works (gsung 'bum) of the Vth Dalai Lama Ngag dbang blo bzang rgya mtsho. 25 vols. Lhasa Edition, Published by Sikkim Research Institute of Tibetology. Gangtok: Sikkim National Press, 1 99 1 .

Ngal gso skor gsum : Klong chen rab 'byams pa. rDzogs pa chen p o ngal gso skor gsum. Reproduced from xylographic prints from A 'dzom 'brug pa chos sgar blocks. New Delhi : 3 vol. 1 999.

Ngal gso skor gsum gyi Spyi don legs bshad rgya mtsho. In Ngal gso skor gsum, vol. 3, 1 3 1 -244.

Nges don 'brug sgra: Sog zlog pa Blo gros rgyal mtshan. gSang sngags snga 'gyur la bod du rtsod pa snga phyir bvung ba rnams kvi lun rlu brjod pa Nges pa don gyi 'brug sgra. Chengdu: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1 998 .

Ngo sprod bdun ma ' i 'grel pa Man ngag rin po che ' i sgron me. 'Ba' ra ba rGyal mtshan dpal bzang. In A Tibetan Encyclopedia of Buddhist Scholasticism: The Collected Writings of 'Ba ' ra ba rGyal mtshan dpal bzang, vol. 1 1 . 203 . 3 -282.2. Dehra Dun: Ngawang Gyaltsen and Ngawang Lungtok, 1 970.

NyKs: rNying ma bKa ' ma shin tu rgyas pa 120 vols. Compliled at Katok Monastery by students of Kenpo Munse1 and Kenpo Jamyang. Chengdu: 1 990.

'Phrul gyi me long dgu skor. gNyags Jfianakumara. In NyKs, vol. 82, 965-97 1 .

'Phrul gyi me long dgu skor kyi 'grel pa . gNyags Jfili.nakumara. In NyKs, vol . 82, 972-1 002.

Phyag chen gan mdzod: Padma dkar po. Phyag rgya chen po man ngag gi bshad sbyor rgyal ba 'i gan mdzod. Varanasi : Vajra Vidya Institute Library, 2005 .

Phyogs bcu mun sel: Klong chen rab 'byams pa. dPal gsang ba snying po de kho na nyid nges pa 'i rgyud kyi 'grel pa phyogs bcu 'i mun pa thams cad rnam par sel ba. In NyKs vol. 68, pp. 5-683 . See also Dorj e 1 987.

Rang byung rdo rje gsung 'bum. Rang byung rdo rj e (third Karmapa). vol . 1-16. Ziling: mTshur phu mkhan po 10 yag bkra shis, 2006.

Rang bzhin rdzogs pa chen po 'i chos 'byung rig 'dzin brgyud pa 'i rnam mthar Ngo mtshar nor bu bai du rya 'i phreng ba. sMyo shut mkhan po, ' Jam dbyangs rdo rje. See tr. Barron 2005.

Rang gnas rgyal po 'i 'grel pa. Vimalamitra. In NyKs, vol. 82, 1 059- 1 1 66.

rDzogs pa chen po 'i khrid yig Rigs 'dzin zhal lung. Ngag dbang blo bzang rgya mtsho (5th Dalai Lama). Thugs rje chen po 'khor ba dbyings sgroI gyi bskyed rDzogs pa chen po 'i 'khrid yig Rigs 'dzin zhal lung. In Ngag dbang blo bzang rgya mtsho, vol. 24, 5 1 - 1 52 .

341

rDzogs pa chen po Kun tu bzang po ye shes klong gi rgyud. 'Jigs med gling pa mKhyen brtse ' od zero In 'Jigs gling gsung 'bum, vol. 1 2, 63 -82.

rGyud rgyal gsang ba snying po dkon cog 'grel. Rong zorn Chos kyi bzang po . In Rong zom gsung 'bum, vol. I , 3 1 -250 .

rMad du byung ba. In Tk under title rDo rje sems dpa ' Nam mkha che. Tk vol. 1 , 424. 1 -430.2.

Ri chos Yon tan kun 'byung gi lhan thabs chen mo. Yang dgon pa, rGyal ba. In Collected Writings ofrGyal ba Yang dgon pa rGyal mtshan dpal. rTa mgo edition. Thimphu: Tango Monastic Community 1 982. In vol. 3 , 1 - 1 68 .

Rin po che 'phags lam bkod pa ' i rgyud. In Tb vol . L 837.3 -863 .6; Tk vol . 4, 1 52 .2-1 74.3 .

Rigpa 'i khu byug. In Bg and Tk under rDzogs pa chen po sa gcigpa. Tk vol. 1 , 4 1 9 . 1 -4 1 9.4. Bg vol. 5, 306. 1 -4.

Rin chen 'phags lam bkod pa 'i rgyud. SrIsirpha (attributed). Tk vol. 4, 1 62 .

Rong zom gsung 'bum: Rong zorn Chos kyi bzang po . Rong zom chos bzang gi gsung 'bum. 2 vols . Sichuan: Sikhron Mi-rigs-dpe skrun-khan, 1 999.

rTse mo byung rgyal. Tk vol. 1 , 432.4-442.5 .

rTse mo byung rgyal 'grel pa. gNubs Sangs rgyas ye shes. In NyKs vol . 1 03 , 1 79-230.

rTse Ie sNa tshogs rang grol gyi bka ' 'bum. rTse Ie sNa tshogs rang grol . The Complete Works of rTse Ie rgod tshang pa padma legs grub. 8 vols. Mgon po tshe brtan, Palace Monastery, Gangtok: 1 979.

Sangs rgyas kyi zhing du skad cig la grol bar byed pa 'i man ngag. Mafijusrlmitra. In Bi ma snying tig vol. I, 3 04.2-3 1 0 .2 .

sBas pa 'i rgum chung. Buddhagupta. Dunhuang: in IDPd as text IOL Tib J 647.

sBas pa 'i rgum chung gi tshig 'grel. Nam mkha' i nor bu. In The Small Collection of Hidden Precepts, A Study of an Ancient Manuscript on Dzogchen from Tun-huang. Arcidosso, Italy: Shang-shung Edizioni, 1 984. (In Tibetan with English Introduction) .

sGra thaI 'gyur 'gre!. Vimalamitra (ascribed) . sGra thal 'gyur rtsa 'grel sGron ma snang byed (2 vols . ) . NyKs vol. 1 1 0 , 5-708 (vol . 1) and vol. 1 1 1 , 5 -953 .

sNgags rim chen mo: Tsong kha pa B lo bzang grags pa. rGyal ba khyab bdag rdo rje 'chang chen po 'i Lam gyi rim pa gsang ba kun gyi gnad rnam par phye ba. Tsong kha pa gsung 'bum vol. 3 .

Sems nyid ngal gso : Klong chen rab 'byams p a rDzogs pa chen p o Sems nyid ngal gso . In Ngal gso skor gsum vol. 1 , 1 - 1 1 1 .

Sems nyid ngal gso 'grel: Klong chen rab 'byams pa rDzogs pa chen po Sems nyid ngal gso 'i 'gre! pa. In Ngal gso skor gsum vol. 1 , 1 1 3 -729 and vol . 2, 1 -439.

Sems ye dris lan : Klong chen rab 'byams pa Sems dang ye shes kyi dris Ian. Klong chen gsung thor bu vol. 1 , 3 77.2-393 .

sGyu ma ngal gso 'grel: Klong chen rab 'byams pa rDzogs pa chen po sGyu ma ngal gso ' i 'grel pa Shing rta bzang po. Ngal gso skor gsum vol. 2, 593 -76 1 .

342

sNying thig ya bzhi: Klong chen rab 'byams pa et aL sNying thig ya bzhi. 1 3 vols. New Delhi : Trulku Tsewang, Jamyang and L.Tashi, 1 970-7 1 .

Sog bzlog p a gsung 'bum: Sog bzlog p a B lo bros rgyal mtshan. Collected Writings of Sog bzlog pa Blo gros rgyal mtshan. vol. 1 -2 . New Delhi : 1 975.

sPros bral don gsal: sPros bral don gsal chen mo. Tk vol . 6, 3 73 .5-608 .4; Tb vol . 1 3 , 2 . 1 -288 .6 .

sPyi don legs bshad rgya mtsho: Klong chen rab 'byams pa . Ngal gso skor gsum gyi sPyi don legs bshad rgya mtsho. In Ngal gso skor gsum vol. 3 .

Srog gy i 'khor 10. Bg vol. 1 , 305- 16 .

SY : Klong chen rab 'byams pa Sems dang ye shes kyi dris Ian. See SYa, SY d , SYk.

SYa: Klong chen rab 'byams pa Sems dang ye shes kyi dris Ian. gSung thor bu vol. 1 , 3 77.2-393 .

SYd: Klong chen rab 'byams pa Sems dangye shes kyi dris Ian. gSung thor bu (sDe dge) vol . 1 , 292.3-3 04.

SYk: Klong chen rab 'byams pa Sems dang ye shes brtag pa 'i man ngag. NyKs, vol . 49, 344-365 .

TCm: Klong chen rab 'byams pa. Theg mchog rin po che 'i mdzod. Mang yul Gung thang edition of the Theg mchog rin po che 'i mdzod. Reproduced in The Oldest Block Print of Klong-chen rab- 'byams-pa 's Theg Mchog Mdzod. In Lumbini International Research Institute Facsimile Edition Series 1 . Lumbini International Research Institute, Lumbini, 2000.

Theg mchog mdzod. Klong chen rab 'byams pa Theg mchog rin po che 'i mdzod. mDzod bdun pt. 1 in vol 5 , 3 7- 1 1 85 and pt. 2 in vol. 6 .

Theg mchog 'od gsal rdo rje snying po 'i don rnam par bshad pa Nyi rna 'i snying po. rTse Ie sNa tshogs rang grol . In rTse Ie sNa tshogs rang grol gyi bka ' 'bum, vol . 8 , 435-568.

Theg chen tshul 'jug. Rong zorn Chos kyi bzang po. Theg pa chen po 'i tshul la 'jug pa zhes bya ba 'i bstan bcos. In Rong zorn gsung 'bum vol. 1 , 4 1 5-555 .

Theg pa chen po rnal 'byor la 'jug pa ' i thabs bye brag tu 'byed pa. Aro Ye shes 'byung gnas. NyKs, vol . 59 , 7-50.

Theg pa spyi bcings rtsa 'grel. Ye shes rgyal mtshan. Chengdu: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1 997.

Thig Ie kun gsal: Thig Ie kun gsal chen po 'i rgyud. Tk vol. 5 , 1 24.2-289.7; Tb vol . 1 3 , 296.6-492 .5 .

Tk: gTing skyes edition of the NG. rNying ma 'i rgyud 'bum: A Collection of Treasured Tantras Translated during the Period of the First Propagation of Buddhism in Tibet. 36 vols. Thimbu, Bhutan: Dingo Khyentse Rimpoche, 1 973-75 .

Tshig mdzod chen mo = Bod rgya Tshig mdzod chen mo. 3 vols. Chengdu: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1 984.

Tshig don bcu gcig pa. mKhas pa Nyi rna 'bum. rDzogs pa chen po Tshig don bcu gcig pa. Lhasa: Bod Ijongs dmangs dpe skrun khang, 2008.

Tshig don mdzod: Klong chen rab 'byams pa gSang ba bla na med pa 'Od gsal rdo rje snying po 'i gnas gsum gsal bar byed pa 'i Tshig don rin po che 'i mdzod. mDzod bdun. vol. 4.

343

Tsong kha pa gsung 'bum. Tsong kha pa Blo bzang grags pa. In The Collected Works (gsung 'bum) of the Incomparable Lord Tsong kha pa Blo bzang grags pa. vol. 1 - 1 9 . Sku 'bum Byams pa gling Par khang, 2000?

Ye shes gsang ba bshad pa 'i rgyud. Full title: Byang chub kyi sems rdzogs pa chen po Ye shes gsang ba bshad pa 'i rgyud gSang ba mtha ' dang mnyam pa. Bg vol . 3 , 1 -3 5 .

Yid bzhin mdzod 'grel: Klong chen rab 'byams pa Theg pa chen po ' i bstan bcos Yid bzhin rin po che ' i mdzod kyi 'grel pa Padma dkar po. mDzod bdun vol . 7, 1 39- 1 59 1 .

Yid bzhin mdzod kyi sa bcad bsdus don Ku mu da 'i phreng ba. Mi pham 'Jam dbyangs rnam rgyal rgya mtsho. Published with Yid bzhin mdzod and Yid bzhin mdzod 'grel, Ngal gso skor gsum vol. 1 , 1 857- 1 907.

Yid bzhin mdzod rin po che mdzod kyi dKa ' gnad ci rigs gsal bar byed pa. Mi pham 'Jam dbyangs rnam rgyal rgya mtsho . Published with Yid bzhin mdzod and Yid bzhin mdzod 'grel. Ngal gso skor gsum vol. 1 , 1 7 1 3 - 1 855 .

Yon tan mdzod. ' Jigs med gling pa Rang byung rdo rje. Yon tan rin po che 'i mdzod dga ' ba 'i char. In 'Jigs gling gsung 'bum, vol. 1 , 1 - 1 6 1 . Also consulted: rescension in Yon tan mdzod rang 'grel (Larungar edition), 1 -8 3 .

Yon tan mdzod 'grel. Yon tan rgya mtsho. Mkhan po yon dga' . Yon tan rin po che 'i mdzod kyi 'grel pa. 3 vols. vols. 1 -2 : bDen gnyis gsal byed Zla ba 'i sgron me (chs . 1 -9); vol. 3: Zab don snang byed Nyi ma 'i 'od zer (chs. 1 0- 1 3 ) . In NyKs vols . 53-55 . Identical to dPe cha edition published in Snga 'gyur bka ' ma 'i chos sde 'i glegs ba so brgyad pa series by Dilgo Khyentse Rinpoche, Bodhnath, Nepal : Shechen Monastery, n.d.

Yon tan mdzod rang 'grel. ' Jigs med gling pa mKhyen brtse 'od zer. Yon tan rin po che 'i mdzod kyi rgya cher 'grel. 2 vols. vol. 1 : rNam mkhyen shing rta (chapters 1 -9); vol . 2: bDe gnyis shing rta (chapters 1 0- 1 3 ) . In 'Jigs gling gsung 'bum (Lhasa edition), vols. 1 -2 . Also consulted: Larungar edition of rNam mkhyen shing rta. 2 vols. (book format) : Bla rung sgar: gSer ljongs bla rna rung lnga rig nang bstan slob grwa chen mo, 1 999?, vol. I , (chs . 1 -6), 84-442; vol. 2 (chs. 7-9), 1 -484.

Zab don rgya rntsho 'i sprin : Klong chen rab 'byams pa In rnKha ' 'gro yang tig vol. 2, sNying thig ya bzhi vol. 8 , 1 -488 .

Zab don snying po: Klong chen rab 'byams pa. Zab don snying po . In Zab rno yang tig vol . I , sNying thig ya bzhi vol. 1 2, 446-467.

Zab rno nang don gyi 'grel pa. Rang byung rdo rje (Karmapa III) . In Rang byung rdo rje gsung 'burn vol. 7, 3 7 1 -664.

Zab rno yang tig (2 vols.) . Klong chen rab 'byams pa In sNying thig ya bzhi vol . 1 2-1 3 .

2. Secondary Sources

Achard, Jean-Luc. 1 999. L 'Essence Perlee du Secret: Recherches philologiques et historiques sur l 'origine de la Grande Perfection dans la tradition rnying rna pa. Bibliotheque de rEcole des Hautes Etudes. Section des sciences religieuses, 1 07. Turnhout: Brepols.

Achard, Jean-Luc. 2002. La Base et ses sept interpretations dans la tradition rDzogs chen. Revue d 'Etudes Tibhaines, p. 44-60.

Almogi, Orna. 2009. Rong-zom-pa 's Discourses on Buddhology: A Study of Various Conceptions of Buddha hood in Indian Sources with Special Reference to the Controversy Surrounding the Existence of Gnosis (jfiiina : ye shes) as Presented by the Eleventh-Centwy Tibetan Scholar Rong-zorn Chos-kyi-bzang-po. Tokyo: The International Institute for Buddhist Studies.

344

Arguilleres, Stephane. 2007. Vaste sphere de profusion, Klong-chen rab- 'byams (Tibet, 1308-1364) , sa vie, son oeuvre, sa doctrine. Orientalia Analecta Lovaniensa 1 67. Leiden: Peeters .

Barron, Richard. 2005. A Marvelous Garland of Rare Gems: Biographies of Masters of Awareness in the Dzogchen Lineage: A Spiritual History of the Teachings of Natural Great Perfection . Junction City: Padma Publishing. An armotated translation of sMyo shul mkhan po 'Jam dbyangs rdo rje ' s Rang bzhin rdzogs pa chen po 'i chos 'byung rig 'dzin brgyud pa 'i rnam mthar Ngo mtshar nor bu bai du rya 'i phreng ba (see above) .

Beckwith, Christopher. 2009. Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Broido, Michael M. 1 987. Sa-skya Paw,lita, the White Panacea and the Hva-Shang Doctrine. Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 1 0/2, 27-{i8.

Bronkhorst, Joharmes. 20 1 1 . A Note on Nirvikalpaka and Savikalpaka Perception. Philosophy East and West. vol. 6 1 , no . 2 . pp. 3 73 -79.

-=-_

:--=-:. 20 1 0. Ritual, holophrastic utterances, and the symbolic mind. In: Ritual Dynamics and the Science of

Ritual. Volume I: Grammar and morphologies of ritual practices in Asia. ed. Axel Michaels and Anand Mishr.

Burton, David. 2004. Buddhism, Knowledge and Liberation: A Philosophical Study. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Co.

Cabez6n, Jose and Jackson, Roger. 1 996. Tibetan Literature: Studies in Genre . Ithaca, New York: Snow Lion Publications.

Chattopadhyaya, Alaka. 1 98 1 . Atisa and Tibet. Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass.

Chenique, Fram,;oise. 200 1 . Le Message dufutur bouddha ou la lignrie spirituelle des troisjoyaux. French translation and critical edition of Sanskrit and Tibetan texts of Ratnagotravibhaga Mahayanottaratantrasastra. Paris : Dervy.

Clark, Larry. 2000. The Conversion ofBugu Khan to Manichaeism. In: Studia Manichaica. IV Internationaler Kongrej3 zum Manichaismus. Eds. R.E. Emmerick, W. Sundermarm, P. Zieme. Berlin : Akademie Verlag.

Collins, Steven. 1 982. Selfless Persons: Imagery and Thought in Theravada Buddhism . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Cozort, Daniel . 1 986. Highest Yoga Tantra. Ithaca, New York: Snow Lion Publications

Cuevas, Bryan 1. 2006. Some Reflections on the Periodization of Tibetan History. Revue d 'Etudes Tibetaines, no. 1 0 : 44-55 .

Dalton, Jacob. 2002. Uses of the dGongs pa 'dus pa 'i mdo in the Development of the rNying ma School of Tibetan Buddhism. PhD. dissertation. University of Michigan.

__ -,:--_. 2005. A Crisis of Doxography: How Tibetans Organized Tantra during the 8th- 1 2th Centuries. Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 28 . 1 : 1 1 5 - 1 8 1 .

Dalton, Jacob and van Schaik, Sam. eds. 2006. Tibetan Tantric Manuscripts from Dunhuang: A Descriptive Catalogue of the Stein Collection at the British Library. Leiden: EJ Brill.

Davidson, Ronald. 1 98 1 . The Litany of Names of Mafijusri. In: Michael Strickman, ed. , Tantric and Taoist Studies in Honour of R.A. Stein. Bruxelles : Institut BeIge des Hautes Etudes Chinoises.

__ ,...-,--,-

' 1 985 . Buddhist Systems of Transformation: Asraya-parivrttil-paravritti Among the Yogacara. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis. University of Cali fomi a, Berkeley.

345

_.,-----,_. 2005 . Tibetan Renaissance: Tantric Buddhism in the Rebirth of Tibetan Culture . New York: Columbia University Press.

de la Vallee Poussin, Louis, tr. , 1 988-90. Abhidharmakosabhii$yam. See also: Leo M. Pruden. 4 vols. Berkeley: Asian Humanities Press. An English translation of L 'Abhidharmakosabhii$)lam de Vasubandhu. Revised edition: 1 97 1 . (first published in 1 923 - 1 93 1 ) . See also AK under Primary Sources.

Demieville, Paul . 1 929. Sur 1 ' authenticite du Ta tch'eng k'i sin louen. Bulletin de la Maison Franco-Japonaise, serie franyaise, tome II, No. 2 .

:-::---:-----,,--' 1 952. Le Concile de Lhasa. Bibliotheque de l ' Institut des Hautes Etudes Chinoises VII. Imprimerie

Nationale de France, Paris, 1 952.

Doboom, Lama Doboom Tulku, ed. , Buddhist Translations:Problems and Perspectives, New Delhi : Mahohar 1 995 .

Dorj e, Gyurme, tr. , The Guhyagarbhatantra and its XIVth Century Tibetan Commentary, Phyogs-bcu mun-sel. Ph.D. thesis, the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 1 987.

Dreyfus, Hubert. Being-in-the- World A Commentary on Heidegger 's Being and Time, Division I. Cambridge : MIT Press, 1 99 1 .

Dudjom Rinpoche (Jikdrel Yeshe Dorje). 1 99 1 . The Nyingma School of Tibetan Buddhism: Its Fundamentals & History. Translated and edited by Gyurme Dorje and Matthew Kapstein. Summerville : Wisdom Publications.

Eastman, Kenneth. 1 98 1 . The Eighteen Tantras of the VajraSekhara/mayajaIa. Presented to the 26th International Conference of Orienta lists in Japan. Tokyo, May 8th.

Eckel, Malcolm. 1 987. Jiiiinagarbha 's Commentary on the Distinction between the Two Truths: An Eighth­Century Handbook of Madhyamaka Philosophy. New York: N.Y. State University Press.

Ehara, N.R.M., Soma Thera and Kheminda Thera. 1 977. The Path of Freedom, tr. of Vimuttimagga. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society.

Franz-Karl Ehrhard. 1 990. " Flugelschliige des Garu¢a ": Literar- und ideengeschichtliche Bemerkungen zu einer Liedersammlung des rDzogs-chen. Tibetan and Indo-Tibetan Studies 3 . Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag.

_---;.----_,. 1 992. The "Vision" of rDzogs-chen: A Text and its Histories. In: Tibetan Studies : Proceedings of the 5th Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies, Narita 1989. vol . 1 . Naritasan Shinshoj i Monograph Series (Occasional Papers 2), Tokyo: Tokyo Press Co . , 47-5 8 .

::-::-__ --:-. 1 997. Recently Discovered Manuscripts of the rNying rna rgyud 'bum from Nepal . In: Helmut Krasser, Michael Torsten Much, Ernst Steinkellner, and Helmut Tauscher, eds . , Tibetan Studies: Proceedings of the Seventh Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies. Vienna: Austrian Academy of Science, vol . 1 :253-267.

Eimer, Helmut. Bodhipathapradfpa. Ein Lehrgedicht des Atisa (Dfparrzkarasrfjiiiina) in der Tibetischen Uberlieferung. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1 978.

Eltschinger, Vincent. 2009 (20 1 0). Ignorance, epistemology and soteriology ( 1 ) . Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies vol. 32 no . 1 -2, 39-83 .

Faber, Flemming. 1 986. The Council of Tibet According to the sBa bzhed. Acta Orientala 47, 33-6 1 .

Fasching, Wolfgang. 2008. Consciousness, self-consciousness, and meditation. Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences 7, 463--483 .

346

Ferrari, Alfonsa. 1 958 . Mkhyen brtse 's Guide to the Holy Places of Tibet. Completed and edited by Luciano Petech with the collaboration of Hugh Richardson. Rome: Series Oriental a Roma XVI.

Fontana, David. 2007. Meditation. In: M. Velmans, & S. Schneider , eds. , The Blackwell Companion to Consciousness. Oxford: Blackwell , 1 54-1 62.

Franco, Eli . 1 997. Dharmakfrti on Compassion and Rebirth. Wiener Studien zur Tibetologie und Buddhismuskunde, 3 8 . Vienna: Arbeitskreis fUr Tibetische und Buddhistische Studien Universitat Wien.

-=-_----,_. 2000a The ' Spitzer Manuscript' - A Report on Work in Progress. In: Abhidharma and Indian Thought: Essays in Honour of Professor Doctor Junsho Kato on His Sixtieth Birthday. Tokyo : 562-544.

____ . 2000b. Lost Fragments from the ' Spitzer Manuscript ' . In: R. Tsuchida and A. Wezler , eds . , Haranandalaharf, Reinbek: 77- 1 10 .

____ . 2009. Meditation and Metaphysics. On Their Mutual Relationship in South Asian Buddhi sm. In: Yogic Perception, Meditation and Altered States of Consciousness. ed. by Eli Franco in collaboration with Dagmar Eigner. Vienna : Verlag der Osterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, VII , 483 S. Sitzungsberichte der philosophisch-historischen Klasse, 794. Beitrage zur Kultur- und Geistesgeschichte Asiens, 65 .

Frauwallner, Erich. 1 95 1 . Amalavijfiiinam und Alayavijfiiinam, Beitrage zur indischen Philologie und A ltertums­kunde (Festschrift W. Schubring, Hamburg).

Gadamer, Hans-Georg. 1 989. Truth and Method. Second revised edition. tr. Joel Weinsheimer and Donald Marshall . New York: Crossroads Publishing Co.

Garfield, Jay. 2006. The Conventional Status of Reflexive Awareness. What 's at stake in a Tibetan debate? Philosophy East and West, 56(2), 20 1-228.

Germano, David. 1 992. Poetic Thought, the Intelligent Universe, and the Mystery of Self: The Tantric Synthesis of rDzogs Chen in Fourteenth Century Tibet. PhD. dissertation. Madison: University of Wisconsin.

____ ,. 1 994. Architecture and Absence in the Secret Tantric History of rDzogs Chen. In: Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, 1 7/ 2 : 203-335 .

-=-___ ,. 2002. The Seven Descents and the Early History of rNying rna Transmissions. In: The Many Canons of Tibetan Buddhism, edited by Helmut Eimer and David Germano, Leiden: Brill, 225-59.

____ . 2004. The Funerary Transformation of the Great Perfection (rDzogs chen). Journal of the International Association of Tibetan Studies 1 , 1-54.

Germano, David, and Gyatso, Janet. 2000. Lonchenpa and the Possession of the Olikints. In: David Gordon White, ed. , Tantra in Practice. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Germano, David and Hillis, Gregory. 2005 . Klong chen rab 'byams pa (Longchenpa). In: Gale Encyclopedia of Religions (2nd edition), Editor in Chief, Lindsay Jones, Farmington Hills, MI : Thomson Gale, vol. 8, 5 1 9 1 -5 .

Gomez, Louis. 1 987. PurifYing Gold: The Metaphor of Effort and Intuition in Buddhist Thought and Practice. In: Sudden and Gradual (see Gregory 1 987), 65- 1 65 .

Gregory, Peter N. 1 987. ed. Sudden and Gradual Approaches to Enlightenment in Chinese Thought. Delhi : Motilal Banarsidas.

Griffiths, Paul. 1 99 1 . On Being Mindless: Buddhist Meditation and the Mind-Body Problem. La Salle, Illinois : Open Court Publishing Co.

347

Guenther, Herbert. 1 957 (reprint 197 1 ) . tr. The Jewel Ornament of Liberation. Berkeley: Shambhala

____ . 1 975-76. Kindly Bent to Ease Us (3 volumes) . Emeryville, California: Dharma Publishing. (An annotated translation of the root texts of Klong chen pa' s Ngal gso skor gsum.)

1 989. From Reductionism to Creativity: rDzogs-chen and the New Sciences of the Mind. Boston: Shambala.

Guignon, Charles. Heidegger and the Problem of Knowledge . Indianapolis: Hacket Publishing Co., 1 983 .

Hadot, Pierre. 1 995 . Philosophy as a Way of Life: Spiritual Exercises from Socrates to Foucault. Malden, MA: Blackwell .

Heidegger, Martin. 1 962. Being and Time. tr. John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson. New York: Harper & Row.

___ . 1 975 . Early Greek Thinking. ed. and tr. F. Capuzzi and D. Krell. New York: Harper and Row.

Hoornaert, Paul . An Annotated Translation of MadhyamakahrdayakarikiilTarkajvala V 1 -7, V 8-26, V 27-54, V 55-68 , V 69-84, V 85- 1 1 4. Reprinted from Studies and Essays, Behavioural Sciences and Philosophy Faculty, Kanazawa University, No. 19, 1 27- 1 59, 1 999; No. 20, 75- 1 1 1 , 2000; No. 2 1 , 1 49- 1 90, 200 1 ; No. 22, 1 3 -47, 200 1 ; No. 22, 1 1 3 - 1 37 , 2002; No. 23 , 1 39- 1 70, 2003 .

Houston, Gary. 1 980. Sources for a History of the bSam yas debate . Sankt Augustin: Monumenta Tibetica Historica 1 , 2 .

Hugon, Pascale. 2008. Tresors du raisonnement : Sa skya Pafl¢ita e t ses predecesseurs tibetains sur les modes de fonctionnement de la pensee et Ie fondement de I 'inference : Edition et traduction annotee du quatrieme chapitre et d 'une section du dixieme chapitre du " Tshad ma rigs pa 'i gter". Wiener Studien zur Tibetologie und Buddhismus­kunde, 69. Vienna : Arbeitskreis flir Tibetische und Buddhistische Studien Universitat, Universitat Wien.

Hunter, Harriet. 2004. Faquan's Transmission of the Susiddhi Category of the Esoteric Buddhist Teachings. Journal of the International College for Postgraduate Buddhist Studies, vol. 8 , 280-32 1 .

Husser!, Edmund. 1 989. Ideas Pertaining to a Pure Phenomenology and to a Phenomenological Philosophy -Second Book. tr. R. Rojcewicz and A. Schuwer: Dordrecht: Kuwer Academic Publishers.

=------:---c-'. 1 99 1 . On th? Phenomenology of Consciousness of Internal Time (1893-191 7) , tr. J . B . Brough. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Ichigo , M. 1 985 . Madhyamakalafllkara of Santarak,Jita with his own Commentary or Vrtti and with the Subcommentary or Pafijika of Kamalasfla. Kyoto : Kyoto Sangyo University Press.

Imaeda, Y. 1 975 . Documents tibetains de Touen-huang concernant Ie concil de Tibet. Journal Asiatique, tome 263 , Paris.

Jackson, David. 1 983 . Commentaries on the Writings of Sa skya Pandita: A Bibliographical Sketch. In: The Tibet Journal, VoI.VIII, No.3 , Autumn.

___ ...... 1 994a Enlightenment by a Single Means. Beitrage zur Kultur- und Geistesgeschichte Asiens 1 2 . Vienna: Osterreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften .

..",--:----=-' 1 994b. An Early B iography of Rngog Lo tsli ba Blo ldan shes rab, in P. Kvaerne , ed. , Tibetan Studies, Proceedings of the 6th Seminar of the International Association for Buddhist Studies Fagernes 1992 , vol. 1 , pp. 3 72-392. Oslo : The Institute for Comparative Research in Human Culture.

=----::-::--_. 1 996. The bsTan rim ("Stages of the Doctrine") and Similar Graded Expositions of the Bodhisattva's Path. In: Tibetan Literature: Studies in Genre (see Cabezon), 229-243 .

348

Kapstein, Matthew T. 2000. We are all Gzhan stong pas. Reflections on The Reflexive Nature of Awareness: A Tibetan Madhyamaka Defence. Journal of Buddhist Ethics 7, 1 05 - 125 .

-=c-----:c-. 2004. Chronological Conundrums in the Life of Khyung-po-mal- 'byor: Hagiography and Historical

Time. Journal of the International Association of Tibetan Studies 1 : 1 - 14 .

____ . 2008. The Sun of the Heart and the Bai-ro-rgyud- 'bum. Revue d 'Etudes Tibetaines. no. 1 5 , 275-288 .

-::--___ . 20 1 0. Between Na rak and a Hard Place: Evil Rebirth and the Violation of Vows in Early rNying rna pa Sources and their Dunhuang Antecedents. In: Matthew T. Kapstein and Sam van Schaik, eds . , Aspects of Esoteric Buddhism at Dunhuang. Leiden: Brill.

Karmay, Samten Gyaltsen. 1 988 . The Great Perfection: A Philosophical and Meditative Teaching of Tibetan Buddhism. LeidenlNew York: E. J. Brill.

____ . 1 998 (reprint of 1 98 1 ). King TsalDza and Vajrayana. The Arrow and the Spindle: Studies in History, Myth, Rituals and Beliejs in Tibet. Kathmandu: Mandala Book Point 1 998, 76-93 .

Keira, Ryusei. 2004. Madhyamaka and Epistemology. A Study of KamalaS/la 's Methodfor Proving the Voidness of all Dharmas. Introduction, Annotated Translations and Tibetan Texts of Selected Sections of the Second Chapter of the Madhyamakiiloka. Wiener Studien zur Tibetologie und Buddhismuskunde, 59 . Vienna: Arbeitskreis flir Tibetische und Buddhistische Studien Universitat Wien.

Kellner, B irgit. Self-Awareness (svasa/!lvedana) in Dignaga' s Pramfu)asamuccaya and -vrtti : a Close Reading. In: B irgit Kellner, ed., Buddhist Theories of Self-Awareness (svasa/!lvedana) : Reception and Critique . Journal of Indian Philosophy 3 8/3 (20 1 0) 203-23 1 .

--=-=-=---. 20 1 1 . Self-awareness (svasa/!lvedana) and Infinite Regresses: a Comparison of Arguments by Dignaga

and Dharmaklrti . Journal of Indian Philosophy 39/4-5 (20 1 1 ) = Special issue on 1 4th World Sanskrit Conference (eds. Shoryu Katsura, Mark Siderits, Kiyotaka Yoshimizu), 4 1 1 -426.

Kockelmans, Joseph. 1 984. On the Truth of Being: Reflections of Heidegger 's Later Philosophy. Bloomington: Indiana Univerisity Press.

van der Kuijp, Leonard. 1 984. Miscellanea to a Recent Contribution on/to the bSam-yas Debate. Kailash, Vol. 1 1 /3-4, 1 49-1 84.

Lai Whalen. 1 977. The Meaning of " Mind-Only" (Wei-Hsin) : An Analysis of a Sinitic Mahayfma Phenomenon. Philosophy East and West 27, 1 ( 1 977), 6 1 -77.

Lalou, Marcelle. 1 953 . Contribution a la bibliographie du Kanjur et du Tanjur: Les textes bouddhiques au temps du roi Khri-sr0l1-lde-bcan. Journal Asiatique, 3 1 3-354.

Lamotte, Etienne. 1 93 8-39 . La Somme du grand w!hicule d 'Asanga (Mahiiyanasa/!lgraha) I 2 vols . Chinese and Tibetan editions and translation by Etienne Lamotte. Publications de l ' Institut orientaliste de Louvain 8 , Louvain.

____ . 1 944-1 980. Le Traite de la grand vertue de sagesse de Nagarjuna (MahaprqjPiaparamitasastra) . Tome I-V. Publications de l ' Institut orientaliste de Louvain 2, 1 2, 24, Universite de Louvain.

____ . 1 962. L 'Enseignement de Vimalakfrti. Bibliotheque du Museon vol. 5 1 . Louvain.

Legrand, Dorothee. 2009. Two Senses for 'Givenness of Consciousness . ' Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences 8, 89-94.

349

Lokesh Chandra. 1 963 . Materials for a History of Tibetan Literature. 1 -3 . New Delhi : International Academy of Indian Culture. Sata-Pitaka Series. 28-30.

Lopez, Donald. 1 988 . Buddhist Hermeneutics. (Kuroda Institute Studies in East Asian Buddhism 6.) Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.

Maeda, Takashi. 1 995 . l)akan:zavamahayoginftantraraja, Chapter 15 (1) : Sanskrit Edition with Tibetan Translation . In: Studies in the Buddhist Sanskrit Literature . ed. by Sravakabhumi Study Group and Buddhist Tantric Texts Study Group. Tokyo : Sankibo Press.

Makransky, John. 1 997. Buddhahood Embodied: Sources of Controversy in India and Tibet. SUNY Series in Buddhist Studies, ed. , Matthew Kapstein. Albany: SUNY Press.

Malalasekera, G.P. 1 965 -. ed. Encyclopaedia of Buddhism, Government of Ceylon.

Mathes, Klaus-Dieter. 1 996. Unterscheidung der Gegebenheiten von ihrem wahren Wesen (Dharmadharmata­vibhaga). Swisttal-Odendorf 1 996 (Indica et Tibetica, vol. 26) .

____ ,. 2006. B lending the Sutras with the Tantras : The Influence of Maitrlpa and his Circle on the Formation of Sfttra Mahamudra in the Kagyu Schools. In: Buddhist Literature and Praxis: Studies in its Formative Period 900-1 400. ed. by Ronald M. Davidson and Christian K. Wedemeyer (Proceedings of the Tenth Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies, 2003 , vol . 4) . Leiden: Brill, pp. 201 -227.

____ ,. 2007. A Direct Path to the Buddha Within : Go Lotsawa 's Mahamudra Interpretation of the Ratnagotravibhaga. Boston: Wisdom Publications.

-:--_-,-------. 20 1 1 . The Collection of ' Indian Mahamudra Works ' (Tib. phyag chen rgya gzhung) Compiled by the Seventh Karma pa Chos grags rgya mtsho . In: Mahamudra and the Bka ' brgyud Tradition: PlA TS 2006: Tibetan Studies: Proceedings of the Eleventh Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies, Konigswinter 2006. ed. by Roger R. Jackson and Matthew T. Kapstein. Andiast, Switzerland: IITBS International Institute for Tibetan and Buddhist Studies.

Mayer, Robert. 2004. Pelliot tibetain 349: A Dunhuang Tibetan Text on rDo rje Phur pa. Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, 27/ 1 , 1 29- 1 64.

____ . 1 996. A Scripture of the Ancient Tantra Collection: The Phur-pa bcu gnyis. Oxford: Kiscadale Publications.

Matilal, Bimal Krishna. 1 980. Ignorance or Misconception? - A Note on Avidya in Buddhism. In: Somaratna Balasooriya et al. (eds) : Buddhist Studies in Honour of Walpola Rahula. London: Gordon Fraser, 1 54- 1 64 .

Meinert, Carmen. 2003 . Structural Analysis of the bSam gtan mig sgron: A Comparison of the Fourfold Correct Practice in the Aryavikalpaprave.§anamadhara(lf and the Contents of the Four Main Chapters of the bSam gtan mig sgron. Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 26/ 1 , 1 75 - 1 95 .

____ . 2007. The Conjunction of Chinese Chan and Tibetan rDzogs chenThought: Reflections on the Tibetan Dunhuang Manuscripts IOL Tib J 689- 1 and PT 699. In: Matthew T. Kapstein and Brandon Dotson, eds . , Contributions to the Cultural History of Early Tibet, LeidenlBoston : Brill, 239-3 0 1 .

Mejor, Marek. 2002. O n the Sevenfold Classification of the Negative Particle (nan) (Grammatical Explanation o f a­vidya in Vasubandhu' s Pratftyasamutpada-vyakhya). In: Early Buddhism and Abhidharma Thought: In Honor of Doctor Hajime Sakurabe on His Seventy-seventh Birthday. Kyoto : Heirakuj i Shoten, 87- 1 00 .

Nakamura, Zuiho . Zowa-taiyaku KukyOichijohOshoron-kenkyft. (Critical edition and Japanese translation of Tibetan versions of Mahayanottaratantrasastra known as Theg pa chen po rgyud bla ma 'i bstan bcos based on Derge, Narthang and Peking Tangyur editions.) Tokyo : Suzuki Gakujutsu Zaidan 1 967.

350

Nehamas, Alexander. 1 985 . Nietzsche: Life as Literature. Harvard University Press.

Norbu, Namkai (Nam mkha'i nor bu). 1 984. sBas pa 'i rgum-chung: The Small Collection of Hidden Precepts, A Study of an Ancient Manuscript on Dzogchenfrom Tun-huang. Arcidosso, Italy: Shang-shung Edizioni .

Norbu, Namai and Lipman, Kennard. 1 987. tr. Mafijusrlmitra, Primordial Experience: An Introduction to rDzogs­chen Meditation. Boston/London: Shambhala.

Norman, K.R. 1 983 . Piili Literature. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1 983 .

NaDamoli , B ikkhu. 1 982. tr. The Path of Discrimination. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul,

Obermiller, E. 1 93 7 (Reprint 1 992). ed. PrajPiii-Piiramitii-Ratna-Guf/a-SalJ1caya-Giithii: Sanskrit & Tibetan Text. B ibliothetica Indo-Buddhica Series 97. Delhi : Sri Satguru Publications.

___ . 1 932 . tr. History of Buddhism (Chos- 'byung) by Bu-ston, Part II . Heidelberg.

Onoda, Shunzo. 1 988 . Chronology of the Abbatial Successions of the gSang phu Ne 'u thog Monastery. Wiener Studien fUr die Kunde Siidasiens Bd. 3 3 : 203-2 1 3 .

=-:: __ -::' 1 992. Monastic Debate in Tibet. A Study on the History and Structures of Bsdus grwa Logic . Wiener Studien zur Tibetologie und Buddhismuskunde, 27. Vienna: Arbeitskreis flir Tibetische und Buddhistische Studien Universitat Wien.

Penjore, DOlj i . 2005 . Oral Construction of Exile Life and Times of Kiinkhyen Longchen Rabjam in Bumthang. Journal of Bhutan Studies, vol. 1 3 , Winter 2005, 60-73 .

Petech, Luciano. 1 990. Central Tibet and the Mongols: the Yuan-Sa-skya Period of Tibetan History. Rome: Istituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente.

Paul, Diana Y. 1 9 84. Philosophy of Mind in Sixth Century China: Paramiirtha 's "Evolution of Consciousness. " Stanford: Stanford University Press.

Pasadika, Bhikku. 1 988 . The Indian Origins of Lam-rim of Central Asia. Tibet Journal, vol . 1 3 , n. 1 .

Prats, Ramon. 1 984. Tshe-dbang nor-bu' s Chronological Notes on the Early Transmission ofthe Bi-ma snying­thig, in L. Ligeti , ed. , Tibetan and Buddhist Studies Commemorating the 200th Anniversay of the Birth of A lexander Csoma de Karas, Budapest, vol. 2, 1 97-209.

Rhoton, Jared Douglas . 2002. tr. A Clear Differentiation of the Three Codes: Essential Distinctions among the Individual Liberation, Great Vehicle, and Tantric Systems. Albany: State University of New York Press.

Rhys Davis T.W. and Stede, W. 1 959. eds. Piili Text Society 's Piili-English Dictionary. London: Luzac and Co. Ltd.

Richardson, Hugh. 1 985 . A Corpus of Early Tibetan Inscriptions. Calcutta, Royal Asiatic Society.

Roerich, Georges. 1 976. tr. The Blue Annals. Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass.

Rorty, R. 1 97 1 . Verificationism and Transcendental Arguments. NOlls, 5: 3-14.

Rossi, Donatella. 1 999. The Philosophical View of the Great Perfection in the Tibetan Bon Religion. Ithaca, New York: Snow Lion Publications .

Ryle, Gilbert. 1 949. The Concept of Mind. New York: Penguin Books.

35 1

Sakuma, H. 1 990. Die Asrayaparivrtti-Theorie in der Yogiiciirabhumi. Alt- und Neu-Indische Studien 40. 1 -2 . Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag.

Schmithausen, Lambert. 1 969. Der Nirviif/a-Abschnitt in der Viniscayasamgrahaf/l der Yogiiciirabhftmib (VerOffentlichungen der Kommission fUr Sprachen und Kulturen Siid- und Ostasiens 8, philosophisch-historische Klasse, Sitzungberichte, 264, vol. 2, Abhandlung). Vienna: Verlag der Osterreichische Akademie der Wissen­schaften.

---c-c::--:--' 1 973 . Spirituelle Praxis und philosophische Theorie im Buddhismus. Zeitschriflfur Missionswissenschaft und Religionswissenschaft. Heft 3173 , 1 6 1 - 1 86.

____ . 1 976. On the Problem of the Relation of Spiritual Practice and Philosophical Theory in Buddhism. In: Cultural Department of the Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany , ed., German Scholars on India. Varanasi, 23 5-250.

1 977. Textgeshichtliche Beobachtungen zum I . Kapitel der Astasiihasrikii Prajniipiiramitii. In: Lewis Lancaster & Luis O. Gomez, eds . , Prajniipiiramitii and Related Systems: Studies in Honor of Edward Conze . Berkeley Buddhist Studies Series 1 . Berkeley: University of California Press, 3 5-80.

::--c:--c:-c--' 1 98 1 . On Some Aspects of Descriptions or Theories of 'Liberating Insight' and 'Enlightenment' in Early Buddhism. In: K. Bruhn and A. Wezler , eds . , Studien zum Jainismus und Buddhismus: Gedenkschrifl fur Ludwig A lsdorf Wiesbaden.

--:-----c. 1 987. Alayavijniina: on the Origin and the Early Development of a Central Concept of Yogiiciira Philosophy. 2 vols. (Studia Philologica Buddhica, Monograph Series 4). Tokyo : The International Institute for Buddhist Studies.

Seyfort Ruegg, David. 1 969. La Theorie du tathiigatagarbha et du gotra: Etudes sur la soteriologie et la gnoseologie du bouddhisme. (Publications de l 'Ecole franc,;aise d'Extreme-Orient 70). Paris: A. Maisonneuve .

...,..,.,::--c--. 1 973 . Le Traite du tathiigatagarbha de Bu ston rin chen grub. (Publications de I 'Ecole franc,;aise

d'Extreme-Orient 88) . Paris : A. Maisonneuve.

____ . 1 98 1 . Deux problemes d'exegese et pratique tantriques selon DiparpkarasrljfUlna et Pail)dapatika de YavadvlpalSuvarl)advlpa. In: Tantric and Taoist Studies in Honour of R.A. Stein, vol. 1 . ed. Michael Strickmann. Bruxelles : Institute BeIge des Hautes Etudes Chinoises.

__ --:-_. 1 98 1 . Autour du ITa ba 'i khyad par de Ye ses sde (Version de Touen-houang, Pelliot Tibetain 8 1 4) . Journal Asiatique. vol. 269, 207-229.

____ ,. 1 989 . Buddha Nature, Mind and the Problem of Gradualism in a Comparative Perspective. London: School of Oriental and African Studies.

-::-___ . 1 999. Some Reflections on the Place of Philosophy in the Study of Buddhism. Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 1 8/2 : 1 45-8 1 .

____ . 2000. The Contents, Antecedents and Influence of Tsong kha pa' s Lam rim chen mo. Introduction to The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment: Lam rim chen mo . New York: Snow Lion Publications, 1 7-32.

____ . 2004. Aspects of the Investigation of the (Earlier) Indian Mahayana. Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 271 1 , 3-62.

Sherbourne, Richard. 1 983 . tr. A Lamp for the Path and Commentary. London: George Allen & Unwin.

352

Smith, Eugene. 200 1 . Among Tibetan Texts: History and Literature of the Himalayan Plateau. Boston: Wisdom Publications.

Snellgrove, David. 1 987. Indo-Tibetan Buddhism. 2 volumes. Boston: Shambhala.

Sorensen, Per K. 1 994. The Mirror Illuminating the Royal Genealogies: An Annotated Translation of the XIVth Century Tibetan Chronicle : rGyal-rabs gsal- ba 'i me-long. Asiatische Forschungen, Bd. 128 . Weisbaden: Harrassowitz.

Sorensen, Per K. and Hazod, Guntram, with Tsering Gyalbo. 2007. Rulers on the Celestial Plain: Ecclesiastic and Secular Hegemony in Medieval Tibet: A Study of Tshal Gung-thang. 2 vols. Denkschriften der philosophisch­historische Klasse, vol. 3 6 1 . Ver6ffentlichungen zur Sozialanthropologie, vol . 1 0. Vienna: Verlag der Osterrechische Akademie der Wissenschaften.

Sparham, Gareth. 1 993 . tr. Ocean of Eloquence. Tsong kha pa 's Commentary on the Yogacara Doctrine of Mind. In collaboration with Shotaro Iida. SUNY Series in Buddhist Studies, ed. Matthew Kapstein. Albany: SUNY Press.

Stearns, Cyrus. 1 999. The Buddha from Dolpo: A Study of the Life and Thought of the Tibetan Master Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen (SUNY series in Buddhist Studies) . Albany, N.Y. : SUNY.

Stein, Rolf. 1 980. Une mention du manicheisme dans Ie choix du bouddhisme comme religion d 'etat, par Ie roi tibetain Khri-srong Ide-bean. In: Indianisme et Bouddhisme, Melanges offerts a Mgr Etienne Lamotte . Publications de l ' institut orientaliste de Louvain 23. Louvain, 329-337

Steinbock, Anthony 1. 1 995 . Home and Beyond: Generative Phenomenology after Husserl. Evanston: Northwestern University Press.

____ .2007. Phenomenology and Mysticism: The Verticality of Religious Experience . Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Steinkellner, Ernst. 1 977. Verse-Index of Dharmaklrti 's Works (Tibetan Versions). Vienna: Arbeitskreis fUr Tibetische und Buddhistische Studien Universitat Wien.

Stern, Robert. 1 999. ed. Transcendental Arguments: Problems and Prospects. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

-::--::--:-:::-::-' 2000. Transcendental Arguments and Skepticism: Answering the Question of Justification . Oxford :

Oxford University Press .

Stroud, B . 1 968 . Transcendental Arguments. Journal of Philosophy, 65 : 24 1-56.

____ . The Goal of Transcendental Arguments, in Stern ( 1 999), 1 55 -72.

Sweet, Michael 1. Mental Purification (Blo sbyong) : A Native Tibetan Genre of Religious Literature. In: Tibetan Literature: Studies in Genre (see Cabez6n and Jackson 1 996). 244-260.

Takasaki, Jikido. 1 966. A Study on the Ratnagotravibhiiga (Uttaratantra) : Being a Treatise on the Tathagata­garbha Theory of Mahayana Buddhism. Serie Orientale Roma 33 , ed. Giuseppe Tucci. Rome : Istituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente.

Tauscher, Helmut. 1 989. Verse-Index ofCandraklrti 's Madhyamakavatara (Tibetan Versions) . Vienna: Arbeitskreis fUr Tibetische und Buddhistische Studien Universitat Wien.

Taylor, Charles. 1 978-79. The Validity of Transcendental Arguments. Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 79, London.

____ . 2007. A Secular Age. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2007.

353

Thompson, Evan. 2007. Mind in Life: Biology, Phenomenology, and the Sciences of Mind. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.

Thondup Rinpoche, Tulku. 1 989. Buddha Mind: An Anthology of Longchen Rabjam 's Writings on Dzogpa Chenpo . Edited by Harold Talbot. Ithaca, New York: Snow Lion Publications.

Thurman, Robert. 1 982. ed. and tr. Life and Teachings of Tsong-kha-pa. Dharamsala: Library of Tibetan Works and Archives.

Tillemans, Tom. 1 990. Materials for the Study of Aryadeva, Dharmapala and Candrakfrti . 2 Vols. Vienna: Arbeitskreis flir Tibetische und Buddhistische Studien Universitat Wien.

Tillemans, Tom and Newland, Guy. 20 1 1 . An Introduction to Conventional Truth. In: The Cowherds, Moonshadows: Conventional Truth in Buddhist Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 3 -22.

Todes, Samuel. Body and World. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 200 1 .

Tsong-kha-pa. 2000. The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment: Lam-rim chen-mo. vol . 1 (tr. by The Lam rim chen mo Translation Committee) . Ithaca, New York: Snow Lion Publications.

Tucci, Giuseppe. 1 980. tr. Geoffrey Samuels. Religions of Tibet. Berkeley : University of California Press.

Turner, Ralph L. 1 966. A Comparative Dictionary of the Indo-Aryan Languages. London: Oxford University Press.

Ueda, Yoshifumi. 1 967. Two Main Streams of Thought in Yogacara Philosophy. Philosophy East and West 17, 1 14, 1 55- 1 65 .

van Schaik, Sam. 2004. The Early Days ofthe Great Perfection. Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 27, I , 1 65-206.

-=-___ . 2008 . The Sweet Sage and the Four Yogas : A Lost Mahayoga Treatise from Dunhuang. Journal of the International Association of Tibetan Studies 4, December, 1 -67.

van der Kuijp , Leonard W.J. 1 979. Phya-pa Chos-kyi seng-ge ' s Impact on Tibetan Epistemological Theory, Journal of Indian Philosophy 5, 3 55-369.

=:-__ -,. 1 983 . Contributions to the Development of Tibetan Buddhist Epistemology - from the Eleventh to the Thirteenth Century. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag.

____ . 1 987. The Monastery of Gsang-phu ne'u-thog and its Abbatial Succession ii-om ca. 1 073 to 1 250 . Berliner lndologische Studien 3 ( 1 987): 1 03-27.

� ___ . 1 99 1 . On the Life and Political Career of Ta'i-si-tu Byang-chub rgyal-mtshan ( 1 3 02-? 1 3 64). In: Tibetan HistOlY and Language. Studies Dedicated to Uray Geza on His Seventieth Birthday, ed. Ernst Steinkellner, 277-327. Vienna: Arbeitskreis flir Tibetische und Buddhistische Studien Universitat Wien.

=-=-,..-_. 1 994. Fourteenth Century Tibetan Cultural History 1 : Ta'i si tu Byang chub rgyal mtshan as a Man of Religion, Indo-Iranian Journal 37.2, 1 39- 1 49.

____ . 2003 . A Treatise on Buddhist Epistemology and Logic Attributed to Klong chen Rab 'byams pa ( 1 3 08-1 364) and Its Place in Indo-Tibetan Intellectual History, Journal of Indian Philosophy 3 1 , 3 8 1 -437.

Vetter, Tillman. 1 966. Dharmakfrti 's Prama/Javiniscaya!:z. I . Kapitel: Pratyak$am. Einleitung, Text der tibetischen Ubersetzung, Sanskritfragmente, deutsche Ubersetzung. GrazlWien/Kiiln: Hermann Biihlaus Nachf.

354

Wangchuk, Dorj i . 2005 . The rNin-ma Interpretations of the Tathagatagarbha Theory. Vienna Journal of South Asian Studies 48 , 1 7 1-2 1 3 .

--cc-c-:' 2007. The Resolve to Become a Buddha: A Study of the Bodhicitta Concept in Indo- Tibetan Buddhism. Studia Philologica Buddhica Monograph Series 23 . Tokyo : The International Institute for Buddhist Studies.

____ .. 2008 . Cross-Referential Clues for a Relative Chronology of Klong chen pa's Works. In: Orna Almogi , ed., Contributions to Tibetan Buddhist Literature. PlA TS 2006: Tibetan Studies: Proceedings of the Eleventh Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies. Konigswinter, 2006. Beitrage zur Zentralasienfor­schung. Halle: International Institute for Tibetan and Buddhist Studies, 1 95- 244.

Warder. A.K. 1 970. Indian Buddhism. New Delhi : Motilal Banarsidas, 1 970.

Wayman, Alex and Wayman, Hideko. 1 974. The Lion 's Roar of Queen Srlmala: A Buddhist Scripture on the Tathagatagarbha Theory. New York: Columbia University Press.

Westerhoff, Jan. 2009. Nagarjuna 's Madhyamaka: A Philosophical Introduction . Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Williams, Paul. 1 989. Mahayana Buddhism: Doctrinal Foundations. London and New York: Routledge .

----. 1 998. The Reflexive Nature of Awareness. A Tibetan Madhyamaka Defence. Richmond: Curzon Press.

Winternitz, M. 1 922. History of Indian Literature. vol. 2 . New Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass .

Yampolsky, Philip B . 1 967. tr. The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch. New York: Columbia University Press.

Yao, Zhihua. The Buddhist Theory of Self-Cognition. London: Routledge, 2005 .

Yuyama, Akira , ed. , . 1 976. Prajfia-paramita-ratna-gu(la-saf!Jcaya-gathii (Sanskrit Recension A) : Edited with an Introduction, Bibliographical Notes and a Tibetan Version from Tunhuang. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Zahavi, Dan. 1 999. Self-Awareness and Altereity: A Phenomenological Investigation. Evanston: Northwestern University Press.

___ . 2005. Subjectivity and Selfhood: Investigating the First-Person Perspective. Cambridge: MIT Press.

-::-::-__ . 2009. Naturalized Phenomenology. In: S. Gallagher and D. Schmicking , eds. , Handbook of Phenomenology and Cognitive Science. Springer, 3 - 1 9.

355

Index '

Abhidharma system, 6 1 , 68-70, 8 1 , 1 44-5 A bhidharmakosa, 68-9nI 64, 224, 280n662 Abhidharmakosabha:jya, 65n 1 56, 236n5 8 1 A bhidharmasamuccaya, 2 1 1 , 1 48n368 A bhisamayiilal?1kiira, 28 1n665, 282n668, 283nn

670-2 abiding condition (gnas lugs), 7, 1 6, 42-3 , 57, 83,

1 00, 1 6 1 , 1 7� 1 94, 1 97, 200, 204, 208, 26 1 -2, 265, 3 07; See also existential condition (yin lugs)

absurd consquences (prasmiga, thaI 'gyur), 1 2 1 n 3 1 6, 126 , 1 82, 1 95

Advayavajra. See Maitrlpflda aggregates (skandha, phungpo) 1 89n499, 275 iilayavijfliina (kun gzhi 'i rnam par shes pa, substrat-

um consciousness), iilaya- separate fi'om vijfliina, 1 5 1 n3 78, l 78n471 buddha nature, identified with, 1 47-50n364, 1 79 conditioned kun gzhi, relation to, 1 77 definition, 1 57nn400- 1 eightfold cognitive ensemble, relation to, 56 mind (sems), relation to , 56 , 63 , 1 57-9, 178 origin and development ot: 1 39, 1 43 -6 Tibetan/Chinese reception, 7, 20, 147-59, 1 77 unreality of, 3 5n346, 1 56 vs. absolute kun gzhi (early rDzogs chen), 1 50 vs. amalavijfliina, 152-5 vs. buddha nature, 1 50n3 73, 1 59, 1 79 vs. gzhi (sNying thig), 200, 203 vs. supramundane consciousness, 150-9, 1 79 See also all-ground

aletheiology, 1 32, 245-9 AIIkflkflravfldins/Nikflravfldins, 35 , 9 1 all-ground (iilaya, kun gzhi),

iilaya- separate from vijfliina, 1 5 In378, 178n47 1 iilayavijfliina, as shorthand for, 1 55 , 1 57 bodhicitta, relation to, 83n2 1 0, 1 86n487 concepts and terminology, 1 3 9 don gyi kun gzhi, 1 3 9, 1 5 1 , 1 77, 1 87, 190-4 , 248 kun gzhi as kun gyi gzhi, 1 49n369 MahflyogaiSems sde conceptions, 34, 39 , 1 60,

1 78-203 ninth all-ground, 1 87n49 1 pure vs. impure, 1 5 1 , 1 78-203 sNying thig classification (4-fold), 7, 192n508 stratigraphy of kun gzhi interpretations, 1 93 vs. iilayavijfliina, 1 78 vs. dharmakiiya. See all-groundldharmakibJa vs. gzhi (sNying thig), chs. 4-5, 1 79-80 vs. rig pa, 84 See also iilayavijfliina, all-groundldharmakiiya

all-groundldharmakibJa distinction, 4-5 , 1 4, chs. 4-5 1 5 6-7n399, 1 5 9

amalavijfliina (dri m a med pa 'i rnam shes), 152-5 aniitma (bdag med, no self), 267n637 Andhaka tradition, 1 42n353 antirealism, global, 43 Anguttaranikiiya, 1 4 1 nn3 50- 1 Anuyoga, 3 8n85, 1 63 , 1 68, 1 7 1 , 326; See also five

Anuyoga tantras, 3 8n85 appearance (snang ba), 36, 56, 7 1 , 280 Asanga. See Maitreya-Asanga iisrayapariivrttir-parivrtti (gnas 'gyur). See trans-

formation of basis A:j{asiihasrikii, 79n1 97, 1 1 8n309, 275n650 Atisa, 40 , 42, 220, 229, 233-5n577, 236-40 Atiyoga See rDzogs chen iitman (bdag, self), 208, 266, 267n635 avidyii (ma rig pa). See ignorance awakening (bodhi, byang chub) passim; 8, 24-5, 55 ,

6 1 -2, 98, 1 07, 1 1 7, 1 1 9, 1 23 , 1 26, 1 3 0, 1 35 , 1 3 8, 1 43 , 1 64-5, 1 76, 1 83 -4, 1 88, 1 95 , 2 1 6, 222, 225-7, 232, 242-3 , 254, 256, 274, 2 8 1 , 283 , 307

'Ba ' ra ba rOyal mtshan dpal bzang, 1 23n323 , 1 40, 1 47n364, 1 50

badness. See dau:jfulya Bai ro rgyud 'bum, 1 5 , 28-9, 93 , 1 62, 1 65n424,

1 67n429, 1 9 1 n505 bDud 'joms Rin po che (Dudjom Rinpoche) , 3 1 , 37,

266n633 * Bhadrapiilasutra, 1 89n50 1 bhaviigra (srid rtse, peak of word Ii ness), 272n643 Bhflviveka, 88n227 bhumi (sa). See levels Bhutan, Klong chen pa' s exile in, 48-50 Bi ma snying thig, 14-15nn6- 7, 30n5 1 , 45, 92n24 1

1 04n28 1 , 1 56n395 bKa' brgyud, 2 1 , 25, 41 n92, 57n 1 3 3 , 75, 1 1 On296,

1 23n323, 1 40, 1 47n364, 1 5 1 , 1 6 1 -2n409, 220 bKa' gdams, 39, 40-2, 220, 235 bKa ' ma shin tu rgyas pa, 1 5n8 et passim Bla brang pa Chos dpal rgyal mtshan, 4 1 n94, 42n97 Bla rna dam pa bSod nams rgyal mtshan, 41 n92 Bla ma dgongs 'dus, 16n10, 97n258 , 207 Bla ma yang tig, 45, 54-55nnI 27-9 and 1 3 2 B l o bzang Dam chos rgya mtsho, 1 5 5 Blo bzang ' Jam dbyangs, 1 55 bodhi (byang chub). See awakening Bodhicaryiivatiira, 87, 89, 2 1 8-9n55 1 , 278 bodhicitta (byang chub kyi sems, awakened mind),

5 , 1 6, 77, 83 , 87, 1 1 7, 1 39, 1 55 , 1 64-6, 1 72-5, 1 83 , 1 86, 254, 256

*bodhigarbha (byang chub [kYi] snying po, quint­essence of awakening), 39, 87, 1 39 , 169- 78

356

* bodhigarbha, cont'd all-ground, identification with, 1 75 bodhicitta, connection to, 1 72n45 1 early rDzogs chen buddha nature concept, 1 7 1 -2 related terminology, 1 73 self-awareness, identified with, 1 74-5 suchness (tathata), identified with, 1 73 , 1 76

bodhimQfuja (byang chub [/o'i] snying po, seat of enlightenment), 1 72n449. See *bodhigarbha

Bodhipathapradfpa (andpaiijikii), 233-6 and notes Bodhiruci, 1 52 bodhisattva, passim Bodhisattvabhftmi, 23n23, 1 43 , 148n368 Bon tradition, 5 , 5 1 , 209- 1 0 'Bri gung bKa' brgyud, 48 'Bri gung dPal 'dzin, 3 0n5 1 'Brom Rin chen 'bar, 3 3 , 'Brom ston rGyal ba' i 'byung gnas, 27n34, 233-4

n577 Bru sha (Burushaski), 3 7n80, 3 8n85 bSarn yas Debate, 33n60, 225 bSarn yas monastery, 39-4 1 n90, 48, 1 70 bSam gtan mig sgron, 32, 3 7-9, 7 1 , 1 67-8 et passim bSam gtan ngal gso/ 'grel, 47, 265n63 1 bs/o'ed rim (utpattikrama, creation phase), 247 bSod narns rgyal mtshan. See Bla darn pa bsTan rim (Stages of Teachings), 42 bsTan rim chen mo, 42n99, 2 1 9n552 bTsan dgon pa gZhon nu bsarn gtan, 42n97 Bu ston Rin chen grub, 234n578, 280n664 Buddhalbuddha (sangs rgyas), passim; See

Siikyarnuni; sangs rgyas buddha nature. See *bodhigarbha; * sugatagarbha;

tathagatagarbha/Tathiigatagarbha buddhadhatu, 1 48 Buddhaguhya (Sangs rgyas gsang ba) , 1 63n4 1 9 Buddhagupta (Sangs rgyas sbas pa), 32, 1 63n419,

1 66 buddhajiiana (sangs rgyas /o'i ye shes), 7, 6 1 , 125 ,

1 26n330 ; See also primordial knowing Bum thang (in Bhutan), 48-9 Bum thang lha 'i sbas yul gyi bkod pa la bsngags pa

Me tog s/o'ed tshal, 48 byang chub [/o'i] snyingpo. See *bodhigarbha Byang chub lam bzang, 4 1 -44 and notes

Candraklrti, 42-3 , 88n228, 90, 107-1 1n290, 1 1 3 Chan tradition, 28, 33n6 1 , 3 8 Che btsan skyes, 3 7 chen p o gsum (Three Great Ones), 1 1 0n296 Chos dbyings mdzod/ 'grel, 22n22, 46-7, 64n149,

85n494, 94nn246-7, 1 0 1 -2n272 and 274, I Bn 302, 1 28n334, 324-5n854

Chos dpal rgyal mtshan. See Bla brang pa Chos grags bzang po, 9, 1 1 6, 264-5, 284 Chos mngon pa gsal byed, 1 44

citta (sems, mind). See mind CittacaitanyasamanopCiya, 77 Cittakalpapariharadr${i, 76 Cittalliitra (sems tsam, Mind-Only) . See Yogiiciira Cittamiitra followers, 35 -6, 93 -4 cittanirodha (sems 'gogpa, cessation of mind), 20,

1 2 1 n3 1 6, 1 22n320, 1 46 ; See also mind Cittaratnadr$ti, 76 clearing process (sbyong byed), 1 7, 62, 23 1 , 244-8 compassionate responsiveness (thugs rje), 67-8, 75,

1 02, 1 04, 1 06, 1 1 4, 200-3 , 329 conceptual/nonconceptual (savikalpa/nirvikalpa,

rtog bcas/rtog med), 70-4

Dam pa bde gshegs, 1 26n330 dam tshig. See vows Dam tshig gsum bkod, 47n l 07 Dan 'bag monastery, 43nl 02 Dar rj e dPal gyi grags pa, 3 8n85 dau$!ulya (gnas ngan len, badness), 23n23 , 142n

357, 1 52, 1 85 dBu rna (pa). See Madhyarnaka (Miidhyarnika) dBu ru, 27n35 de bzhin nyid (tathata). See suchness defiled ego-mind (kli$tamanas, nyon mongs pa can

gyi yid), 64; See also ego-mind deviation (gol sa), lower paths as, 7 1 , 227 dGa' rab rdo rje, 1 6, 29 dGe lugs, 39n89, 66, 76, 90-2 , 1 54-5, 219-20n552 dGongs 'grel gyi 'grel chen, 1 54 dGongs pa 'dus pa 'i mdo, 2 1 , 37-8n85, 43 , 87,

1 63 , 1 7 1 -2, 1 75 , 1 83 -4, 1 86, 1 88 , 280n664 dGongs pa zang thaI, 1 5n6, 1 6n l O, 29-30, 1 93 ,

206 dharma (chos), passim; definition, 225n560 Dharmadharmatavibhaga, 23n23 , 77n1 90, 1 4 1 ,

1 50 dharmadhatu (chos /o'i dbyings), 78, 1 02, 1 54, 1 6 1 ,

1 64, 1 66, 1 86, 243 , 300 dharmakCiya (chos sku), passim; 55, 1 3 4

andlas rig p a o r ye shes, 54, 74, 84, 1 27, 1 3 7 as source/ground ofye shes, 1 3 7 characteristics o f, 1 36, definition of, 1 56-8 See also all-groundldharmakCiya distinction

Dharmaklrti, 42, 65n1 56, 88n23 1 , 209n535 dharmata (chos nyid). See Reality; suchness dhatu (khams/dbyings, element), 123 , 1 47, 148-9nn

365-8, 270, 300 Dfghanikaya, 236n5 8 1 Digniiga, 88n230, 89 direct introduction (ngo sprod), 1 00, 160 disclosive paradigm, 1 0, 23-6, 75, 1 1 1 -2 , 1 3 8 , 1 43

1 46, 1 53 -6, 1 74, 1 79-80, 1 85 , 1 95 , 248-9, 259 distinctions (shan 'byed);

gzhi/kun gzhi (sNying thig) , chs. 4-5, 1 79-80

357

distinctions (shan 'byed), cont 'd history of two rDzogs chen distinctions, 14-22 kun gzhi/chos sku. See all-groundldharmak«Jia kun gzhi ye sheslkun gzhi rnam shes, 1 5 1 n377 pure/impure kun gzhi, 1 5 1 rnam shes/ye shes, 24-5, 1 24 sems/sems nyid. See mind/Mind as such sems/ye shes. See mind/primordial knowing sources oftwo distinctions, 1 4n6, 29-30 ten distinctions in Yon tan mdzod 'grel, 323-4

divine eye (divyacak;;us, lha 'i mig/spyan), 28 1n666 dNgos gzhi 'Od gsal snying po'i don khrid, 53-6 Dohii:kosaglti, 76 dPal dbyangs (SrTgho�a) , 33n6 1 , 7 1 n I 9 1 , 86n, 220,

1 70n437 dPe don nges don rdo rje 'i mgur, 22n2 1 'Dra 'bag chen mo, 29n43 dualism (as characteristic of mind), 53 , 55, 58, 63-5,

67-8, 70, 9 1 , 93 -4, 1 1 9-2 1 , 1 32-3 , 1 98, 2 12, 252, 3 06-8, 3 26-8

dualism (body/mind), 90 Dudj om Rinpoche. See bDud 'joms Rin po che

effulgence (gdangs), 57, 59-60, 64, 84, 2 1 4, 324 ego-mind (manas, yid), 8 1 -2n205, 2 1 2, 2 1 3n542,

280n662, 298-9n732, 3 05 , 329 eight centres (gling brgyad; in Bhutan), 48 eight examples (dpe brgyad), 266, 276n653 eighteen Sems sde tantras (rgyud bco brgyad), 32,

1 65n424, 1 7 1 , 257 eightfold cognitive ensemble (tshogs brgyad), 26,

53 , 56, 63 , 7 1 , 1 1 8 , 1 27, 143-4, 1 90, 202, 246, 248, 274, 325

Eighth Karmapa. See Mi bskyod rdo rje eighth metaphysical ground (sNying thig), 208 elaboration, discursive. See prapanca emancipation process (bral byed), 245-6 emotions, afflictive (kle§a, nyon mongs), 69n 167,

8 1 n205, 2 1 2n540 emptiness (Sunyatii:, stong pa nyid),

and appearance (snang), 1 09, 208 and awareness (rig), 1 03 , 1 56 and compassion (snying rje), 222 and clarity (gsa!), 1 00-3 , 2 1 7 as sheer vacancy (stong nyid rkyang ma), 1 1 2-3 ,

1 22, 1 25 , 244, 266 endowed with all excellent aspects, 1 23n323 *Prasangika view of, 1 09-13 , 1 3 1 primordial knowing of/as, 1 06 rDzogs chen affirmative account of, 1 10-14

enlightened intent ( [sangs rgyas kyi] dgongs pa), 54, 75 , 256

epistemology, mediational , 4n l , 70, 74, 9 1 -2 error/errancy (bhrii:nti, 'khrul pa), 35 , 66-7, 1 62,

1 75 , 1 77, 1 79-80, 195-203, 213-1 7, 273, 302 etemalism. See extremes of etemalism and nihilism

existential condition (yin lugs), 1 23 1 3 6, 265 -6, 269, 272; See also abiding condition

expressive energy (rtsa!), 28, 56-7, 67, 78, 8 1 n 205, 97, 1 00-2, 1 06, 1 97-9, 209, 324, 329

extremes of etemalism and nihilism, 1 69, 1 96-7, 202-3 , 208

Facheng (Chos grub), 1 54 Fifth Dalai Lama See Ngag dbang B lo bzang rgya

mtsho, five aggregates (skandha). See aggregates five Anuyoga tantras, 3 8n85, 1 68n43 1 , 280n664 five buddha families, 1 1 2n299, 278n565 five definites (nges pa lnga), 282n668 five earlier translations (Sems sde), 32 , 2 1 4n544,

254n609, 257n6 1 8 five elements (bhuta, 'byung ba), 283n670, 299n729 five freedoms (sNying thig) . See freedom five paths (lam lnga) (Mahayana) . See path five imperial dharmas (rgyal po 'i chos lnga), 3 8n85 five poisons (dug lnga) . See emotions, afflictive five propositions about rDzogs chen path, 258-9 five sense perceptions (vijnii:na, rnam shes), 58nl 3 7

64n I49, 1 89, 280, 324, four concentrations (dhyana, bsam gtan) , 280 four conditions, 1 80n474 four correct discriminations (pratisa/?1vid : so sor

yang dag par rig pa), 283n672 four discourses (mdo, sutra) (dGongs 'dus), 1 87-8 four kinds of fearlessnesses (vaisaradhya, mi 'jigs

pa), 282n67 1 four kun gzhi (sNying thig) . See all-ground four mudra (seals), 1 6 1 n409 four names (nama, ming), 1 89 four powers (vasita, dbang), 283n673 four qualities of ground (gNyags), 1 97 four truths, 225n560, 264, 268, 324, four visions (snang ba bzhi) (sNying thig), 1 06n28 four vows (dam tshig) (rDzogs chen), 47nl 07 four yogas (Ita sgom spyod 'bras), 5n3 , 47n l 07 freedom (mok;;almukti, grol ba),

five kinds of freedom (sNying thig), 2 1 5 Indian idea of, 8 , 2 1 3 - 1 4 rDzogs chen idea o f, 8 , 213- 1 7

Gangs r i thod dkar, 44, 48, 265 gCod system, 40, 285n677 Ghanavyuha, 1 5 1 n378 gling brgyad (eight centres; in Bhutan), 48 gNas lugs mdzod/ 'grel, 46-7n 107 gNas lugs phyag chen, 57n 1 3 3 gnoseological trend/terminology, 7, 1 6, 74- 108 gNubs Sangs rgyas ye shes. 28, 3 1 -2, 34, 36-39, 7 1 -

4, 87, 94-5, 98, 1 05 , 1 63 , 1 66-9, 1 7 1 , 1 73 -6 , 1 83 -4, 1 86-9 1 , 2 1 4, 226-7

gNyags Jfianakumara, 33-36, 37-8, 1 66, 1 82, /95-7

358

gNyug sems zur dpyad skor, 123n323 ' Gos 10 tsa ba gZhon nu dpal, 280n664 gotra (rigs). See spiritual affiliation gradualism, 22, 73, 223- 7, 259-61 griihya-griihaka (gzung 'dzin). See dualism Great Perfection. See rDzogs chen Gro lung pa Blo gros 'byung gnas, 42 ground (iilaya, gzhi),

abiding vs. intellectual, 6n4, 204-5 as buddha nature, 1 69-78 (See * bodhigarbha) common ground (spyi gzhi), 1 80-4 disclosive and developmental models, 138-43 error, relation to, 195-203 freedom and errancy, of. See ground of � gnoseological interpretations, 1 64-66 nine views of (gNubs), 1 67-8 ontological interpretations (suchness), 1 66-9 problem of the (rDzogs chen), chs. 4-5 productive vs. invariant grounds, 1 40- 1 seven (or six) grounds (sNying thig), 205-9 soteriological interpretations, 1 6 1 -3 stratigraphy of ground conceptions, 1 94 terminology, 1 3 8-9 typology in early rDzogs chen, 1 64-78 vs. all-ground, chs. 4-5, 1 79-80 See also iilayavijniina; all-ground

ground-manifestation (gzhi snang), 9, 67, 202, 2 1 5 ground o f error/errancy Ckhrul gzhi), 7 , 1 37, 1 79-

80, 2 1 0, 2 1 5 ground o f freedom (grol gzhi), 7, 1 37, 1 39, 1 79-80,

2 13-15 Grub mtha ' bstan pa 'i sgron me, 22 1 n553 Grub mtha ' mdzod, 1 8n 14, 46, 50, 77nI 9 1 , 90- 1

n236, 1 25 , 1 27n33 1 , 1 93 , 22 1n553 , 230n57 1 , 241 -4, 268n638

gSang ba bde ba'i 'grel pa, 34 gSang ba spyod pa sa bon gyi rgyud, 22 1 n553 gSang phu monastery, 39n89, 4 1 -4n90 gTer rna (treasure texts), 28n38 gTsug lag 'phreng ba, 97n257, 1 24n326, 1 25n328 * Guhyagarbhatantra, 1 6, 1 8, 34, 43 , 48, 1 70- 1 ,

1 73 -4, 1 76, 1 9 1 , 272 Guhyamantrayana See MantrayanalVajrayana Guhyasamiijatantra, 1 62n4 1 4 Gung thang dKon mchog bstan pa'i sgron me, 1 54-5 g.Yo[n] ru, 39n88 g.Yu sgra snying po, 3 1 , 33 gZhan phan mTha' yas 'od zer, 78n I93 , 99n267,

25 1 n604, 255-6nn6 1 3- 1 6 gzhi (iilaya). See ground gZhi snang ye shes sgron ma, 80 gZhon nu bsam gtan. See bTsan dgon pa gZhon nu don grub, 43n 1 0 1 gZhon n u dpal. See 'Gos 1 0 tsli ba gZhon nu rdo rje, 42n98 gZhon nu rgyal po. See Kumaradza

gZhon nu rin chen, 42n97 gzung 'dzin. See dualism

Hadot, Pierre, 6n4, Heidegger, Martin, 2 1 7n550 Heshang Mohoyen, 33, 7 1 Hevajratantra, 247 Hlnaylina, 1 0, 23 , 220, 220n553 , 235 , 237-8, 249

ignorance (avidyii, ma rigpa), passim; asymmetrical relation to rig pa, 68-70 mind, association with, 53, 57, 62-3 , 65-70 rDzogs chen interpretation, 65- 70, 82-5, 1 20,

1 25 , 1 30 , 1 74-5 , 1 95 , 1 99, 209, 27 1 -2, 296, 3 00-5, 324-6

sNying thig three-fold ignorance, 66-8 sNying thig vs. Abhidharma views, 68-70 two kinds of ignorance, 65-6n1 56, 1 98

inclusivism, 21n20, 239, 249 indivisibililty (dbyer med, 'du bral med), of:

appearance and emptiness, 1 09, 1 1 1 -2, 268 expanse (dbyings) and ye shes, 268 ka dag and lhun grub, 1 02, 1 1 4, 202, 207-9 kiiyas andjniinas, 1 3 7 lucidity (gsal ba) and emptiness, 1 06, 1 1 4 minds of budd has and sentient beings, 1 8 1 -4 the two truths, 1 02, I I I n297

insight, discerning (prajnii, shes rab), 5n3 , 66, 68 , 1 25n330, 2 1 7n55 1 , 23 5n5 8 1 ,

, Jam dbyangs bZhad pa' i rdo rje, 1 54

'Jam dpal bshes gnyen. See Mafijusrlmitra Jinamiirgiivatiira, 2 1 8-9n5 5 1 jniina (ye shes). See primordial knowing Jo nang tradition, 1 5 1 n377

ka dag. See original purity Kiilacakratantra, 25, 40, 270- l n639 KamalasIla, 7 1 , 1 1 3 Karma Mi pham mgon po, 25 1 kaya (sku, embodiment), passim; See dharmakaya Khri srong Ide btsan, 3 1 , 33 Khregs chod (Breakthrough), 1 9n1 7, 20 , 85 , 1 00 'khrul gzhi. See ground of error/errancy 'khrul pa (bhriinti). See error/errancy Khu Byang chub 'od, 34 Khuddanikaya, 2 1 8n55 1 Khyung chen lding ba, 23-4 klesa (nyon mongs). See emotions klilftamanas. See defiled ego-mind Klong chen pa,

359

Bhutan, exile in, 48-9 biography of, 39-49 distinctions, work on, 1 7-20 epithets of, 4 1 n9 1 , 49n 1 3 teachings received by, 40-5 works of, 1 4, 1 7n 1 1 , 1 8nn1 2

Klong drug pa 'i rgyud, 78n1 96, 1 37, 208, 300n733 Klong sde (Space Genre), 1 6, 2 1 -2, 44, 47, 1 94 knowledge, problem of (rDzogs chen), chs. 2-3 Kumaradza (Kumararaja) , 19n15, 27n36, 44-5, 265 Kun byed rgyal po, 1 8 , 29-30, 77-8nI 9 1 , 99n266,

254-5, Kun byed rgyal po 'gre!, 78n 1 93 , 99n267, 25 1n604,

255-6nn6 1 3 - 1 6 Kun 'dus rig pa, 78

Lak�at:Jayana (mtshan nyid kyi thegpa, Vehicle of Characterstics), 4 1 , l l On296, 223 , 228, 23 1 -3 , 237, 242-4, 247, 249, 255, 259

lam (miirga). See path Lam 'bras (Path and Fruition) system, 40 Lam rim (Stages of the Path genre), 2 1 7-224

gSar rna path literature, 42, 232-40 hallmarks of Lam rim genre, 2 1 8n552 Indo-Tibetan path summaries, 2 1 7n55 1 related genres (Blo sbyong etc.), 2 1 7n55 1 rNying rna path literature, 42, 229-32, 240-49

Lam rim chen mo, 42, 220, 235-9 Lam rim thar rgyan, 1 0, 1 6 1 n409, 235, 237n538 Lankiivatiirasutra, 1 47-9n364, 1 85 , 222n553 latent tendencies (viisanii, bag chags), 53 , 56, 6 1 -3 ,

65 , 1 1 8 , 1 34, 1 44-5, 1 56-8, 1 8 1 , 1 85 , 1 92, 1 94, 2 1 0- 1 1 , 246, 248, 273-6, 28 1 , 287, 298-9, 302, 3 04, 3 06-7, 3 1 0, 324, 326, 328

ICe btsun Seng ge dbang phyug, 26nn33 -4, 161 n4 1 0 lOan rna Ihun rgyal, 44 levels (bhumi, sa) , 42, 1 76, 252, 254, 260-2, 28 1 Lha ring brag, 44 lhun grub. See spontaneity ITa ba 'i khyad par, 156-9 luminosity (prabhiisvara, 'od gsa!),

dying, presence during, 56, 60 ground (gzhi) , aspect .of, 1 6 1 , 1 65 , 202, 243 , 248 hallmark of sentience (idealism), as,89-90 nature ofthings ( 'od gsal ba 'i chos nyid), 1 24 Mahayoga interpretations, 94-5, 1 77 mind (prabhiisvaracitta), and, 86, 141-2nn350-1 Pali Canon, reference, 1 4 1 path o f ( 'od gsal kyi lam), 253 PramiifJaviirttika [ 1 .208ab] , reference, 276 primordial knowing, of/as, 1 06, 232, 275 rDzogs chen interpretations, 1 22, 1 86, 270 Sems sde interpretations, 1 65-6, 1 89, 1 9 1 synonyms of, 270

ma rig pa (avidyii). See ignorance Madhyamaka

*Prasangika-o , 42, 107- 1 13 * Svatantrika-o, 1 09n294, 1 1 3 , 22 1 n553

Madhyamakiilaf!1kiira, 89n234 Madhyamakiivatiira (and bhii$Ya), 1 8 , 88n228,

1 0 8n290, 280n66 1 , 282, 3 06

Madhyamikas, 35-6, 93 , 1 26, Madhyiintavibhaga (and tfkii) , 1 52-3n3 85 Mahamudra (phyag rgya chen po, Great Seal),

1 9n 1 7, 57n 1 33 , 75, 1 22n323, l 3 5 , 159-60n409, 235, 237, 25 1 , 279n660

Mahapadanasutta, 236n5 8 1 MahaparinirviifJasutra, 260 Mahaprajnaparamitasastra, 276n653 Mahasarpghika, 1 42n353 Mahasiddhas, 76, 230, 235 Mahayana. See Lak.$afJayiina; Piiramita-o ; vehicle Mahayanabhidharmasutra, 1 48n368 , 270n639 Mahiiyanapathakrama, 2 1 8-8n55 1 Mahayanasaf!1graha (and bha$Ya), 23n23 , 1 4 8n368,

1 5 1 n374, 1 53 , 2 1 1 Mahayanasutralaf!1kiira, 25, 205n529, 270- l n639 Mahayoga (mal 'byor chen po) tradition/system, 1 6,

32, 34-5, 38 , 7 1 -2, 77, 83 , 93-5, 1 00, 1 05 , 1 3 8, 1 5 1 , 1 56, 1 60, 1 7 1 , 1 83 , 1 94

Maitreya-Asanga, 42, 236n5 8 1 , 1 44, 1 50- 1 , 1 53 , 1 59

Maitrlpada alias Advayavajra etc. , 233n577 Majjhimanikaya, 87n226 Man ngag mdzod, 46 Man ngag sde (Esoteric Guidance Genre), 1 4, 1 9,

2 1 , 28, 30, 32, 44, 47, 1 60, 252; See sNying thig manas (yid). See ego-mind mafJQala (dkyil 'khor), 56, 59, 1 87, 202, 243 Mafijusrlmitra ( 'Jam dpal bshes gnyen), 1 6, 84, 167 Manjusrfniimasaf!1gfti, 27 1 n639, 279n659 mantra (gsang sngags). See MantrayanalVajrayana MantrayanalVajrayana, 20, 36, 43 -4, 1 1 O- l l n296,

1 47, 223-4, 228, 23 1 -3 , 235-9, 242-50, 255 , 259 Mar pa Chos kyi dbang phyug, 1 6 1 n409 Mayajala (sGyu 'phrul drwa ba), 1 6, 1 8 , 35 , 38 ,

1 7 1 , 1 76 mChims phu (hermitage), 40, 49 mdzod bdun. See Seven Treasuries mGos khug pa Iha btsas, 3 8n85 Mi bskyod rdo rje (Karmapa VIII), 209-13 Mi la ras pa, 1 6 1 n409, 233n577, 23 5-7n583 Mi pham rNyam rgyal rgya mtsho, 87, 90-2,

l l On296, 1 23n323 Middle Way. See Madhyamaka mind (citta, sems),

360

cessation of, 20, 1 2 1 n3 1 6, 1 22n320, 1 46 characteristics of, 53-6 collapse of (in Khregs chod), 85n2 1 8 dual structure of, 63-5, 89 locus and genesis of, 57-8n l 3 5 , 64-5 obstacle and obscuration, as, 6 1 path(s) o f mind (sems kyi lam), 8, 2 1 -2 , 223 sNying thig typology of, 80-2 synonyms of, 76-7 See also Mind as such (sems nyid)

Mind as such (sems nyid), definition of, 75-6 expression (rtsaf) of rig pa, as, 78, 84 provenance of term, 76-7 rDzogs chen interpretations of, 75-82 sNying thig typology of, 80-2 ten-fold sNying thig classification, 78 vanishing point of mind, as, 80 vs. mind, 80-82

mind/Mind as such distinction, 78-2, 1 1 7-9, 306-7 mind/primordial knowing distinction, passim;

characteristics of, 4, 53-6 clarifications of, 6 1 -2, 1 1 7-9, 306-7 doctrinal background, 4-5, 9- 1 0, 14-22, 30 j ustification of, ch. 3 scope of, 54-5, 74 uniqueness of sNying thig distinction, 55 , 57

mKha ' 'gro snying tig, 45n l 05 mKha ' 'gro yang tig, 45, 48, 1 52, 1 99-203 mKhas pa Nyi rna 'bum, 1 5 , 27, 67, 204n525, 206,

207, 296 mok:jalmukti (grol ba). See freedom monastic rules (priitimok:ja, so sor thar pa), 249 Mu tigphreng ba, 1 04n280, 1 06-7n289, 128 , 2 1 6n

547, 298-3 00nn725-32, 303-6 Mulamadhyamakakiirikii, 64, 1 3 1 , 276n653 Mun pa 'i go cha, 28n40, 3 8-9n85, 1 63n4 1 6, 1 83 -4

189-91 Mun sel skor gsum, 47-8 Myang Ting nge 'dzin, 27n34, 32-3n6 1

Nagarjuna, 1 8, 42, 64, 107- 113, 1 3 1 , 1 83 , 209, 277 Nam mkha ' che (=Mi nub rgyal mtshan), 1 72n450 Nam mkha ' klong yangs kyi rgyud, 25-6, 256-7n6 1 7 Nam mkha ' mnyam pa ' i rgyud, 26 Nam mkha ' i mtha ' dang mnyam pa 'i rgyud, 99n264 Nam mkha 'i rgyal po, 78 NaropaINac;!apada, 4 1 , 235 negation (prati:jedha, dgag pa), 69n 1 64, 1 3 1 , 3 06

non-affirming (prasajya-o , meg dgag), 123n323 Ngag dbang B lo bzang rgya mtsho (Dalai Lama V),

57n1 34, 1 07n289 Ngal gso skor gsum, 47, 264-5n628 and 63 1 nges pa lnga. See five definites Ngo sprod bdun ma' i 'grel pa, 1 23n323 Nietzsche, Friedrich, 205n529 nihilism, See extremes of eternalism and nihilism nine vehicles (rDzogs chen) . See vehicles nine views of rDzogs chen (gNubs). See views ninth consciousness (rnam par shes pa dgu pa),

1 86-7n49 1 , 1 8 8 ninth ground (gzhi dgu pa), 1 86-7n49 1 nirodhasamiipatti ( 'gog pa 'i snyoms par 'jug pa,

state of cessation), 272n643 nirvii(la (my a ngan las 'das pa), passim

ni:jprapanca (spros bral, free from elaboration), 53 , 56, 60, 70-4, 109-13 , 1 26, 233 , 270, 277, 282, 299n727, 307, 328; See also prapanca

nityatii (rtagpa, permanence), 1 55 ; See extremes nonconceptuality (nirvikalpa, mi rtog pa), 71-4

four Tibetan systems of (gNubs chen), 7 1 -2 Northern Treasure tradition (byang gter), 29 Nyang ral Nyi rna 'od zer, 37, 1 4-5n6, 3 8n85 Nyiiyabindutfkii, 88n23 1

'od gsal (prabhiisvara). See luminosity open awareness (vidyii, rig pa), passim;

basis ofKhregs chod and Thod rgal, as, 85 provenance ofterm rig pa, 82-3 rDzogs chen interpretations, 1 6, 53-62, 82-85 rig pa byang chub kyi sems, 83 , 1 65 vs. ignorance, 68-70, 83-4

original purity (ka dag), 1 9n 17, 82, 85 , 1 00, 1 06, 1 23n323 , 205n530, 207-8, 2 10- 1 1 , 324

Other Emptiness tradition (gzhan stong), 57 Own Emptiness tradition (rang stong), 57

Padma las 'brei rtsal, 45n I 05 Padmasambhava, 8, 32-3, 3 7-40, 45, 97, 232, 254 Pa(l sgrub rnams kyi thugs bcud snying gi nyi ma,

29n42, 77nl 92 Pat'amartha, 1 49, 152-3 Paramitayana (pha rol tu phyin pa 'i theg pa, Vehicle

of Perfections), 223, 238-9, 241 path (miirga, lam),

definition of, 232, 254 five paths (lam lnga) (Mahayana), 255n6 1 1 path of awakening (bodhimiirga), 8, 98, 232, 254 path without progression, 34, ch. 7 problem ofthe path, chs. 6- 7 rDzogs chen conceptions of, 1 7, 34, ch. 7 rNying rna path hermeneutics, ch. 6 sutric and tantric models, 8, ch. 6 three paths (Ita sgom spyod), 255n6 1 1 See also vehicle

Patisa/J1bhidiimagga, 2 1 8n55 1 perfection(s) (piiramitii, pha rol tu phyin pa), 23 8 periodization of Tibetan history, 5n2 perspectivism, 205n529 pervasion/entailment (vyiipti, khyab pa), 69, 83 , 1 26,

1 3 1 -2, 306 Phag mo gru pa, 48n1 08, 280n664 'Phrul gyi me long, 34, 1 66, 1 82nn475-6

phun sum tshogs lnga (five exquisite qualities) . See five definites

Phya pa Chos kyi seng ge, 4 1 -2n94 Phyag chen gan mdzod, 123n323 Phyag rgya chen po. See Mahamudra Phyogs bcu 'i mun sel, 1 77n468, 273n644 pollution (sa/J1klda : kun nas nyon mongs), 1 47,

1 59n407, 1 80, 1 89-90

361

prabhasvaracitta[ti1] ( 'od gsal ba 'i sems [�idJ), See luminosity

prajfti1 (shes rab) . See insight Prajfiaparamita (literature, tradition, etc.), 42n98,

237, 278, Prajni1pi1ramiti1pil;rji1rthapradfpa, 282n668 Prajni1pi1ramiti1ratnagUl;sarrzcayagi1thi1, 273n646 Prajni1pi1ramiti1stotra, 278n657 prami1l)a (tshad ma, valid epistemic instrument), 7 1 Pramfu)avadalvadin, 1 8 , 35 , 1 26 Prami1l)avi1rttika, 276 Prami1l)aviniscaya, 1 8 , 88n23 1 prapanca (spros pa, elaboration), 53 , 56, 63, 70-4

See also ni$prapanca *PrasaiJ.gika See under Madhyamaka Prasannapadi1, 305 pratyekabuddha(s), 93 , 239, 253 primordial knowing (jni1na, ye shes), passim;

expression (rtsal) of rig pa, as, 78, 84 cessation ofjni1na doctrine, 122-8 characteristics of, 53-57 classification of,

five-fold (Mantrayana), 26, 1 03 -4n28 1 , 1 06n 287, 125n328, 1 30, 308, 327, 298n725

five-fold (Sems sde), 1 02n275 four-fold (Indian Buddhist), 125n328 ten-fold (sNying thig), 1 02-3 three-fold (rDzogs chen), 1 04-6 twenty-five fold (sNying thig) , 1 06n283 two-fold (Indian Buddhist), 1 06n284

definition and meanings of ye shes, 62, 96-8 locus and genesis of, 59 nonconceptual (nirvikalpajni1na), 1 5 1 -2, 1 58-9 path of (ye shes kyi lam), 8, 224, 232, 253, 257-9,

26 1 -2 rDzogs chen interpretations of, 95-106

Sems sde interpretations, 97-9 sNying thig interpretations, 1 00- 1 06

rang byung ye shes (svayarrzbhiljni1na), 26, 86, 92, 93-4, 97-9, 1 65 , 1 66

so sor rang rig pa 'i ye shes (pratyi1tmaveditavyal pratyi1tmavedanfya), 86-8, 92, 1 08

Tibetan renderings ofjni1na, 96, 1 24 purification (vyavadi1na : rnam par byang ba), 1 47,

1 59n407, 1 80, 1 89-90

Rang byung rdo rj e (Karmapa III), 1 9n 1 5, 25, 4 1 , 1 5 1 , 1 63nn4 1 6-7, 1 78 , 2 1 2, 27 1n639

Rang byung ye shes chen po, 86n22 1 Rang grol skor gsum, 47 rang rig (svasarrzvedal)a). See self-awareness Ral pa can, 32 Ratnagotravibhaga, 1 8, 23n23, 88 , 1 4 1 -2n355,

1 48n368 , 1 50, 1 63n4 1 7, 1 69, 1 72n45 1 , 2 1 2 n539, 270-5, 283

Ratnakarasanti, 1 1 8n309

Ratnamati, 1 52 rDza dPal sprul Rin po che, 34, 5 1 , 22 1 , 324 rdzogs rim (ni$pannakramalutpannakrama, com-

pletion phase), 27, 244, 247, 324 Reality, nature of (dharmati1, chos nyid), 8, 42, 77n

1 90, 83, 1 20, 1 24, 1 39, 1 5 1 , 1 54, 1 64-9, 245, 278, 308, 324-6; See also suchness; thatness

rDzogs chen (Great Perfection), passim; 1 4, 2 1 -2 , 28-9, 22 1 n553 , 25 1-2, 325 ; See also Sems sde; Klong-o ; Man ngag-o ; sNying thig

rDzogs pa chen po 'i khrid yig Rigs 'dzin zhal lung, 57n 1 34, 1 07n289

reconciliation, problem of, 8 , ch. 6 reification, rDzogs chen analysis of, 70-4 rGod kyi Idem 'phru can, 1 4n6, 1 6n 1 0, 29 rGod tshang pa, 40 rGyal ba Rang byung rdo rje la phul ba 'i dri yig,

270- 1 n639 rig pa (vidyi1). See open awareness Rig pa bsdus pa 'i sgron ma, 75, 1 04n28 1 Rigpa rang shar, 1 1 9-20, 297, 299, 3 02-3, 305 ,

309, 327 Rigpa 'i khu byug, 72nI 75, 77n I 92, 83n207,

93n243 , 1 1 2n299, 1 67 rigs (gotra). See spiritual affiliation Rin chen bzang po, 23 1 , 233n577, 237n5 82 rMad du byung ba, 1 65n423, 1 86n487 rNam shes ye shes 'byedpa 'i bstan bcos, 25 rNam thar mthong ba don ldan, 39n88 rNgog Legs pa' i shes rab, 40 rNgog 10 tsa ba Blo Idan shes rab, 42n95 rNying rna (Ancient Ones), passim; 4, 2 1 , 27, 30 ,

36, 39, 47-8, 1 78, 2 1 9, 225, 229-30, 250- 1 , 263 rNying ma rgyud 'bum, 1 5 , 43, 1 56, 1 90 Rog Bande Shes rab 'od, 28, 43 , 197-9, 23 1 n570,

243 Rong zorn Chos kyi bzang po, 29, 32, 43 , 73 , 86, 92,

1 7 1 -4, 184-6, 2 1 4, 230, 253, 258 rTse mo byung rgya// 'grel, 39, 1 74, 1 86-8nn488-9 1

and 494-6

Sa skya paJ).gitaiSa pal), 22, 7 1 , 1 59-60, 1 6 1 n409, 234n577, 250-5 1

Sakaravadins/Satyakaravadins, 3 5 , 9 1 Sakyamuni, historical Buddha, 1 23 , 20 1 , 238 , 267 sami1dhi (ting nge 'dzin, absorption), 42, 72n I 76,

80, 82, 1 58 , 2 1 8n55 1 , 248, 253 Sami1dhiri1jasiltra, 1 57 Samantabhadra (Kun tu bzang po, All Good) , 1 1 2-3 ,

1 87, 252, 324 samaya. See vows Sarrzdhinirmocana, 1 54 sarrzsi1ra ( 'khor ba), passim sangs rgyas (buddha, buddha[hood]) ,

362

rDzogs chen intepretation of, 60, 123n323, 1 33 -4, 307-8

Sangs rgyas dpal rin, 49 Sangs rgyas gling pa, 1 6n l 0 Santarak�ita, 3 3 , 89n234, 90, 92, 1 1 3 , 1 70 Santideva, 42, 89-90, 1 08 Saraha, 77, 1 6 1 n409, 23 3n577 satkiiyadr:fti (personalistic false views), 65n i 56 Satyadvayavibhmiga, 1 1 8n308, 274n649 Sautrantika, 23n23, 1 40-2n3 54, 1 44-5, 1 48n368,

22 1 n553 sBas pa 'i rgum chung, 1 63 -4nn4 1 9-2 1 , 1 65n427 sDom gsum rab dbye, 1 60n409, 25 1 n605 self-awareness (svasal!lvedana, rang rig),

Mahayoga/Sems sde interpretations, 36n7 1 , 86n220, 94-5, 1 74-5

*Pramal)avada interpretations, 88-9 rDzogs chen critique of svasal!lvedana, 90-2, 93 rDzogs chen interpretations, 86- 7, 92-3 two Indian Buddhist interpretations of, 89-90 Y ogacara interpretations, 88 See also ye shes : so sor rang rig pa 'i ye shes

sems (citta). See mind sems nyid. See Mind as such. Sems nyid bsdus pa 'i sgron ma, 75, 1 55 Sems nyid ngal gso/ 'grel, 9- 1 0, 1 8, 42, 47, 75, 1 2 1 -

2n3 1 9, 220, 228n567, 229-32, 245-6, 260- 1 , 264-5, 266-7n636

Sems sde ( Mind Genre), 28, 3 1 -4, 38 , 43-4, 47 , 73 , 77-8, 92, 97- 1 00, 1 3 8, 1 5 1 , 1 65 , 1 7 1 , 1 83 , 1 85 -6, 1 94, 254, 257

Sems ye dris lan, 9 , 1 8n 14, 1 2 1 , 1 75 , 263-294 Seng ge rtsal rdzogs, 85n2 1 9 seven grounds (sNying thig) . See ground seven transmissions (babs bdun), 29n44 Seven Treasuries (mdzod bdun), 46-7 seventeen sNying thig tantras, 9 , 1 4-5nn6-8, 1 9, 29,

3 3 , 44-5, 47, 57, 63 , 1 00, 1 04, 296 sGam po pa, 1 60-1n409, 220, 233-5n57, 237n538 sGra thai 'gyur, 65n1 54, 7 1 , 1 00- 1 n27 1 , 1 04-6, 205

n528 , 207, 297 sGron ma dgu skor (Vimalamitra), 75 sGron ma drug (dPal dbyangs), 77n 1 9 1 , 86n220 sGyu ma ngal gso/'grel, 47, 272n644, 276n653 sGyu 'phrul drwa ba. See Miiyiijiila Sik:jiisamucaya, 2 1 8n55 1 six consciousnesses (vijfiiina, rnam shes), 1 44-5, 1 90,

2 12, 327 six perfections. See perfections six seminaries (chos grva chen po drug), 39n89 six super-knowledges (abhijfiii, mngon par shes pa),

2 8 1 n665 sKa ba dPal brtsegs, 1 62n4 1 3 skandha (phung po). See aggregates sNgags rnying ma 'i rtsod spong 'Bri khung dpal

'dzin gyi brtsod lan, 3 0n5 1

. sNying thig (Heart Essence) system, passim; doxogl'aphical systems, 22 1 n553 key figures in, 1 1 history of, 1 6, 26-31 tradition/system, 5 , 1 4, 1 6, 1 9, 27, 28-9, 32 , 44-8,

57, 1 98, 264n63 1 , 295, 322 See also Man ngag sde; tantra

sNying thig ya bzhi, 45 Sog po dPal gyi ye shes, 34, 37-8, 1 84n479 Sog zlog pa Blo gros rgyal mtshan, 209 - 1 1 spiritual affiliation (gotra, rigs), 1 22, 1 57, 27 spiritual exercises (exercitia spiritua/ia), 6n4 spontaneity (lhun grub),

Mahayoga/Sems sde interpretations, 28, 34-5, 72-4, 1 6 1 , 1 66, 1 68 , 255

sNying thig interpretations, 1 9n 17 , 2 1 , 47nl 07, 8 1 , 85 , 98-9, 1 00-4, 1 06, 1 1 1 , 1 1 3 , 20 1 , 204-8, 2 1 4

Spros bral don gsa!, 1 5n6, 257n6 1 9 Spyi gsang sngags lung gi 'grel pa, 34 sravaka(s), 2 1 , 1 44, 239, 253 Sriivakabhumi, 23n23 , 142 Sravakayan� 2 1 , 1 49n370, 22 1 n553 Srfmiili'idevfsil!lhani'ida, 1 49, 27 4n64 7 Srlsirpha (dPal gyi seng ge), 1 6, 1 67, 1 8 1 -2n474 Srog gi 'khor 10, 1 65-6nn424-5, 1 66n425, 1 70n44 1 ,

1 72n450 Sthiramati, 1 5 1 , 1 53 -4 sTod 'brug (Upper 'Brug pa bKa' rgyud), 40, 1 40,

1 23n323 subitism, 73 , 224, 227 suchness (tathatii, de bzhin nyid, the way things

really are), 72, 74, 93-4, 98, 1 13, 1 52, 1 66-8, 1 73 , 1 77-8, 2 1 1 , 270, 273 , 280, 282

* sugatagarbha (bde bar gshegs pa 'i snying po, quintessence of the Sugata), 62, 1 70-1 , 1 74, 1 76-7, 245-8, 272-3 , 324

sunyatii (stong pa nyid). See emptiness superimposition(s) (samiiropa, sgro 'dogs), 70-5,

1 1 0, 1 1 3 , 1 25, 232, 262, 268, 299n726 supramundane citta/jfiiina, 1 50- lnn374-5 Sutrasamuccaya, 2 1 8,n5 5 1 , 23 6n5 8 1 svasal!lvedalJa/o-vitti. See self-awareness Syiidvi'idamafijarf, 205n527

Ta' i si tu Byang chub rgyal mtshan, 4 1 n92, 48n l 08, tantra (rgyud), passim;

363

definition, 1 62nn4 1 1 and 4 1 4 four classes o f gSar rna, 43 ground, path and goal, as, 1 62nn4 1 1 and 4 1 4 three genres of rDzogs chen (sde gsum), 3 1n52,

44, 47; See Sems sde; Klong-o; Man ngag-o Yoganiruttara, 25, 43, 1 5 1

Tarkajvala, 88n227 tathagatagarbhalTathagatagarbha (de bzhin gshegs

pa 'i snying po, buddha nature), 7- 1 0, 20, 50, 62, 79-80, 96, 1 1 8 , 1 3 7-8, 1 4 1 -3 , 1 46-50, 1 55, 1 56-9, 169- 74, 1 78 , 1 79, 27 1 , 273 -5

Tathagatagarbhasutra, 1 85 tathata (de bzhin nyid). See suchness Temple ofthe Hat (zhwa 'i lha khang), 26-7n34, 32-

3 , 44 ten powers (dbang : vasita), 283n673 ten strengths (bala, stobs), 283n670 Thar pa gling monastery (Bum thang), 48 thatness (tathata, de nyidlde kho na nyid), 1 50 Theg lnchog mdzod, 9, 24, 46, 59, 79-82, 1 04, 1 09,

1 1 8-9, 1 27-34, 205-7, 245, 296-322 Theg pa chen po 'i tshul 'jug, 1 84-6nn482-4, 1 94,

1 72n448 and 450, theory and practice, on relationship between, 5n3 Theravada, 1 42n353 , 2 1 8n55 1 , 236n58 1 Thig Ie kun gsal, 1 5n6 thirteen later translations (Sems sde), 32, 39 thod rgal ( 'Leap-over, ' ' mixed order') ,

disambiguation, 226n564 sNying thig teaching on, 1 9n 1 7, 20, 85, 1 00 'non-sequential, ' 226, 260

Thod rgal gyi rgyab yig nyi zla gza ' skar, 66n 1 59 three adamantine precepts (rdo rje 'i tshig gsum), 84 three genres (sde gsum) ofrDzogs chen. See tantra three natures (svabhava, ngo bo nyid), 20, 23n23 three prajiia (Indian Buddhist) . See insight three realms (dhatu, khams), 64, 7 1 three turnings (of dharmacakra), 1 8 , 1 22-3, 266-8 three ye shes. See primordial knowing three yogas (gNubs), 1 63n4 1 6, I 83n477 three yogaslmargas (Mantrayana), 255n6 1 1 , 261 Thub bstan Chos kyi grags pa, 89 Thugs kyi me long, 1 1 9, 307 thugs rje. See compassionate responsiveness Tilopa, 1 6 1 n409 timira (rab rib, myodesopsia, floaters), 1 2 1 n3 1 8 transcendental arguments, 129-135n335 transformation of basis (asrayaparavrttil" -parivrtti,

gnas 'gyur), 20, 23-6, 1 30, 1 3 8, 1 42-3 , 1 46, 1 5 1 , 1 52-4, 1 83 , 250, 2 8 1, 308

Tril'(lsika (and bhasya) 1 4 8n368, 1 5 1 , 2 1 1 , 270n639 trisvabhava (ngo bo nyid gsum). See three natures Tshig don bcu gcigpa, 1 5n9, 1 9n 1 5 , 27, 65n1 55,

66-7, 204nn526-7 Tshig don mdzod, 1 5n9, 46, 5 1 , 62n1 46, 67n 1 62,

1 94, 205 -7n527, 296 Tshul khrims rdo rje. See Padma las 'breI rtsal Tsong kha pa, 42, 90, 1 54-5 , 220, 229, 235-40, 249 two truths, 1 8, 107-1 15, 1 26n3 3 0

Vaibha�ika, 23n23 , 1 42n353-4, 1 44 Vairocana (person), 1 4-5n6, 1 6nl0, 29, 3 1 , 33

Vairocana (deity), 1 1 2n299 VajrakllaIVajrakflaya tradition, 34, 3 5 Vaj rayana See MantrayanalVaj rayana vasana (bag chags). See latent tendencies Vasubandhu, 42, 1 44, 236n5 8 1 Vatsfputrfya tradition, 1 42n353 vehicle(s) (yana, theg pa),

classifications of ( l to 1 6-fold), 221n553 nine vehicles (rDzogs chen), 30 , 22 1 n553 , 25 1 problem of reconcil ing, ch. 6 rDzogs chen as vehicle, question, 22, 25 1 -2 rNying rna classification of, 20-22 vehicle of Characteristics. See *Lak�al)ayana vehicle of Mantra See MantrayanalVajrayana vehicle of Perfections. See Paramitayana See also path;

Vibhajyavada tradition, 1 42n353 vidya (rig pa). See open awareness view(s) (drstildarsana, Ita ba),

four views of reality (gNyags), 3 5-6 nine rDzogs chen views (gNubs), 1 67-8 rDzogs chen view (Ita ba), 1 22, 264, 27 1 -2 rDzogs chen view(s) of ground, 1 97 two personalistic false views, 65n1 56 view that reveals abiding condition, 42

vijfiana (rnam par shes pa, consciousness). See six consciousnesses; eightfold cognitive ensemble; alaya-o ; amala-o ; ego-mind; defiled ego-mind; ninth consciousness

Vijfianavada, 1 42n353 . See Yogacara Vijfiaptimatra. See Yogacara vikalpa (rnam par rtog pa, conceptual) . See con­

ceptual/nonconceptual Vimalamitra, 1 5 - 1 6, 28-30, 3 1-33, 34, 3 8, 45, 54,

75, 92, 1 00, 1 55 -6 1 67 Vimuttimagga, 236n5 8 1 Viriipa, 233n577 Visuddhimagga, 2 1 8n55 I ; 236n5 8 1 vows (samaya, dam tshig),

four sNying thig, 4 7nl 07 twenty-five Mahayana, 47n 1 07 twenty-seven Vajrayana, 47n 1 07

W6nch'uk, 1 54

Xuanzang, 1 53

Yang dgon pa, rGyal ba, 57n 1 3 3 , 1 40 Yang tig skor gsum, 48 ye shes (jfiana). See primordial knowing Ye shes gsal bar ston pa 'i rgyud, 1 9 1 n505 Ye shes gsang ba bshadpa 'i rgyud, 1 62n4 1 1 Ye shes gsang ba 'i rgyud, 86n220 Ye shes mtsho rgyal, 45 Ye shes sde, 1 24n325, 1 52, /56-9 Ye shes sgron ma,

364

Yid bzhin mdzod/ 'grel, 9- 1 0, 42, 46, 90- I , 1 09-1 I , 1 77, 1 94, 220, 2 3 I , 245-8, 260

yoga (rnal 'byor), 257, 26 1 ; See also Mahayoga; Anu-o; Ati-o ; three yogas; four yogas

Yogacara, 7, 20, 23 , 25, 6 1 , 63 , 87-95, 1 05 , 1 3 7-59, 1 77-94, 203 , 209- 1 3

Yogacarabhumi, 65n1 56, 236n5 8 1 Y oganiruttaratantras. See tantra Yon tan mdzod/ 'grel, 9- 1 0, 204n527, 224, 249-50,

260, 323-336

Zab don gnad kyi me long, 47n107, 63n148, 74nl 80 Zab don rgya mtsho 'i sprin, 200n5 1 9, 20 1 -3nn52 1 -

4, 2 1 5n545, Zab don snyingpo, 64nnI 50- 1 , 1 33n341 Zab mo nang gi don/rang 'grel, 25, 1 5 1 , 1 63n4 1 5

and 4 1 7, 270- I n639 Zab mo yang tig, 45, 47n 1 07, 48, 63n148, 64nnI 50-

1 , 66n1 59, 74n1 80, 24 1n590 Zhal chen gsum, 49 Zhi byed system, 40 Zur tradition (zug lugs) (rNying rna), 209, 1 26n330

365