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IndexS.No Practical Date Remarks

1. Familiarization with computer hardware

2. Introduction with Network Computing

3. A. Peer to peer networking

B. Direct cable connection

4. Installation of LAN using various topologies

5. Familiarization with transmission media viz.coaxial cable, twisted pairs, optical fibernetworking, wireless networking, connectors etc.

6. Configuring Network Neighborhood

7. Sharing of resources with two connected nodes

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PRACTICAL NO: 1Familiarization with computer hardware.

Hardware (computer), equipment involved in the function of a computer. Computer hardware consists of thecomponents that can be physically handled. The function of these components is typically divided into three maincategories: input, output, and storage. Components in these categories connect to microprocessors, specifically,the computers central processing unit (CPU), the electronic circuitry that provides the computational ability andcontrol of the computer, via wires or circuitry called a bus.The main parts of a computer are the Power Supply, Access Slots, Motherboard, Hard Drive, CPU, RAM, CD-Rom, and Floppy Drive.First, let's look at two simple diagrams of the inside of a computer.

Quickly, you may recognize some parts of you computer just from these simple diagrams. The first diagram is of a tower computer, which currently is popular for the home PC. The second diagram is a desktop computer, whichnormally is used for space as you can easily place themonitor on top of it and have the whole computer compact in one easy spot.

POWER SUPPLY

The power supply is vital to the computer as it is the source of power. The power supply is usually a small metalbox in the top corner of a case (tower).

ACCESS SLOTS

Access slots or expansion slots are openings in a computer where a circuit board can be inserted to add newcapabilities to the computer. Examples of drives that may go here would be modems, USB drives, networkingcards, video adapters, and sound cards. These expansions are easy to install along with being very useful to your

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computer to allow you to do new things, such as network computers together.

MOTHERBOARD

The motherboard has been an integral part of most personal computers for more than 20 years. The motherboardcontains various circuit cards performing various functions all plug into many similar sockets on a commoncircuit board. Each circuit card performs a unique function in the computer and gets its power from the socket.

The motherboard contains many circuits and slots, but lets focuses on some of the important ones. Themotherboard is home to the processor (CPU) along with the access slots and RAM.

If we look at the diagram above I've labeled the parts of the motherboard that I wanted to discuss. The objectslabeled 1 are the access slots. 2 is the processor slot and 3 are slots to hold memory (RAM).

CPUThe CPU, or processor, is the heart of your computer no matter what type (PC, Server, and Laptop). There aremany brands for processors such as Intel and Athlon all with different Processors for your computer. The CPUprocesses everything that your computer does, therefore the better the processor, the faster the computer.

RAM

Random Access Memory (RAM) is the form of memory contained in most computers. RAM is considered"random access" because you can access any memory cell directly if you know the row and column that intersectat that cell. When an application is running it stores its information in the RAM. When you close the application

the information is deleted from the RAM. This is why you need certain amounts of RAM to run applications. Themore RAM you have the faster your computer will be, and the more applications you'll be able to run withoutlosing speed.

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HARD DRIVE

Nearly every desktop computer and server in use today contains one or more hard-disk drives. These hard disksdo one thing well - they store changing digital information in a relatively permanent form. They give computersthe ability to remember things when the power goes out.

A hard drive stores all your files and information in a permanent form unlike storing it in RAM (which istemporary). The larger your hard disk (drive) the more information and files youre able to store. Today' s average

hard drive is 40 GB although slowly 80 GB hard drives are becoming used more often.

CD-ROM

The CD-Rom is quite simple, it reads CD's. CD-Rom completely stands for Compact Disk Read Only Memory.The revolution of CD's is that they hold much more data than a floppy disk, although are not as flexible when itcomes to rewriting and storing personal data.

Using CD-RW you can make your own CD's and use them more like a floppy disk. These are becoming more andmore popular although you still need a CD-Rom to read them.

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FLOPPY DRIVE

A floppy drive reads the popular floppy disk. Floppy disks are easy to use, rewritable, compact, and great forstoring information. The floppy drive is simple and allows you to read, write to, and write over information storedon a floppy disk.

Now you have a basic knowledge of the parts of your own PC. In the future you'll be able to read more advancedarticles and have an understanding of the parts of a PC.

Apart from this computer peripherals also comprises of input and output devices:

INPUT DEVICESA hardware device that sends information into the CPU. Without any input devices a computer would simply be a display device and not allow users to interact with it,much like a TV.Below is a listing of different types of computer input devices.Digital cameraJoystick KeyboardMicrophone

MouseScannerWeb cam

OUTPUT DEVICEAny peripheral that receives and/or displays output from a computer. Below are some examples of different typesof output devices commonly found on a computer.

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Monitor

Printer

Projector

Sound card

Speakers

Video card

Networking Hardware

File ServersA file server stands at the heart of most networks. It is a very fast computer with a large amount of RAM andstorage space, along with a fast network interface card. The network operating system software resides on thiscomputer, along with any software applications and data files that need to be shared.The file server controls thecommunication of information between the nodes on a network. For example, it may be asked to send a wordprocessor program to one workstation, receive a database file from another workstation, and store an e-mailmessage during the same time period. This requires a computer that can store a lot of information and share itvery quickly. File servers should have at least the following characteristics:

* 800 megahertz or faster microprocessor (Pentium 3 or 4, G4 or G5)* A fast hard drive with at least 120 gigabytes of storage* A RAID (Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks) to preserve data after a disk casualty* A tape back-up unit (i.e. DAT, JAZ, Zip, or CD-RW drive)* Numerous expansion slots* Fast network interface card* At least of 512 MB of RAM

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WorkstationsAll of the user computers connected to a network are called workstations. A typical workstation is a computer thatis configured with a network interface card, networking software, and the appropriate cables. Workstations do notnecessarily need floppy disk drives because files can be saved on the file server. Almost any computer can serveas a network workstation.

Network Interface CardsThe network interface card (NIC) provides the physical connection between the network and the computerworkstation. Most NICs are internal, and they are included in the purchase of most computers. Network interfacecards are a major factor in determining the speed and performance of a network. It is a good idea to use the fastestnetwork card available for the type of workstation you are using. The most common network interfaceconnections are Ethernet cards (Local Talk connectors and Token Ring cards are seldom used in currentnetworks).

Ethernet CardsEthernet cards are usually purchased separately from a computer, although many computers (such as theMacintosh) now include an option for a pre-installed Ethernet card. Ethernet cards contain connections for eithercoaxial or twisted pair cables (or both) (See fig. 1). If it is designed for coaxial cable, the connection will be BNC.If it is designed for twisted pair, it will have a RJ-45 connection. Some Ethernet cards also contain an AUIconnector. This can be used to attach coaxial, twisted pair, or fiber optics cable to an Ethernet card. When thismethod is used there is always an external transceiver attached to the workstation.

Local Talk Connectors

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Local Talk is Apple's built-in solution for networking older Macintosh computers. It utilized a special adapter boxand a cable that plugged into the printer port of a Macintosh. A major disadvantage of Local Talk was that it isslow (only 230 Kbps) in comparison to Ethernet; therefore, it is rarely used in current networks.

Token Ring CardsToken Ring network cards look similar to Ethernet cards and were popular in IBM computers. They are seldomused with current networks.

SwitchesA concentrator is a device that provides a central connection point for cables from workstations, servers, andperipherals. In a star topology, twisted-pair wire is run from each workstation to a central switch/hub. Mostswitches are active, that is they electrically amplify the signal as it moves from one device to another. Switches nolonger broadcast network packets as hubs did in the past, they memorize addressing of computers and send theinformation to the correct location directly. Switches are:

* Usually configured with 8, 12, or 24 RJ-45 ports* Often used in a star or tree topology* Sold with specialized software for port management

* Also called hubs* Usually installed in a standardized metal rack that also may store net modems, bridges, or routers

HUB A hub is a networking device that receives its power from an ordinary wall outlet. A hub joins multiple computers(or other network devices) together to form a single network segment. On this network segment, all computerscan communicate directly with each other. Ethernet hubs are by far the most common type, but hubs for othertypes of networks such as USB also exist. A hub includes a series of ports that each accepts a network cable.Small hubs network four computers. They contain four or sometimes five ports, the fifth port being reserved for"uplink" connections to another hub or similar device. Larger hubs contain eight, 12, 16, and even 24 ports.

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Repeater Since a signal loses strength as it passes along a cable, it is often necessary to boost the signal with a device calleda repeater. The repeater electrically amplifies the signal it receives and rebroadcasts it. Repeaters can be separatedevices or they can be incorporated into a concentrator. They are used when the total length of your network cable exceeds the standards set for the type of cable being used.

A good example of the use of repeaters would be in a local area network using a star topology with unshieldedtwisted-pair cabling. The length limit for unshielded twisted-pair cable is 100 meters. The most commonconfiguration is for each workstation to be connected by twisted-pair cable to a multi-port active concentrator.

The concentrator amplifies all the signals that pass through it allowing for the total length of cable on the network to exceed the 100 meter limit.

BridgesA bridge is a device that allows you to segment a large network into two smaller, more efficient networks. If youare adding to an older wiring scheme and want the new network to be up-to-date, a bridge can connect the two. Abridge monitors the information traffic on both sides of the network so that it can pass packets of information tothe correct location. Most bridges can "listen" to the network and automatically figure out the address of eachcomputer on both sides of the bridge. The bridge can inspect each message and, if necessary, broadcast it on theother side of the network.

The bridge manages the traffic to maintain optimum performance on both sides of the network. You might saythat the bridge is like a traffic cop at a busy intersection during rush hour. It keeps information flowing on bothsides of the network, but it does not allow unnecessary traffic through. Bridges can be used to connect differenttypes of cabling, or physical topologies. They must, however, be used between networks with the same protocol.

Routers

A router translates information from one network to another; it is similar to a bridge. Routers select the best pathto route a message, based on the destination address and origin. The router can direct traffic to prevent head-oncollisions, and is smart enough to know when to direct traffic along back roads and shortcuts.

While bridges know the addresses of all computers on each side of the network, routers know the addresses of computers, bridges, and other routers on the network. Routers can even "listen" to the entire network to determinewhich sections are busiest -- they can then redirect data around those sections until they clear up.

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If you have a school LAN that you want to connect to the Internet, you will need to purchase a router. In this case,the router serves as the translator between the information on your LAN and the Internet. It also determines thebest route to send the data over the Internet. Routers can:

* Direct signal traffic efficiently* Route messages between any two protocols* Route messages between linear bus, star, and star-wired ring topologies* Route messages across fiber optic, coaxial, and twisted-pair cabling

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EXPERIMENT NO. 2

AIM: Introduction with Network Computing

Apparatus Required: Computer with the facility internet connection and networking

Theory:

1) LANLocal area networks, generally called LANs, are privately-owned networks within a single building or campus of up to a few kilometers in size. They are widely used to connect personal computers and workstations in companyoffices and factories to share resources (e.g., printers) and exchange information. LANs are restricted in size,which means that the worst-case transmission time is bounded and known in advance. Knowing this bound makesit possible to use certain kinds of designs that would not otherwise be possible. It also simplifies network management.

LANs may use a transmission technology consisting of a cable to which all the machines are attached, like thetelephone company party lines once used in rural areas. Traditional LANs run at speeds of 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps,have low delay (microseconds or nanoseconds), and make very few errors. Newer LANs operate at up to 10Gbps. we will adhere to tradition and measure line speeds in megabits/sec (1 Mbps is 1,000,000 bits/sec) andgigabits/sec (1Gbps is 1,000,000,000 bits/sec).

2) MANA metropolitan area network, or MAN, covers a city. The best-known example of a MAN is the cable televisionnetwork available in many cities. This system grew from earlier community antenna systems used in areas withpoor over-the-air television reception. In these early systems, a large antenna was placed on top of a nearby hilland signal was then piped t o the subscribers houses. At first, these were locally -designed, ad hoc systems. Thencompanies began jumping into the business, getting contracts from city governments to wire up an entire city. Thenext step was television programming and even entire channels designed for cable only. Often these channelswere highly specialized, such as all news, all sports, all cooking, all gardening, and so on. But from theirinception until the late 1990s, they were intended for television reception only.

3) WAN

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A wide area network, or WAN, spans a large geographical area, often a country or continent. It contains acollection of machines intended for running user (i.e., application) programs. We will follow traditional usage andcall these machines hosts. The hosts are connected by a communication subnet, or just subnet for short. The hostsare owned by the customers (e.g., peoples personal computers), whereas the communication subnet is typicallyowned and operated by a telephone company or Internet service provider. The job of the subnet is to carrymessages from host to host, just as the telephone system carries words from speaker to listener. Separation of thepure communication aspects of the network (the subnet) from the application aspects (the hosts), greatlysimplifies the complete network design. In most wide area networks, the subnet consists of two distinctcomponents: transmission lines and switching elements. Transmission lines move bits between machines. Theycan be made of copper wire, optical fiber, or even radio links. Switching elements are specialized computers thatconnect three or more transmission lines. When data arrive on an incoming line, the switching element mustchoose an outgoing line on which to forward them. These switching computers have been called by variousnames in the past; the name router is now most commonly used. Unfortunately, some people pronounce itrooter and others have it rhyme with doubter.

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4) INTERNETWORKA common form of internet is a collection of LANs connected by a WAN. In fact, if we were to replace the labelsubnet in Fig. 1 -9 by WAN, nothing else in the figure would have to change. The only real technicaldistinction between asubnet and a WAN in this case is whether hosts are present. If the system within the grayarea contains only routers, it is a subnet; if it contains both routers and hosts, it is a WAN. The real differencesrelate to ownership and use.

An internetwork is formed when distinct networks are interconnected. In our view, connecting a LAN and aWAN or connecting two LANs forms an internetwork, but there is little agreement in the industry overterminology in this area. One rule of thumb is that if different organizations paid to construct different parts of thenetwork and each maintains its part, we have an internetwork rather than a single network. Also, if the underlyingtechnology is different in different parts (e.g., broadcast versus point-to-point), we probably have two networks.RESULT: - Thus the complete study of network computing was carried out.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 3A

AIM: Peer to peer networking

Apparatus Required: NIC Card, Twisted pair or Coaxial Cable

Theory: Start by going to Control panel, open the Network Icon and click on the Identification tab.Make sure you give each computer a unique name.Chose a Workgroup name and use the same name on all computers.The computer description can be whatever you like.

Click on Access Control tab, enable Share-level access controlNext click the Configuration

Client for Microsoft Networks, if Client for NetWare is there also you can highlight it and click the removebutton, it is not needed.The picture shows a 3Com NIC you will see the name for whatever NIC you have. If there is no entry for youNIC then you have to trouble shoot the NIC installation. I always install both NetBEUI and IPX/SPX on a fresh

install, then once everything is working you can delete whichever protocol you don't use. However, if you aregoing to play IPX games then you may as well leave both because to share files you need NetBEUI and for gamesyou will need IPX.If anything is missing click the add button and add the appropriate protocol. When you add a protocol the network card will automatically create corresponding entries for itself.

Now highlight TCP/IP for your NIC like in the picture- then click the properties buttonSelect specify an IP address and enter the numbers exactly as they appear

On the second and third machines use the same numbers except increment the last digit for each machine.Example the second machine would be 192.168.0.2 and a third machine would be 192.168.0.3

The subnet Mask stays the same for all machines and in this example we are using 255.255.255.0Next click on DNS Configuration and Enable DNS see figure 7.For Host enter the name you gave this machine in the first step under the Identification tab. On the other machinesuse the unique name given to each machine from step oneEnter 192.168.0.1 into the field with the dots and click the add button. Use this same number for all machines inthe network.OK, you made it this far now open a DOS-Prompt window on the computer 192.168.0.1 and type ping192.168.0.2 and you should see data returned showing the ping time between the two computers. If you receivean error you need to go back and check all of the settings.RESULT: - Thus the peer to peer networking has established.

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Experiment:-3B

AIM: DIRECT CABLE CONNECTION

Apparatus Required: Twisted Pair Cable or Coaxial Cable

Theory: A direct cable connection is a link between the input/output (I/O) ports of two computers by using a

single cable rather than a modem or other interfacing device. In most cases, you make a direct cable connectionwith a null modem cable. You can use a direct cable connection to transfer information between the computers toexchange files, access resources, and so on.To Make a Direct Cable Connection1. Click Start, click Control Panel, and then double-click Network Connections.

2. Under Network Tasks, click Create a new connection, and then click Next.

3. Click Set up an advanced connection, and then click Next.

4. Click Connect directly to another computer, and click Next.

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5. Choose the role this machine will play in the communication. If this computer has the information to which youneed to gain access, click Host. If this computer will access information from the other computer, click Guest.To Set Up the Host Computer

6. Click the connection device that you want to use for this connection ( a parallel or serial port, or an infraredport ), and then click Next.

7. Grant access to the users who are allowed to connect by selecting the appropriate check boxes, and then click

Next.

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8. Click Finish to end the configuration process.

9. To Set Up the Guest Computer

10. Type a name to identify this connection, and then click Next.

11. Click the connection device that you want to use for this connection ( a parallel or serial port, or an infraredport ), and then click Next.

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12. Decide whether this connection will be available for all users ( click Anyone's use ), or only for you ( click Myuse only ), and then click Next.

13. Click Finish to end the setup process.

TroubleshootingTo create a direct network connection that acts as a host, you must be logged on as Administrator or be a memberof the Administrators group. Guest direct network connections do not require administrator-level rights.

If you specify your connection as a host when you create it, the connection appears as Incoming Connections inthe Network Connections folder.You can create multiple direct connections by copying them in the Network Connections folder. You can thenrename the connections and modify connection settings. By doing so, you can easily create different connectionsto accommodate multiple ports, host computers, and so on.Direct connections can bypass authentication requirements. This is useful for devices such as handheldcomputers. You must configure this setting in the host incoming connection.If you create a direct connection by using a serial ( RS-232C ) cable, the port that you select in the NewConnection Wizard is enabled for connections that use a null modem.If you are logged on to your computer as Administrator or a member of the Administrators group when you createa direct connection, you see a list of connection devices to choose from that includes all of the parallel ports for

the computer, infrared ports that are installed and enabled, and COM ports. If you are logged on as a user who isnot a member of the Administrators group and you create a direct connection, the list of devices includes theparallel ports for the computer, infrared ports that are installed and enabled, and only the COM ports that areconfigured with null modems. If you need to use a COM port for a direct connection, ask your systemadministrator to configure one of the COM ports on your computer with a null modem by using the Phone andModem Options tool in Control Panel.RESULT: Thus the data is able to exchange between two computers using direct cable connection.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 4

AIM: INSTALLATION OF LAN USING VARIOUS TOPOLOGIES

Apparatus Required: NIC Card, Twisted pair or Coaxial Cable, Hub, Switch.

Theory: To design any computer network layout, it is important to know the basic LAN topologies and to

consider their advantages and disadvantages. There are basically three topologies, and you can choose accordingto your need when designing a local area network. Here's how to build a local area network.

Bus Topology: This LAN topology is a very simple way of connecting computers. In this type of layout, allcomputers are hooked on a single transmission medium, usually a coaxial wire, using T-connectors. A terminatoris also placed at the wire's end in order to absorb free signals so that the computers can send data. Let's look at thedisadvantages and advantages of this local area network.

Advantages:Simple installation.Economical use of cable.Media is inexpensive and easy to work with.Simple and reliable.Easy to extend

Disadvantages:Can slow down in heavy traffic.Difficult to troubleshoot.Cable break can affect many users.High EMI (electromagnetic interference).

Star Topology: In this network topology, computers are connected by cable segments to a centralized componentcalled a hub. Signals are transmitted from the sending computer through the hub to all computers on the network.

Advantages:Low EMI.Easy to troubleshoot.Easy to modify and add new computers.Centralized management.Failure of one computer does not affect the rest of the network.

Disadvantages:If the hub fails, then the whole network breaks down.

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Ring topology: The ring topology connects computers on a single circle of cable. There are no terminated ends.The signals travel around the loop in one direction and pass through each computer. Each computer acts like arepeater to boost the signal and send it on the next computer.

Advantages

Equal access for all computers.Even performance despite many users.High speed.Low EMI.

DisadvantagesFailure of one computer can impact the rest of the network.Problems hard to isolate.Network reconfiguration disrupts operation.These were the basic topologies for designing any local area network. You may choose any according to the sizeand the need of your network.

RESULT: Hence installation of LAN has done using various topologies.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 5

AIM: Familiarization with transmission media viz. coaxial cable, twisted pairs, optical fibernetworking, wireless networking, connectors etc

Apparatus Required: Coaxial Cable, Twisted Pair Cable, Optical Fiber Cable, RJ-45 and RJ-11, Wirelessmedia.

Theory: -

Twisted pair :- Twisted pair cabling is a type of wiring in which two conductors (the forward and returnconductors of a single circuit) are twisted together for the purposes of canceling out electromagnetic interference(EMI) from external sources; for instance, electromagnetic radiation from unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables,and crosstalk between neighboring pairs.

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)

UTP cables are found in many Ethernet networks and telephone systems. For indoor telephone applications, UTP

is often grouped into sets of 25 pairs according to a standard 25-pair color code originally developed by AT&T. Atypical subset of these colors (white/blue, blue/white, white/orange, orange/white) shows up in most UTP cables.For urban outdoor telephone cables containing hundreds or thousands of pairs, the cable is divided into smallerbut identical bundles. Each bundle consists of twisted pairs that have different twist rates. The bundles are in turntwisted together to make up the cable. Pairs having the same twist rate within the cable can still experience somedegree of crosstalk. Wire pairs are selected carefully to minimize crosstalk within a large cable.

UTP cable is also the most common cable used in computer networking. Modern Ethernet, the most common datanetworking standard, utilizes UTP cables. Twisted pair cabling is often used in data networks for short andmedium length connections because of its relatively lower costs compared to optical fiber and coaxial cable.UTP is also finding increasing use in video applications, primarily in security cameras. Many middle to high-end

cameras include a UTP output with setscrew terminals. This is made possible by the fact that UTP cablebandwidth has improved to match the baseband of television signals. While the video recorder most likely stillhas unbalanced BNC connectors for standard coaxial cable, a balun is used to convert from 100-ohm balancedUTP to 75-ohm unbalanced. A balun can also be used at the camera end for ones without a UTP output. Only onepair is necessary for each video signal.

Shielded twisted pair (STP or STP-A)

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STP cabling includes metal shielding over each individual pair of copper wires. This type of shielding protectscable from external EMI. e.g. the 150 ohm shielded twisted pair cables defined by the IBM Cabling Systemspecifications and used with token ring networks.

Screened unshielded twisted pair (S/UTP)Also known as Foiled Twisted Pair (FTP), is a screened UTP cable (ScTP).Screened shielded twisted pair (S/STP or S/FTP)

S/STP cabling, also known as Screened Fully shielded Twisted Pair (S/FTP), is both individually shielded (likeSTP cabling) and also has an outer metal shielding covering the entire group of shielded copper pairs (likeS/UTP). This type of cabling offers the best protection from interference from external sources, and also

eliminates alien crosstalk.

Coaxial Cable:-

Coaxial cable, or coax, is an electrical cable with an inner conductor surrounded by a flexible, tubular insulatinglayer, surrounded by a tubular conducting shield. The term coaxial comes from the inner conductor and the outershield sharing the same geometric axis. Coaxial cable was invented by English engineer and mathematicianOliver Heavyset, who first patented the design in 1880.

Coaxial cable is used as a transmission line for radio frequency signals, in applications such as connecting radiotransmitters and receivers with their antennas, computer network (Internet) connections, and distributing cabletelevision signals. One advantage of coax over other types of radio transmission line is that in an ideal coaxialcable the electromagnetic field carrying the signal exists only in the space between the inner and outerconductors. This allows coaxial cable runs to be installed next to metal objects such as gutters without the powerlosses that occur in other types of transmission lines, and provides protection of the signal from externalelectromagnetic interference.Coaxial cable differs from other shielded cable used for carrying lower frequency signals such as audio signals, inthat the dimensions of the cable are controlled to give a precise, constant conductor spacing, which is needed forit to function efficiently as a radio frequency transmission line.

How it works:-

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Like any electrical power cord, coaxial cable conducts AC electric current between locations. Like these othercables, it has two conductors, the central wire and the tubular shield. At any moment the current is travelingoutward from the source in one of the conductors, and returning in the other. However, since it is alternatingcurrent, the current reverses direction many times a second. Coaxial cable differs from other cables because it isdesigned to carry radio frequency current. This has a frequency much higher than the 50 or 60 Hz used in mains(electric power) cables, reversing direction millions to billions of times per second. As with other types of radiotransmission line, this requires special construction to prevent power losses.If an ordinary wire is used to carry high frequency currents, the wire acts as an antenna, and the high frequencycurrents radiate off the wire as radio waves, causing power losses. To prevent this, in coaxial cable one of theconductors is formed into a tube and encloses the other conductor. This confines the radio waves from the centralconductor to the space inside the tube. To prevent the outer conductor, or shield, from radiating, it is connected toelectrical ground, keeping it at a constant potential.The dimensions and spacing of the conductors must be uniform throughout the length of the cable. Any abruptchange in the spacing of the two conductors along the cable tends to reflect radio frequency power back towardthe source, causing a condition called standing waves. This acts as a bottleneck, reducing the amount of powerreaching the destination end of the cable. To hold the shield at a uniform distance from the central conductor, thespace between the two is filled with a semirigid plastic dielectric. Manufacturers specify a minimum bend radiusto prevent kinks that would cause reflections. The connectors used with coax are designed to hold the correctspacing through the body of the connector.

Each type of coaxial cable has a characteristic impedance depending on its dimensions and materials used, whichis the ratio of the voltage to the current in the cable. In order to prevent reflections at the destination end of thecable from causing standing waves, any equipment the cable is attached to must present an impedance equal tothe characteristic impedance (called 'matching'). Thus the equipment "appears" electrically similar to acontinuation of the cable, preventing reflections. Common values of characteristic impedance for coaxial cableare 50 and 75 ohms. Coaxial cable may be viewed as a type of waveguide. Power is transmitted through the radialelectric field and the circumferential magnetic field in the TEM00 transverse mode. This is the dominant modefrom zero frequency (DC) to an upper limit determined by the electrical dimensions of the cable.

Optical fiber cable

An optical fiber cable is a cable containing one or more optical fibers. The optical fiber elements are typicallyindividually coated with plastic layers and contained in a protective tube suitable for the environment where thecable will be deployed

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Design

In practical fibers, the cladding is usually coated with a tough resin buffer layer, which may be further surroundedby a jacket layer, usually plastic. These layers add strength to the fiber but do not contribute to its optical waveguide properties. Rigid fiber assemblies sometimes put light-absorbing ("dark") glass between the fibers, toprevent light that leaks out of one fiber from entering another. This reduces cross-talk between the fibers, orreduces flare in fiber bundle imaging applications.All four connectors have white caps covering the ferrules.For indoor applications, the jacketed fiber is generally enclosed, with a bundle of flexible fibrous polymerstrength members like Aramid (e.g. Twaron or Kevlar), in a lightweight plastic cover to form a simple cable.Each end of the cable may be terminated with a specialized optical fiber connector to allow it to be easilyconnected and disconnected from transmitting and receiving equipment.For use in more strenuous environments, a much more robust cable construction is required. In loose-tubeconstruction the fiber is laid helically into semi-rigid tubes, allowing the cable to stretch without stretching thefiber itself. This protects the fiber from tension during laying and due to temperature changes. Loose-tube fibermay be "dry block" or gel-filled. Dry block offers less protection to the fibers than gel-filled, but costsconsiderably less. Instead of a loose tube, the fiber may be embedded in a heavy polymer jacket, commonly called"tight buffer" construction. Tight buffer cables are offered for a variety of applications, but the two most commonare "Breakout" and "Distribution". Breakout cables normally contain a ripcord, two non-conductive dielectricstrengthening members (normally a glass rod epoxy), an aramid yarn, and 3 mm buffer tubing with an additionallayer of Kevlar surrounding each fiber. The ripcord is a parallel cord of strong yarn that is situated under the

jacket(s) of the cable for jacket removal. Distribution cables have an overall Kevlar wrapping, a ripcord, and a900 micrometer buffer coating surrounding each fiber. These fiber units are commonly bundled with additionalsteel strength members, again with a helical twist to allow for stretching.A critical concern in outdoor cabling is to protect the fiber from contamination by water. This is accomplished byuse of solid barriers such as copper tubes, and water-repellent jelly or water-absorbing powder surrounding thefiber.Finally, the cable may be armored to protect it from environmental hazards, such as construction work or gnawinganimals. Undersea cables are more heavily armored in their near-shore portions to protect them from boatanchors, fishing gear, and even sharks, which may be attracted to the electrical power signals that are carried topower amplifiers or repeaters in the cable.Modern fiber cables can contain up to a thousand fibers in a single cable, so the performance of optical networkseasily accommodates even today's demands for bandwidth on a point-to-point basis. However, unused point-to-point potential bandwidth does not translate to operating profits, and it is estimated that no more than 1% of theoptical fiber buried in recent years is actually 'lit' While unused fiber may not be carrying traffic, it still has valueas dark backbone fiber. Companies can lease or sell the unused fiber to other providers who are looking forservice in or through an area. Many companies are "overbuilding" their networks for the specific purpose of having a large network of dark fiber for sale. This is a great idea as many cities are difficult to deal with whenapplying for permits and trenching in new ducts is very costly.

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Modern cables come in a wide variety of sheathings and armor, designed for applications such as direct burial intrenches, dual use as power lines, installation in conduit, lashing to aerial telephone poles, submarine installation,or insertion in paved streets. In recent years the cost of small fiber-count pole-mounted cables has greatlydecreased due to the high Japanese and South Korean demand for fiber to the home (FTTH) installations.

CONNECTORS

1) RJ-452) RJ-11

RJ45 is a type of registered jack. As a registered jack, telephone RJ45 specifies the physical male and femaleconnectors as well as the pin assignments of the wires in a telephone cable. It is used with a high speed modem.Before the name RJ45 was used to refer to computer networking connectors, RJ45 was originally a Telephone-only standard. Telephone installers who wired telephone RJ45 jacks were familiar with the pin assignment whichwas part of the RJ45 standard. However, near-identical physical connectors for computer networking becameubiquitous, and informally inherited the name RJ45 due to the overwhelming similarity. While telephone RJ45uses a "keyed" variety of the 8P body, meaning it may have an extra tab that a computer RJ45 connector is unable

to mate with, the visual difference from an Ethernet 8P is subtle.The only other difference is the presence of extra conductors in the cable, which cannot be seen without veryclose inspection. True telephone RJ45 connectors are a special variant of 8P2C, meaning only the middle 2positions have conductors in them, while pins 7 and 8 are shorting a programming resistor. Computer RJ45 is8P8C, with all eight conductors present.Understandably, because telephone RJ45 8P connectors never saw wide usage and computer 8P connectors arequite well known today, RJ45 is used almost exclusively to refer to Ethernet-type computer connectors.Electronics catalogs not specialized to the telephone industry advertise 8P8C modular connectors as "RJ45".Virtually all electronic equipment that uses an 8P8C connector (or possibly any 8P connector at all) willdocument it as an "RJ45" connector. In common usage, RJ45 also refers to the pin assignments for the attachedcable, which are actually defined in the wiring standard TIA/EIA-568-B.

A locking boot for RJ45 Modular Plugs was developed to prevent inadvertent disconnects in mission criticalfacilities.

RJ-11 Connector

Theory:- RJ 11 connector is the typical connector used on two pair, four wire handset wiring. RJ means"Registered Jack", the physical connector interface that is most often utilized for handset wire terminals.Although the RJ 11 connector has six connector positions, normally either only two or four are in fact used. RJ11connector wiring comes in 2 standard assortments- UTP or Unshielded Twisted Pair and flat-satin cable or theuntwisted.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vergleich_2von2_Crossoverkabel.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vergleich_2von2_Crossoverkabel.jpg

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RJ-11 connector is the most recognized among the jacks that are registered, because almost all single line (POTS)handset jacks in the majority of offices and homes in North America utilize this connector type and many othercountries.Other similar Jacks Registered include RJ-14 (for a two line handset jack), RJ-25 (for a three line jack), and RJ-61(for a four line handset jack), all of which uses six modular connector positions. An RJ-11 jack usually uses twoout of the six positions, so this can be wired with the six position, two conductor (6P-2C) modular jack. However,these kinds of jacks are extremely unusual. Most often, an RJ-11 jack is a six position, four conductor (6P4C)

jack, with two out of the four wires going to the unused junction box.The extra wires could be pushed for a diversity of special applications, such as a source for selective ringers, aspreventing a pulse dial handset from ringing extension phone-bells, powering the L.E.D. ring sign operating off the ringer indication, etc.In a powered up state, Pins number 5 (old color - yellow/ new color- orange) and number 2 (old color - black/newcolor - white that has orange stripe) can carry either low voltage DC or AC power, from a transformer connectedin a jack; which gives power to each of the jacks all through a dwelling. In most cases, the handset linestraightforwardly provides ample power for majority phone terminals.The old-fashioned handset terminals hold glowing lights in them (for example: Trim line phone and the oldWestern Electric Princess telephone) and require a lot more energy than the handset line provides, because theirdial lights require 6.3 volts and the usual transformer output of ~5 volts for long life.Depending on whether the jack is of the new or old color principle (read from left to right, at the same time asholding the jack facing you, with the contacts pointing upward) the negative and positive terminals are:Theoriginal RJ45 uses a special keyed 8P2C modular connector, with Pins 5 and 4 wired for tip and ring of a singletelephone line and Pins 7 and 8 connected to a programming resistor.o Pin number 3- Negative terminal (old color - red/new color - blue)o Pin number 4- Positive terminal (old color - green /new color - white with blue stripe)

Wireless Networking

Theory:- Wireless network is a network set up by using radio signal frequency to communicate among computersand other network devices. Sometimes its also referred to as WiFi network or WLAN. ThisNetwork is getting popular nowadays due to easy to setup feature and no cabling involved. You can connectcomputers anywhere in your home without the need for wires.Here is simple explanation of how it works, let say you have 2 computers each equipped with wireless adapterand you have set up wireless router. When the computer sends out the data, the binary data will be encoded toradio frequency and transmitted via wireless router. The receiving computer will then decode the signal back tobinary data.It doesnt matter you are using broadband cable/DSL modem to access internet; both ways will work withwireless network. If you heard about wireless hotspot that means that location is equipped with wireless devicesfor you and others to join the network. You can check out the nearest hotspots from your home here.The two main components are wireless router or access point and wireless clients.If you have not set up any wired network, then just get a wireless router and attach it to cable/DSL modem. Youthen set up wireless client by adding wireless card to each computer and form a simple wireless network. You canalso cable connect computer directly to router if there are switch ports available.

If you already have wired Ethernet network at home, you can attach a wireless access point to existing network router and have wireless access at home.Wireless router or access points should be installed in a way that maximizes coverage as well as throughput. Thecoverage provided is generally referred to as the coverage cell. Large areas usually require more than one accesspoint in order to have adequate coverage. You can also add access point to your existing wireless router toimprove coverage.

Wireless Operating Mode

The IEEE 802.11 standards specify two operating modes: infrastructure mode and ad hoc mode.

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Infrastructure mode is used to connect computers with wireless network adapters, also known as wirelessclients, to an existing wired network with the help from wireless router or access point. The 2 examples which Ispecified above operate in this mode.

Ad hoc mode is used to connect wireless clients directly together, without the need for a wireless router or accesspoint. An ad hoc network consists of up to 9 wireless clients, which send their data directly to each other.RESULT: - Thus the various communication media has been studied.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 6

AIM: Configuring Network Neighborhood

Apparatus Required: Window 2000, Networking

With network address translation (NAT) in Windows 2000, you can configure your home network or small officenetwork to share a single connection to the Internet. This step-by step guide describes how to configure a

computer that is running Windows to use a NAT server.

How to Configure a Windows 2000 Professional-Based Workstation to Use a NAT Server

1. On the desktop, right-click My Network Places , and then click Properties .2. Right-click Local Area Connection .3. Click Properties .4. Click Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) .5. Click Properties .6. In the Default gateway box, type the internal IP address of the NAT server.

NOTE : If your computer receives its IP address from a Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)server, click Advanced , click the IP Settings tab, click Add under Gateway , type the internal IP addressof your NAT server, click Add , and then continue with the next step.

7. Click OK. 8. Click OK.

How to Configure a Windows 2000-Based Server to Use a NAT Server

1. On the desktop, right-click My Network Places , and then click Properties .2. Right-click Local Area Connection .

3. Click Properties .4. Click Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) .5. Click Properties .6. In the Default gateway box, type the internal IP address of the NAT server.

NOTE : If your computer receives its IP address from a Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)server, click Advanced , click the IP Settings tab, click Add under Gateway , type the internal IP addressof your NAT server, click Add , and then continue with the next step.

7. Click OK. 8. Click OK

How to Configure a Windows NT 4.0-Based Workstation to Use a NAT Server

1. On the desktop, right-click Network Neighborhood , and then click Properties .2. Click the Protocols tab.3. Click TCP/IP Protocol .4. In the Default gateway box, type the internal IP address of the NAT server.

NOTE : If your computer receives its IP address form a DHCP server, click Advanced , click the IPSettings tab, click Add under Gateway , type the internal IP address of your NAT server, click Add , andthen continue with the next step.

5. Click OK.

6. Click OK.

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How to Configure a Windows NT 4.0-Based Server to Use a NAT Server

1. On the desktop, right-click Network Neighborhood , and then click Properties .2. Click the Protocols tab.3. Click TCP/IP Protocol .4. In the Default gateway box, type the internal IP address of the NAT server.

NOTE : If your computer receives its IP address form a DHCP server, click Advanced , click the IPSettings tab, click Add under Gateway , type the internal IP address of your NAT server, click Add , andthen continue with the next step.

5. Click OK. 6. Click OK.

How to Configure a Workstation Running Windows 95, Windows 98, or Windows 98 SecondEdition to Use a NAT Server

1. On the desktop, right-click Network Neighborhood , and then click Properties .2. Click TCP/IP -> your network adapter .3. Click Properties .

4.

Click the Gateway tab.5. Under New Gateway , type your NAT server's internal IP address.6. Click Add .7. Click OK .8. Click OK

RESULT:- Thus the various networks are configured.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 7

AIM:. Sharing of resources with two connected nodes

Apparatus Required: Cables, Any connecting device.

Figure 1: - Peer to Peer Networking

Setting up the printer to be shared on the network

Microsoft Windows 2000 / XP

1. Open the Windows Control Panel2. Double-click the "Printers" or "Printers and Faxes" icon.

3. If you currently have a printer already installed on the computer right-click the printer icon and click Properties.

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4. In the Properties window click the Sharing tab and make sure the printer is shared.

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Microsoft Windows 95 / 98

1. Open the Windows Control Panel2. Double-click Network 3. In the Network window under the Configuration tab click the File and Print Sharing button.4. In the File and Print Sharing Window check the "I want to be able to allow others to print to my printer(s)"

option. Note: If the computer asks to restart the computer after selecting this option make sure to restart.5. Click Ok and then Ok again to close out of the Network Window.6. Once back in the Control Panel double-click printers7. If you currently have a printer already installed on the computer right-click the printer icon and click

Properties. In the Properties window click the sharing tab and make sure the printer is shared.

Result: The data of two devices has shared.