decentralization and women empowerment final

8/15/2019 Decentralization and Women Empowerment Final

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Authored by:

Rameez M Sydeek

Dept. of Physics

AMU, Aligarh

o!authored by:

Syed "afar Mustafa

Dept. of Physics

AMU, Aligarh

Abstract


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#his paper pro$ides a% o$er$ie& of the curre%t a%d pre$ious attempts to systematically measure'a%d

collect data o%'the scope a%d %ature of (political, admi%istrati$e, a%d fiscal) dece%tralizatio% i% *%dia.

#hrough this paper &e are e+plori%g the fact that *%dia as a de$elopi%g cou%try i%teracts &ith the people

through de$ol$ed or %o%!de$ol$ed approaches. #here are curre%t efforts to measure local public sector

fi%a%ces co%sideri%g a%y %o%!de$ol$ed dece%tralised fi%a%ci%g mecha%isms, such as deco%ce%tratio% or

delegatio%. #his $oid i% the data &ith regard to dece%tralizatio% pro$ides policy makers a%d the research

commu%ity &ith a co%siderably i%complete patch&ork of i%formatio% regardi%g dece%tralizatio%, rathertha% resulti%g i% a si%gle, co%siste%t, a%d robust dataset regardi%g the depth a%d breadth of dece%tralizatio%

i% states across *%dia.

#his paper also deals &ith empo&erme%t of &ome%- i% *%dia a%d thro&s light o% particularly age%cy

approach- to measure &ome% empo&erme%t. ere &e prese%t the illustratio% of moder% approach to

empo&erme%t a%d a% o$er$ie& of the efforts put i% *%dia for empo&eri%g &ome%. Usi%g data from #he

/lobal /e%der /ap Report of the past fe& years, &e measure the le$el of &ome% empo&erme%t i% *%dia.

0mpo&erme%t takes i%to accou%t %ot o%ly both the practical a%d strategic ge%der %eeds of &ome% but also

recog%izes their triple role i% de$elopme%t. *% doi%g so it follo&s a bottom!up approach. 0mpo&erme%t has

a %umber of dime%sio%s &ith political participatio% as bei%g o%e of them. 1ome%-s political prese%ce a%dempo&erme%t ha$e some ob$ious li%ks. 1ome% ca% i%flue%ce the formulatio% of policies affecti%g other

&ome% i% society. Dece%tralizatio% pro$ides greater opportu%ities for the citize% to participatio% i%

go$er%a%ce at the local le$el a%d he%ce could be a good policy optio% for e%ha%ci%g &ome%-s political

participatio%. *t does so by i%creasi%g descripti$e represe%tatio% of &ome%, &hich i% tur% leads to &ome%-s

respo%si$e policies.

Keywords: 1ome%, empo&erme%t, dece%tralizatio%, de$elopme%t, political, ge%der, e2uality, go$er%me%t,

*%dia, ame%dme%t, Pa%chayats.

Introduction:

Accordi%g to Ro%di%eli dece%tralizatio% is 3the tra%sfer of respo%sibility for pla%%i%g, ma%ageme%t a%d

resource raisi%g a%d allocatio% from the ce%tral go$er%me%t a%d its age%cies to: (a) the field u%its of ce%tral

go$er%me%t a%d its age%cies, (b) subordi%ate u%its or le$el of go$er%me%t, (c) semiauto%omous public

authorities or corporatio%s, (d) area &ide, regio%al or fu%ctio%al authorities (e) %o%go$er%me%tal pri$ate or

$olu%tary orga%isatio%s3 (Ro%di%eli 4564a). A%d Ma&hood defi%es dece%tralizatio% as 3a%y act i% &hich a

ce%tral go$er%me%t formally cedes po&ers to actors a%d i%stitutio%s at lo&er le$els i% a political!admi%istrati$e a%d territorial hierarchy3(Ma&hood 4567). #he co%cept of empo&erme%t- traces its history

i% the mid!48th ce%tury &ith the legalistic mea%i%g to i%$est &ith authority-. #hereafter, this co%cept &as

moder%ized to mea% to e%able or permit-. After 4569-s, the %o$el co%cept of measuri%g eco%omic

de$elopme%t through huma% de$elopme%t- focusi%g o% political empo&erme%t- li%kage &ith femi%ist

discourse &e%t a lo%g &ay i% shapi%g the idea of &ome%-s empo&erme%t-. Duri%g 4559-s eco%omists

argued that de$elopme%t if %ot e%ge%dered, is e%da%gered; a%d the ma


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#he types of dece%tralizatio% (political, admi%istrati$e, fiscal a%d market dece%tralizatio%) mai%ly depe%d

o% the political a%d admi%istrati$e structure of a%y particular cou%try(=e$e%).>orms of dece%tralizatio% ca%

be classified i%to four categories like deco%ce%tratio%, delegatio%, de$olutio% a%d pri$atizatio% (Ro%di%eli,

4567a). Ma%or (4555) argues that dece%tralizatio% should be categorized i%to three aspects such as

deco%ce%tratio% or admi%istrati$e dece%tralizatio%, fiscal dece%tralizatio% a%d de$olutio% or democratic

dece%tralizatio%. *t is really importa%t to make a clear disti%ctio% bet&ee% these aspects for bri%gi%g

smooth coordi%atio% amo%g the differe%t dime%sio%s of the successful dece%tralizatio%. Ma


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Fiscal decentralization

>iscal dece%tralizatio% comprises the fi%a%cial aspects of de$olutio% to regio%al a%d local go$er%me%t. *t is

the curre%tly fashio%able term the alter%ati$e descriptio%s 3ce%tral!local (or i%tergo$er%me%tal) fi%a%cial

relatio%s3 a%d 3fiscal federalism3 are ofte% used by 0uropea% a%d America% &riters respecti$ely. >iscal

dece%tralizatio% co$ers t&o i%terrelated issues. #he first is the di$isio% of spe%di%g respo%sibilities a%d

re$e%ue sources bet&ee% le$els of go$er%me%t (%atio%al, regio%al, local etc). #he seco%d is the amou%t of

discretio% gi$e% to regio%al a%d local go$er%me%ts to determi%e their e+pe%ditures a%d re$e%ues (both i%

aggregate a%d detail).#hese combi%ed dime%sio%s ha$e a sig%ifica%t impact o% the reality of

dece%tralizatio% i% its broader political a%d admi%istrati$e se%se.

Types of Woman Empowerment:

0mpo&erme%t ca% ha$e si+ compo%e%ts: ognitive! Psyc"ological! Economic! Political! #ocial and

$egal%

Accordi%g to =elly Strom2uist (4557), the ognitive omponent mea%s &ome% are u%dersta%di%g theirco%ditio%s of subordi%atio% a%d the causes of such co%ditio%s are at both micro a%d macro le$els of

society. *t i%$ol$es ac2uiri%g %e& k%o&ledge to create a differe%t u%dersta%di%g of ge%der relatio%s as &ell

as destroyi%g old beliefs that structure po&erful ge%der ideologies-.

#he Psyc"ological omponent, o% the other ha%d, &ould i%clude the de$elopme%t of feeli%gs that

&ome% ca% act upo% to impro$e their co%ditio%. #his mea%s formatio% of the belief that they ca% succeed

i% cha%ge efforts.-

#he Economic omponent re2uires that &ome% ca% be able to e%gage i% a producti$e acti$ity that &ill

allo& them some degree of auto%omy, %o matter ho& small a%d hard to obtai% at the begi%%i%g-. 0ducatio%

is co%sidered o%e of the most importa%t mea%s to empo&er &ome% &ith the k%o&ledge, skills a%d self!

co%fide%ce %ecessary to participate fully i% de$elopme%t processes.

#he Political omponent &ould e%compass the ability to orga%ize a%d mobilize for cha%ge.

o%se2ue%tly, a% empo&erme%t process must i%$ol$e %ot o%ly i%di$idual a&are%ess but collecti$e

a&are%ess a%d collecti$e actio%. #he %otio% of collecti$e actio% is fu%dame%tal to the aim of attai%i%g

social tra%sformatio%- (Strom2uist). *% past role of &oma% i% politics is mere but %o& the sce%ario is

differe%t. A good perce%tage i.e. %early abo$e 77B are participati%g. 0%couragi%g them to participate i%

commu%ity programmes, i%tegratio% of &ome% i% the ge%eral %atio%al de$elopme%t pla%, allotti%g them

good portfolioCs like educatio%, health, sa%itary that moti$ates them to do good practices. *t is clear that&ome% ca% be empo&ered i%di$idually the femi%ist $isio% is o%e &here &ome% are able to articulate as a

collecti$e $oice a%d demo%strate collecti$e stre%gth. *t &as also stressed that i%corporati%g the femi%ist

perspecti$e i% the co%cept of empo&erme%t implies a lo%g!term re!desig%i%g of societies that &ill be based

o% democratic relatio%ships.

#ocial Empowerment is a process to cha%ge the distributio% of po&er i% i%terperso%al relatio%s amo%g

differe%t people, cultures, a%d acti$ities of the society-. *% past a&are%ess regardi%g the society is u%k%o&%

to the &ome% but prese%t sce%ario re$eals completely differe%t pictures a%d k%o&s they are e2ually

participati%g i% all acti$ities of the society. est refere%ces are our 0+ Preside%t Mrs. Pratibha Patel a%d

illary li%to%. All efforts must be mobilized to e%able at least the %e+t ge%eratio% to be ge%ui%ely literateto empo&er socially.

#alki%g about $egal Empowerment% Protectio% is %eeded for the &ome% i% terms of health, harassme%ts,

superstitio%s, cultural barriers etc. hild marriages, sati etc are some of the oldest traditio%s, &hich are the


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basic barriers for a girl-s de$elopme%t. ut %o& there are %o such obsolete traditio%s to be i% practice.

Make them a&are of the ci$il rights, e+ercisi%g the legal rights &he%e$er %ecessary, prepari%g a%d

ca%$assi%g the docume%ts regardi%g the legal freedom for &ome%, pro$idi%g good literary programmes

regardi%g the legal empo&erme%t &hich &ill all help a lo%g &ay to&ards achie$i%g this goal.

T"e &odern Approac" to women empowerment:

*% rece%t years the co%cept of empo&erme%t- &as modified to i%clude the po&er i% plural form as

po&ers-. #his po&ers- approach &as picked up by se$eral femi%ist bodies a%d de$elopme%t =/@s &hich

ha$e argued that empo&erme%t process should be broke% do&% i% four le$els of po&er E po&er o$er,

po&er to, po&er &ith a%d po&er &ithi%. A re$ised defi%itio% of po$erty duri%g the reforms period brought

out a %e& dime%sio% of empo&erme%t. aschemi a%d Schuler (4557) ha$e ide%tified si+ dime%sio%s of

empo&erme%t based o% acti$ities of &ome% ide%tified as importa%t for their day!to!day fu%ctio%i%g. #he

co%cept Po$erty- &as also redefi%ed as lack of real opportu%ity- a%d ultimately a matter of capability

depri$atio%-. e%ce, it &as argued that the basic obactorA%alysis, *S 1orki%g Paper, PA! ?99F!94.

>ig 4 sho&s the co%ceptualizatio% of empo&erme%t for measureme%t a%d uses a% o$al to i%dicate the late%t

%ature of the ge%der system. /e%der %orms become ob$ious a%d measurable &he% &ome% break them.


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>igure ? also sho&s that empo&erme%t is demo%strated by a relati$e lack of adhere%ce to ge%der %orms.

/e%der, the%, is the system of e+pectatio%s that u%derlie &ome%-s obser$able beha$iours. 1ome%-s

empo&erme%t ca% the% be measured as &ome%-s relati$e le$el of adhere%ce to ge%der %orms. #his

co%ceptual model of ge%der a%d empo&erme%t makes it possible to measure &ome%-s empo&erme%t &ith

cross!sectio%al data. >urthermore, the ge%der system, or the ge%der compo%e%t of &ome%-s empo&erme%t,

ca% be measured usi%g statistical tech%i2ues for late%t $ariables such as co%firmatory factor a%alysis. #he

%e+t sectio%s describe ho& to specify a theoretical model of the ge%der system, ho& to use co%firmatoryfactor a%alysis to test the model usi%g sur$ey data, a%d the% ho& to co%struct measures of ge%der a%d

&ome%-s empo&erme%t from the co%firmatory factor a%alysis output.

@f late, the uma% De$elopme%t Reports ha$e bee% emphasizi%g o% thi%ki%g about e2uality i% terms of

capabilities because i%e2ualities i% outcomes are largely the product of u%e2ual access to capabilities. #he

uma% De$elopme%t Reports ha$e i%troduced /e%der Related De$elopme%t *%de+ (/D*) (to measure

a$erage achie$eme%ts i% lo%g a%d healthy life, k%o&ledge a%d a dece%t sta%dard of li$i%g &hich accou%t

for i%e2ualities bet&ee% me% a%d &ome%). /e%der 0mpo&erme%t Measure (/0M) (&hich measures

ge%der i%e2uality) a%d /e%der *%e2uality *%de+ (/**) (&hich measures the losses due to ge%der i%e2ualities

i% reproducti$e health, empo&erme%t a%d labour market participatio%). #he uma% De$elopme%t Report!?949 obser$ed that huma% de$elopme%t is a participatory a%d dy%amic process a%d people are the real

&ealth of a %atio% a%d the process has three importa%t compo%e%ts $iz., &ell!bei%g, empo&erme%t a%d

age%cy a%d u%d (?997) belie$ed that ge%der i%e2uality holds back eco%omic gro&th of

i%di$iduals, de$elopme%t of cou%tries a%d the e$olutio% of societies a%d eco%omic gro&th a%d social

e2uality should go ha%d i% ha%d. #he 1orld 0co%omic >orum has bee% publishi%g #he /lobal /e%der /ap

reports si%ce ?99H a%d its reports focused o% three basic co%cepts u%derlyi%g the /lobal /e%der /ap *%de+.

>irst, it focused o% measuri%g the gaps bet&ee% me% a%d &ome% rather tha% o% le$els. Seco%d, it captured

gaps i% outcome $ariables rather tha% o% gaps i% mea%s or i%put $ariables. #hird, it ra%ked cou%tries

accordi%g to ge%der e2uality rather tha% &ome% empo&erme%t.

T"e '(rd onstitutional Amendment and Empowerment of )ural Women

#he 87rd o%stitutio%al Ame%dme%t has ser$ed as the i%stitutio%al breakthrough to&ards e%suri%g e2ual

access to a%d e%ha%ced participatio% of rural &ome% i% the i%clusi$e de$elopme%t through the participatio%of &ome% i% the local go$er%me%t at grassroot le$el. #he Ame%dme%t ill, pro$idi%g a co%stitutio%al status

to the Pa%chayati Ra< i%stitutio%s, &as passed by both ouses of Parliame%t i% December 455?. >ollo&i%g

its ratificatio% by more tha% half the state Assemblies as re2uired u%der the o%stitutio%, the Preside%t of

*%dia ga$e his asse%t, a%d the same came i%to force as the o%stitutio%al (87rd Ame%dme%t) Act, 455? o%

April ?I, 4557, addi%g a %e& part to the o%stitutio%, %amely, Part *J titled #he Pa%chayats;. #he

87rd o%stitutio%al Ame%dme%t pro$ided the follo&i%g pro$isio%s amo%g others:

(4) =ot less tha% of the o%e third of the total %umber of seats reser$ed for the Scheduled astes a%d

Scheduled #ribes i% e$ery Pa%chayat shall be reser$ed for &ome% belo%gi%g to the Scheduled astes or as

the case may be, Scheduled #ribes.

(?) =ot less tha% o%e third (i%cludi%g the %umber of seats reser$ed for &ome% belo%gi%g to the Scheduled

astes a%d Scheduled #ribes) of the total seats to be filled by the direct electio% i% e$ery Pa%chayat shall be

reser$ed for the &ome% a%d allotted by rotatio% to differe%t co%stitue%cies i% a Pa%chayat.


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(7) #he Act also pro$ides for reser$atio% of o%e third of the total %umber of offices of chairperso%s i% the

Pa%chayats at all le$els for &ome% i%cludi%g &ome% from the Scheduled astes a%d Scheduled #ribes.

#his pro$isio% of o%e!third reser$atio% for &ome% is i%deed a historic step, as it guara%teed represe%tatio%

a%d participatio% for &ome% as group i% Pa%chayats. #he o%stitutio%al Ame%dme%t has i%deed pro$ided

the &ome% &ith opportu%ity to i%$ol$e i% the o$erall socio!eco%omic de$elopme%t of $illage, through the

political participatio%. *t is %ot, ho&e$er, that there are a%y i%ade2uacies, ha%dicaps, co%strai%ts a%d

difficulties. A closer look at the factors co%tributi%g to effecti$e role performa%ce of elected &ome% i% the

Pa%chayati Ra< *%stitutio%s tur%s out to be the e%courageme%t effecti%g from family members, $illagers a%d

sou%d k%o&ledge of Pa%chayats (/o&da, 4556, H88). #hus, o% the co%trary, abse%ce of this e%courageme%t

a%d i%ade2uate opportu%ities to &ome% members resulti%g from male domi%a%ce a%d male i%differe%ce to

their $ie&s ca% pre$e%t them from performi%g their role effecti$ely.

Empowerment of Women in India

Accordi%g to e%sus!?944, *%dia has reached the populatio% of 4?49 millio%, as agai%st 794 millio% i%

45F4, of &hich F6,HI,H5,48I (I6.F B) &ere females. #he populatio% of *%dia accou%ted for 48.FB of the

total &orld populatio% a%d occupied seco%d place. #he se+ ratio &as 579 i% 4584 a%d it has i%creased to

5I9 accordi%g to ?944 e%sus. #he female literacy also i%creased from 46.7B i% 45H4 to 8I.9B i% ?944

a%d a decrease i% male!female literacy gap from ?H.HB i% 4564 to 4H.8 per ce%t i% ?944. *t ca% be

highlighted that Gerala a%d Mizoram ha$e the highest female literacy rate of 5?B a%d 65B respecti$ely.

1ome% empo&erme%t i% *%dia is hea$ily depe%de%t o% ma%y differe%t $ariables that i%clude geographical

locatio% (ruralKurba%), educatio%al status, social status (caste a%d class) a%d age. Policies o% &ome%

empo&erme%t e+ist at %atio%al, state a%d local le$els i% ma%y sectors i%cludi%g health, educatio%,

eco%omic opportu%ities, ge%der based $iole%ce a%d political participatio%. #he scope a%d co$erage of the

schemes lau%ched has bee% e+pa%di%g that i%clude i%itiati$es for eco%omic a%d social empo&erme%t of&ome% a%d for securi%g ge%der e2uality. #he follo&i%g schemes at prese%t are aimi%g at &ome%

empo&erme%t a%d ge%der e2uality i% *%dia:

4. *%tegrated hild De$elopme%t Ser$ices (*DS) (458F)

?. Ra


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*% spite of the effecti$e impleme%tatio% of all the abo$e schemes a%d programmes, there are sig%ifica%t

gaps bet&ee% policy achie$eme%ts a%d actual practice at the commu%ity le$el. #he /lobal /e%der /ap

*%de+ (?94?) obser$ed that *%dia is simply %ot doi%g e%ough for its &ome%. #he ra%ki%g of the cou%try has

remai%ed the same i.e 447 (out of 47I cou%tries) i% ?949 a%d (out of 47F cou%tries) i% ?944. o&e$er, i%

?94?, its ra%ki%g has impro$ed from 447 i% ?944 to 49F (out of 47F cou%tries) &ith a score of 9.HII. Agai%

i% ?947, it impro$ed from 49F to 494(out of 47H cou%tries) &ith a score of 9.HFF.ut accordi%g to latest

report of ?94I, u%fortu%ately the ra%ki%g has go%e do&% to 44I(out of 4I? cou%tries) &ith a score of 9.HIH.


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Fig 2: Comparison of India’s GGI scores of 2014 with the past 8 years scores.

#ource: /lobal /e%der /ap *%de+ ?94I.


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Fig 3: India’s scorecard of The Global Gender Gap eport 2014#ource: #he /lobal /e%der /ap Report ?94I

#he abo$e report has obser$ed that the persiste%t health, educatio% a%d eco%omic participatio% gaps are

acti%g as detrime%tal forces to *%dia-s gro&th. #he disproportio%ate se+ ratio at birth has %ot cha%ged o$er

the past years (10>, ?94I).

T"e lin*age +etween Decentralization and Women Empowerment

As has bee% me%tio%ed earlier that approaches to &ome%-s empo&erme%t or say dime%sio%s are se$eral&ith political participatio% as bei%g o%e of them. Political participatio% ca% help &ome% to empo&er i% a

%umber of &ays. >or e+ample, it ca% help them to achie$e a% e2uitable represe%tatio% i% decisio%!maki%g

structures, both formal a%d i%formal. *% doi%g so, they ca% i%flue%ce the formulatio% of policies affecti%g

their societies. Abse%ce of &ome% from the structures of go$er%a%ce &ould mea% that policies desig%ed at

the %atio%al, regio%al a%d local le$els for the allocatio% of resources etc. &ould lack i%put from &ome%.

Such policies ca% o%ly be%efit me%, thus maki%g &ome% more margi%alized. 1ome% empo&erme%t thus

depe%ds to a great e+te%t o% the le$el of their participatio% i% politics. e%ce it is agreed upo% to some

e+te%t that political prese%ce a%d empo&erme%t ha$e importa%t li%ks, the 2uestio% %o& is &hat ca% help

i%crease political participatio% Democratic dece%tralizatio% ca% be a good policy approach i% this regard

because it is about good go$er%a%ce, about pro$idi%g greater opportu%ities for citize%-s participatio% i%

go$er%a%ce at the local le$el. *t ca% be useful i% empo&eri%g &ome% i% a %umber of &ays e.g. it ca%

i%crease the descripti$e represe%tatio% of &ome% i% local go$er%me%ts a%d at the same time it ca% help i%

the formulatio% &ome%-s respo%si$e policies. >igure I, is a% illustratio% of ho& dece%tralizatio% may to


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lead to &ome% empo&erme%t. *t is ob$ious from the figure that dece%tralizatio% may e%ha%ce &ome%

descripti$e represe%tatio% i% politics. #he e%ha%ced descripti$e represe%tatio% may ha$e profou%d impacts

o% the policies desig%ed at the local as &ell as regio%al le$els. #hus, it is most probable that the policies

desig%ed may be more respo%si$e &ome% %eeds. o%se2ue%tly, both the &ome% descripti$e represe%tatio%

as &ell as the &ome% respo%si$e policies may ultimately lead to their empo&erme%t.

Fig4: !howin" the possible lin# between decentrali$ation and women’s empowerment#ource: Self Desig%ed

onclusion:

#he forgoi%g discussio% amply re$eals that though the co%cepts Eempo&erme%t, age%cy a%d auto%omy

ha$e bee% used i%tercha%geably, i% practice it is fou%d that they ca% substa%tially di$erge from each other

a%d are may %ot reflect i%to the other. #his di$erge%ce tells us that there is a %eed for ide%tificatio% of some

cultural factors ha$i%g beari%g o% empo&erme%t a%d auto%omy. #here is a %eed to u%dersta%d that the

co%cepts of empo&erme%t a%d auto%omy are sufficie%tly differe%t. As the data prese%ted i% the abo$etables e+hibited, still a large part of &ome% do %ot ha$e sufficie%t auto%omy regardi%g the $alue choices for

their o&% life. #he data also makes us to i%fer that there is a %ecessity to look beyo%d eco%omic resources

or material prosperity a%d i%to cultural a%d social i%flue%ces, &hich are playi%g a sig%ifica%t role i%

shapi%g the &ome%-s auto%omy a%d age%cy. Agai%, it is also true that though %ot the &ome%-s

empo&erme%t a%d auto%omy ha$e a li%k &ith &ome%-s access to resources or material &ell!bei%g, it is to

be accepted that there is a $ariety of pote%tial co%%ectio%s a%d there e+ists $arious forms of li%kages amo%g

these $ariables. e%ce, the a%s&er for the 2uestio% Are &ome% really empo&ered i% *%dia; is %othi%g but

%ot yet to the desired le$el;.

)eferences:


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N4O. "ill 1illiams (?99F) Measuri%g /e%der a%d 1ome%-s 0mpo&erme%t Usi%g o%firmatory >actor

A%alysis, *S 1orki%g Paper, PAS!?99F!94.

N?O. Malhotra A%orum (?94I) #he /lobal /e%der /ap Report!?94I.

NIO. /o$er%me%t of *%dia (?944) uma% De$elopme%t Report !?944: #o&ards Social *%clusio%, @+ford.

NFO. /o$er%me%t of *%dia (?949) A%%ual Report to #he People o% 0mployme%t, Mi%istry of abour a%d

0mployme%t, =e& Delhi.

NHO. Gabeer =aila (4555) Resources, Age%cy Achie$eme%ts: Reflectio%s o% the Measureme%t of 1ome%-s

0mpo&erme%t-, De$elopme%t a%d ha%ge, 79: pp.I7F!IHI.

N8O. U=DP (?949) uma% De$elopme%t Report!?949.

N6O. U=DP (?944) uma% De$elopme%t Report!?944.

N5O. /o$er%me%t of *%dia (?99H) =atio%al >amily ealth Sur$ey!?99F!9H, Mi%istry of ealth a%d >amily

1elfare, =e& Delhi.

N49O. =SS@: Reports E =o. I95 a%d F4F.

N44O. U%ited =atio%s: Mille%%ium De$elopme%t /oals ?94F.

N4?O. "ea% Dreze a%d Amartya Se% (?99?) *%dia: De$elopme%t a%d Social @pportu%ity, @+ford.

N47O. 0%gla%d Paula (?999) omputi%g 1ome%-s 0mpo&erme%t i% ou%tries of the =orth-, pp.48!HF, i%

1ome%-s 0mpo&erme%t a%d Demographic Processes: Mo$i%g eyo%d airo, (0d.) .. Presser a%d

/.Se%, @+ford.

N4IO. Stom2uist, =elly (4566) 1ome%Cs 0ducatio% i% De$elopme%t: >rom 1elfare to 0mpo&erme%t,

o%$erge%ce ?4 (I): F!48.

N4FO. Datta, P., Political 0mpo&erme%t of Rural 1ome% i% *%dia;, %dministrati&e Chan"e', Qol. ?I(?),

"a%.!"u%e, 4558, p. 4?5!4I6.

N4HO. /o&da, S./., 1ome% i% Pa%chayati Ra< *%stitutio%s: A ase Study i% Gar%ataka;, o)rnal of )ral

*e&elopment', Qol. 48(I), @ct.!Dec., 4556, p. HH5!H85.

N48O. Mishra, S., 1ome% a%d the 87rd

o%stitutio%al Ame%dme%t Act: A critical Appraisal;, !ocial %ctio%;, Qol. I8(4), "a%. E March, 4558, p. 4H!79.

N46O. =atio%al ommissio% for 1ome% (*%dia), % *ecade of +ndea&o)r ;, #he ommissio%, =e& Delhi,

?994.

N45O. Mathe&, /., 1ome% i% Pa%chayat Ra


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N??O. Ro%di%elli, D. (4564). /o$er%me%t Dece%tralizatio% i% omparati$e Perspecti$e: #heory A%d

Practice i% De$elopi%g ou%tries. *%ter%atio%al Re$ie& of Admi%istrati$e Scie%ce, Qol. I8, =o. ?: 477!IF.

N?7O. Ma%or, ". (4558). #he Promise a%d limitatio%s of dece%tralizatio%. >A@ tech%ical co%sultatio% o%

dece%tralizatio%, Rome, 4H ! 46 December. Rome, >A@.

N?IO.Ma%or, ". (4555). The -olitical +conomy of *emocratic *ecentrali$ation. 1ashi%gto%: #he 1orld

a%k.

N?FO. 1ork, R. (?99?). @$er$ie& of Dece%tralizatio% 1orld&ide: A Steppi%g Sto%e to *mpro$ed

/o$er%a%ce a%d uma% De$elopme%t. Paper for the ?%d *%ter%atio%al o%fere%ce o% Dece%tralizatio% a%d

>ederalism, ?F!?8 "uly, Ma%ila: Philippi%es.

decentralization and women empowerment final

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