Decision making

Decision Making

Much of what managers and supervisors do is solve problems and make decisions.

New managers and supervisors, in particular, often make solve problems and decisions by reacting to them.

They are "under the gun", stressed and very short for time.

Consequently, when they encounter a new problem or decision they must make, they react with a decision that seemed to work before

Decision Making

It's easy with this approach to get stuck in a circle of solving the same problem over and over again.

A a new manager or supervisor, get used to an organized approach to problem solving and decision making.

Remember, not all problems can be solved and decisions made by the following, rather rational approach.

The following basic guidelines will get you started.

Decision Making

Define the problem This is often where people struggle. They

react to what they think the problem is. Instead, seek to understand more about why you think there's a problem.

Define the problem

Defining the problem: (with input from yourself and others)Ask yourself and others, the following questions: What can you see that causes you to think there's a

problem? Where is it happening? How is it happening? When is it happening? With whom is it happening? (HINT: Don't jump to "Who is

causing the problem?" When we're stressed, blaming is often one of our first reactions. To be an effective manager, you need to address issues more than people.)

Define the problem

Why is it happening? Write down a five-sentence description of the

problem in terms of "The following should be happening, but isn't ..." "The following is happening and should be: ..."

As much as possible, be specific in your description, including what is happening, where, how, with whom and why.

Define the problem

Prioritize the problems: If you discover that you are looking at several related

problems, then prioritize which ones you should address first.

Note the difference between "important" and "urgent" problems. Often, what we consider to be important problems to consider are really just urgent problems. Important problems deserve more attention. For example, if you're continually answering "urgent" phone calls, then you've probably got a more "important" problem and that's to design a system that screens and prioritizes your phone calls.

Define the problem

Understand your role in the problem: Your role in the problem can greatly influence how

you perceive the role of others. For example, if you're very stressed out, it'll probably look like others are, too, or, you may resort too quickly to blaming and reprimanding others. Or, you are feel very guilty about your role in the problem, you may ignore the accountabilities of others.

Look at potential causes for the problem It's amazing how much you don't know about what you don't

know. it's critical to get input from other people who notice the problem and who are effected by it.

It's often useful to collect input from other individuals one at a time Otherwise, people tend to be inhibited about offering their impressions of the real causes of problems.

Write down what your opinions and what you've heard from others.

Regarding what you think might be performance problems associated with an employee, it's often useful to seek advice from a peer or your supervisor in order to verify your impression of the problem.

Write down a description of the cause of the problem and in terms of what is happening, where, when, how, with whom and why

Identify alternatives for approaches to resolve the problem At this point, it's useful to keep others involved

(unless you're facing a personal and/or employee performance problem). Brainstorm for solutions to the problem. Very simply put, brainstorming is collecting as many ideas as possible, then screening them to find the best idea.

It's critical when collecting the ideas to not pass any judgment on the ideas -- just write them down as you hear them

Select an approach to resolve the problem When selecting the best approach, consider:

Which approach is the most likely to solve the problem for the long term?

Which approach is the most realistic to accomplish for now? Do you have the resources? Are they affordable? Do you have enough time to implement the approach?

What is the extent of risk associated with each alternative?

Plan the implementation of the best alternative (this is your action plan)

Carefully consider "What will the situation look like when the problem is solved?“

What steps should be taken to implement the best alternative to solving the problem?

What systems or processes should be changed in your organization, for example, a new policy or procedure? Don't resort to solutions where someone is "just going to try harder".

How will you know if the steps are being followed or not? (these are your indicators of the success of your plan)

Plan the implementation of the best alternative (this is your action plan)

What resources will you need in terms of people, money and facilities?

How much time will you need to implement the solution? Write a schedule that includes the start and stop times, and when you expect to see certain indicators of success.

Who will primarily be responsible for ensuring implementation of the plan?

Write down the answers to the above questions and consider this as your action plan.

Communicate the plan to those who will involved in implementing it and, at least, to your immediate supervisor.

Monitor implementation of the plan Monitor the indicators of success:

Are you seeing what you would expect from the indicators? Will the plan be done according to schedule? If the plan is not being followed as expected, then consider:

Was the plan realistic? Are there sufficient resources to accomplish the plan on

schedule? Should more priority be placed on various aspects of the

plan? Should the plan be changed?

Verify if the problem has been resolved or not

One of the best ways to verify if a problem has been solved or not is to resume normal operations in the organization. Still, you should consider: What changes should be made to avoid this type of problem in

the future? Consider changes to policies and procedures, training, etc.

Lastly, consider "What did you learn from this problem solving?" Consider new knowledge, understanding and/or skills.

Consider writing a brief memo that highlights the success of the problem solving effort, and what you learned as a result. Share it with your supervisor, peers and subordinates.

Review

Cross-Cultural Considerations: A Closer Look Culture

A system of shared norms, beliefs, values, and customs that bind people together, creating shared meaning and a unique identity

Cultural Differences Geographic regions Ethnic or religious groups Language Economic

Cross-Cultural Considerations… (cont’d) Ethnocentric Perspective

The tendency believe that one’s cultural values and ways of doing things are superior to all others Wanting to conduct business only on your terms and

stereotyping other countries as lazy, corrupt, or inefficient. Ignoring the “people factor” in other cultures by putting work

ahead of building relationships. Adjustments

Relativity of time and punctuality Culture-related ethical differences Personal and professional relationships Attitudes toward work and life

Cross-Cultural Orientations Relation to Nature

How people relate to the natural world around them and to the supernatural.

Time Orientation The culture focus on the past, present, or future.

Activity Orientation How to live: “being” or living in the moment, doing, or

controlling. Basic Nature of People

Whether people viewed as good, evil, or some mix of these two.

Relationships Among People The degree of responsibility one has for others.

Source: F. Kluckhohn and F. L. Strodtbeck, Variations in Value Orientations (Evanston, IL: Row, Peterson, 1961).

Hofstede Cultural Dimensions Framework Individualism versus Collectivism

Identifies whether a culture holds individuals or the group responsible for each member’s welfare.

Power Distance Describes degree to which a culture accepts status and power

differences among its members. Uncertainty Avoidance

Identifies a culture’s willingness to accept uncertainty and ambiguity about the future.

Masculinity-Femininity Describes the degree to which the culture emphasizes competitive

and achievement-oriented behavior or displays concerns for relationships.

What is a manager ?

Who is the person that best fit to become a manager?

What skills should he/she have? What training / experience does he/she need

to have?

Different perspectives and expectations by different people in the organization

Transformation of IdentityFrom To

A Specialist and Doer. Directly performs Technical Tasks

A generalist and agenda setter. Orchestrates diverse tasks, including finance, product design and manufacturing or organization. Multi-Knowledgeable. Strongly identified with a business or the management profession.

An individual actor. Gets things done mostly through own efforts. Strongly identified as relatively independent

A network builder. Gets things done through others, including subordinates over whom one has formal authority. Strongly identified as highly interdependent.

New manager transformation

Coping with stress Reluctantly letting go of habits Experimenting with new ways of thinking

Different expectations

Own expectations Subordinate expectations Supervisor expectations Peer expectations

New manger’s Stresses including:- Role Strain- Negativity- Isolation- Burden of leadership - responsibility

Managers’ new identity

Facing new realities on their current position managers need to change their initial expectation, and work toward forging a new identity.

Three critical areas made them rethink their managerial role: Daily realities Subordinates’ expectations Superiors’ expectations

Discovering Daily realities

Workload and pace of managerial work More stress Coordination and work planning Solving problems Devoting time and support to subordinate Dependence on others

Discovering the discontinuity between a

producer and managerial role

There is a huge discontinuity between producer and managerial roles and between realities and expectations:

Managers’ Work Load and pace 50% more work than doers Endless job responsibilities

Management as dependence not authority

No direct control over results

Discovering subordinates’ needs

Involvement vs Interference Managers are problem solvers. Making decisive decisions Bonuses and positive feedback

Managers must adapt themselves and work

toward meeting their subordinate expectations

Develop and refine the interpersonal judgment

Accept subordinates’ diversity

Respond to subordinates’ diversity

Manage the problem subordinate

Delegation and control

Criteria for Selecting Managers

Managerial candidates should have technical, human, conceptual, or analytic competence, find managerial intrinsically rewarding, and exhibit the managerial character.

On-the-job learning should let them display these attributes: self-insight and a penchant for learning.

People who enjoy learning actively seek opportunities for personal growth and development, they show resilience under stress.

SELECTING NEW MANAGERS

Career histories represent the experiential base from which managerial candidates could have developed competencies, qualities, and developmental relationships critical for management.

The candidate need not be a star individual contributor, but should demonstrate above-average proficiency at the technical task.

The new managers relied upon their technical background in three ways: The expert knowledge A source of self-confidence A base upon which to build credibility and exercise influence

Human and conceptual competencies must also be considered. Examine “how” those candidates achieved those outcomes Did they display good interpersonal and conceptual judgment or instincts?

Try to choose candidates who seem to have managerial character and the motivation and ability to learn from experience.

How to Select Managers

Providing managers with management internships.

Potential managers were asked to assume some managerial responsibilities for at least a year before being promoted.

Each site can observe the other, the candidate experiences management in action, executives can assess whether the candidate has what it takes.

Potential managers can begin to form a managerial perspective and managerial knowledge and skills.

An ideal management internship would encourage establishing developmental relationships. At least candidates would be matched with positive role models.

Previewing Managerial Work

SUPPORTING THE NEW MANAGER Help managers capitalize fully upon on-the-job experience – to provide the

resources, attitudes, and skills so that they can effectively learn form experience.

Ensure that newcomers have access to the people and relationships they need to help them embed and amplify their personal effectiveness.

Developing the New Managers’ Superiors

To provide senior executives with training on how to be better coaches.

Preparing senior executives for their developmental function is updating or upgrading the senior managers’ conceptions of management, senior managers rarely received training.

Leadership and the skill of exercising influence without authority to build partnerships both within and across units are more important.

Encouraging Developmental Relationships

Relationships should be encouraged between new and veteran managers; both formal and informal channels can be used to expose new manages to competent peers and superior managers.

New managers more clearly see themselves as part of the larger organization. They experience the perspectives of constituencies with whom they must interact.

Corporate Training

Training provided the new managers with a framework for thinking about appropriate ways of handling common dilemmas, corporate resources to

help tackle those dilemmas, much-needed feedback, and network or relationships.

Exercising Influence Without Formal Authority Organizations consist of interdependent individuals (and groups)

with divergent interests.

Managers have to figure out how to balance or reconcile these competing interests.

The managers must establish anew their credibility as managers able to get things done through others.

They must become “political” – i.e., understand the political dynamics of organizations and build the power and influence necessary to navigate them.

Power Dynamics in Organizations “Powerful” is not equate power simply with formal authority.

They often view “politics” as inherently bad.

New managers’ responsibilities include growing their own power and influence in order to manage key interdependencies and relationships.

Power and influence are the mechanisms by which the inevitable political conflicts in organizations get resolved.

Managers who understand political dynamics will have the potential to shape their environments.

Political conflict is at the heart of how organizations function.

Political conflict is legitimate disagreements about what is best for the organization.

All managerial decisions involve trade-offs: the need to balance complex and ambiguous issues that generate political conflict.

Power Dynamics in Organizations (cont’d)

Sources of Power

Power – the potential of and individual (or group) to influence another individual or group.

To influence is to change the behavior, attitudes, and/or values of that individual of group.

One big piece of having influence on people is being able to establish credibility with team.

Sources of Power

Sources of personal power

Expertise

Track record

Attractiveness

Effort

Sources of positional power

Formal authority

Relevance

Centrality

Autonomy

Visibility

Relevant knowledge and skills

Relevant experience and accomplishments

Attributes that others find appealing and identify with

Expenditure of time and energy

Position in hierarchy and prescribed responsibilities

Relationship between task and organizational objectives

Position in key networks

Amount of discretion in a position

Degree to which performance can be seen by others

Manager’s power

Building an Effective Team

Managing the team itself Managing one-on-one is not the same as

managing the team Building blocks of team management What is an effective team? Designing The Team Facilitating the Team Process Managing paradox

The Acculturation Curve

Positive+

Positive

+

Negative-

1Euphoria

2 Cultureshock

3Acculturation

4 Stable state

Phase

Time

Even be better

Good as before

Remain negative

04/20/23

➲ Sachs Excerpt – Successful Interviewer

Prepare Needs and Wants Exact Job Responsibility Responsibility Qualification and Skills. Personality Type. Resume achievement claims, job

changes, Relocations, References. Know and Don't Know.

04/20/23

➲ Schs Excerpt – Successful Interviewer Cont.

Process 3 R's : Repeat, Rephrase, Require. Silence 45 Minutes

Performance Appraisals

Two main reasons for performance appraisals: Justify many human resources decision.

Pay raises Promotions Demotions Terminations Selection validation.

Maintain a competitive edge.

Why Employees and Managers Dread the performance Appraisal

Employees They are being judged. It does not take account of

their perception of their true worth.

Uncertainty about managers’ checkmarks that go into their permanent record.

Their word is less important than their boss’ opinion.

Managers People do not like to judge

other people. Risk of offending an

employee. Poor performance appraisal

systems set by the company (theory vs. reality).

Evaluation of employees with whom manager has little contact.

Appraisal systems that are new for the managers.

Appraisal Methods

1) Global essays and ratings.

2) Trait rating.

3) Peer ranking.

4) Organizational Records.

5) Critical incidents.

6) Behaviorally based scales and behaviorally anchored rating scales (BARS).

7) Objectives and goal-setting procedures.

Performance Appraisal System

Keys to an effective Performance Appraisal system: Clearly defined purpose for appraisals. Employee/manager involvement in appraisal system

design. User-friendly job related rating forms and procedures. Properly trained personnel. Effective performance planning. Ongoing appraisals and coaching. Motivated raters to conduct effective appraisals. Top management support / appraisal practice. Link of appraisal outcomes to performance ratings. Ongoing systems review and corrective action.

Common Appraisal Errors

1) Inadequately defined standards of performance.2) Over-emphasis on recent performance.3) Reliance on gut feelings.4) Miscomprehension of performance standards by

employee.5) Insufficient or unclear performance documentation.6) Inadequate time allotment for the discussion.7) Too much talking by manager/supervisor.8) Lack of follow-up plan.

Employee Recognition & Reward

Reasons for recognition: Support culture change in organization. Maintain workers’ interest about the job. Reward employees fairly if project fails without their fault. Strengthen behavior changes made by unsatisfactory

performers. Recognition types:

Extrinsic rewards. Intrinsic rewards.

Behaviors Worth Recognition

Learning new skills. Pitching in to help coworker. Mediating a conflict. Volunteering for grunge work. Giving a customer extra attention. Mentoring a new employee. Tackling a problem in a fresh way. Making people laugh in a stressful situation. Sharing information. Taking notes in meetings. Perfect attendance. Adapting willingly to change. Cross-training another employee.

Additional material Email etiquette Meeting Management Team building Speaking in front of an audience Hiring process The Interview Performance evaluation Termination Conflict management Sexual harassment