defining critical thoughts
TRANSCRIPT
Nurse Education Today 34 (2014) 670–672
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Nurse Education Today
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Review
Defining critical thoughts
Abbie Lovatt 1
6111 Lloyd Crescent SW, Calgary T3E 5V8, Alberta, Canada
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0260-6917/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rihttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2013.12.003
a b s t r a c t
a r t i c l e i n f oArticle history:Accepted 2 December 2013
Nursing education has long struggled to define critical thinking and explain how the process of critical thinkingfits into the context of nursing. Despite this long time struggle, nurses and nurse educators continue to strive tofoster critical thinking skills in nursing students as intuitively most nurses believe that critical thinking is neces-sary to function competently in the workplace. This article explores the most recent work of Dr. StephenBrookfield and ties the conceptswhich are explored in Brookfield’swork to nursing practice. Brookfield identifiesthat learners understand the meaning of critical thinking the best when the process is first demonstrated. Rolemodeling is a method educators can use to demonstrate critical thinking and is a strategy which nurses oftenuse in the clinical area to train andmentor new nursing staff. Although it is not a new strategy in nursing educa-tion, it is a valuable strategy to engage learners in critical thinking activities.
© 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction
Dr. Stephen Brookfield is a Distinguished University Professor whoteaches at the University of St. Thomas. He has earned a Ph.D. in adulteducation as well as numerous honorary degrees for his contributionsto adult education. Dr. Brookfield has written several publications andhis newest book Teaching for Critical Thinking is bound to catch the eyeof any adult educatorwho is all too familiarwith the struggles and perilsof teaching critical thinking to post-secondary students. However, likeall good and reasonable things, this publication does not offer anyquick fix solutions or miracle cures for the challenges educators facewhen teaching critical thinking. Still Dr. Brookfield does not disappointwith this thoughtful piecewhich offersmany valuable insights accumu-lated from years as a lifelong learner and adult educator.
While Brookfield makes several relevant points giving the readermuch to contemplate, two observations which Brookfield discussesconnect specifically with the challenges that nurse educators have his-torically struggled. The first observation is that the term critical thinkingis a barrier to learner success due to its broad definition. The struggle todefine critical thinking has long plaguednursing education as historical-ly the term has been used to describe a wide variety of student out-comes such as developing new attitudes or knowledge to increasingstudent maturity and self-confidence (Gaberson and Oermann, 2010).Due to the broad interpretation of the term critical thinking few gainshave been made in finding a definition which most professional nursescan agree upon (Brookfield, 2012; Gaberson and Oermann, 2010;Raterink, 2008). Brookfield further offers insight into factors perpetuat-ing the lack of consensus amongst nursing professionals by identifying
ghts reserved.
five intellectual traditions from which critical thinking may originate.The five traditions are identified as 1) analytical philosophical, 2) natu-ral science, 3) pragmatism, 4) psychoanalysis, and 5) critical theory.
The second valuable observation Brookfield shares is that learnersfrequently report that they understand the meaning of critical thinkingthe bestwhen they are shown how to solve a problem. Brookfield refersto this teaching strategy as role modeling. The use of role modeling inthe clinical and lecture settings is not a new concept in nursing educa-tion. Buddy shifts and mentoring programs are both prime examplesof how role modeling has already been incorporated in nursing educa-tion (Perry, 2009). Role modeling also has been used in the lecture set-ting as a teaching strategy, whereby learners start to model theirthought pattern after the educators (Felstead, 2013).
Defining Critical Thinking
Brookfield defines critical thinking as “the process of hunting andchecking assumptions” (p 5). While Brookfield offers a coherent defini-tion of critical thinking he recognizes that the process in which individ-ual learners hunt and check assumptions is different. Brookfieldexplains that the difference in hunting and checking assumptions is in-fluenced by an individual's previous experience with education andgoes on to elaborate that due to the varied experiences the term criticalthinking will always remain open to learner interpretation. Brookfieldfurther demonstrates the varied meaning of critical thinking byexplaining that no one area of science or art owns the origins of criticalthinking. Throughout history each intellectual tradition, analytic philo-sophical, natural sciences, pragmatism, psychoanalysis, and critical the-ory have developed a unique knowledge base. While the process ofhunting and checking assumptions is essential for solving problems
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and valuable in the pursuit of greater knowledge, the process of huntingand checking assumptions differs greatly between intellectual tradi-tions (Brookfield, 2012). For example Brookfield explains in the naturalscience tradition that learners would hunt and check assumptions viaexperimentation which includes formulating hypotheses, designing anexperiment and analyzing the results. In pragmatism, however, thelearner would hunt and check assumptions through identifying a mis-take and reflecting on individual actions which contribute to this error(Brookfield, 2012). Despite the process of hunting and checking as-sumptions varying greatly between intellectual traditions, educatorsoften use the term critical thinking to describe them all (Brookfield,2012).
Most nurse educators believe intuitively that critical thinking is atthe core of what nursing is and what a nurse does (Riddell, 2007).Thus seeking an appropriate definition for the term critical thinkinghas been a priority amongst nursing professionals (Chan, 2013). Thispriority is evident by the amount of literature in recent years dedicatedto the topic of critical thinking (Chan, 2013). The lack of definition sur-rounding critical thinking has certainly negatively impacted educationand the generalizability of nursing research which seeks to identify ef-fective teaching methods by measuring critical thinking in learners(Chan, 2013).
However, as previously discussed even if a suitable definition ofcritical thinking is found it will remain open to learner interpretation aseach individual has a preconceived notion of what critical thinkingmeans based on individual experience (Brookfield, 2012). The ideologythat a definition of critical thinking will never suit nursing education isshared by some nursing scholars. For example, Tanner (2005) wrote ofthe impossibility of defining this term. Riddell (2007), who wrote aboutthe earlierworks of Brookfield and the implications for nursing education,felt it more important that nursing educators explain critical thinking tolearners instead of attempting to define it. In light of Brookfield's newestpublication it is likely that for learners to grasp the complex meaning ofcritical thinking they not only require an explanation but also a demon-stration of the process of hunting and checking assumptions.
Teaching Critical Thinking
Throughout the course of his book Teaching for Critical Thinking,Dr. Brookfield is a strong advocate for the use of role modeling in theclassroom setting. The strategy of role modeling involves an educatordemonstrating critical thinking in twoways. Thefirst is that an educatormust use personal examples of how they have hunted and checked as-sumptions or engaged in critical thinking. Brookfield feels very stronglythat an educator must earn the right to ask learners to partake in thesometimes risky and uncomfortable activity of hunting assumptions.The way an educator earns this right is by demonstrating to learnersthat they have too been through this process (Brookfield, 2012). Thesecond is that an educator must explain their actions. For example, theeducator must explain to learners the purpose of a certain class of activ-ity or assignment. The purpose of this action is that the learners buildtrust and confidence in the educator. Learners who feel secure that theeducator has a plan are more likely to engage when they feel theactivities are purposeful (Brookfield, 2012). Brookfield's anecdotal ex-perience of role modeling as an effective strategy can be collaboratedby some nursing research which has also found that role modeling canincrease the confidence students have in nursing educators (Felstead,2013).
However it should be noted prior to starting critical thinkingactivities that learners must understand an adequate amount of thediscipline's core truths (Brookfield, 2012). These truths are further de-fined as essential knowledge that is required to function in any disci-pline. While there is some debate whether or not learners can learncritical thinking without learning core knowledge, Brookfield anecdot-ally reports that teaching critical thinking often fails if learners have in-adequate context. The implication for nursing education is that learners
need to be exposed to a solid foundation of nursing knowledge beforethey are able to engage in critical thinking activity (Brookfield, 2012).
Role Modeling in Nursing Education
Brookfield advocates for the use of role modeling because hislearners have frequently reported that it is the best way in which theyunderstand the meaning of critical thinking. The benefit of using rolemodeling is that learners begin to form a clear and complete pictureas to what is expected of them. They are also privy to the educator'sthought patterns and can start to model their own thought patternssimilar to the educator's (Nouri et al., 2013). Brookfield further reportsthat role modeling is a low risk activity for learners to engage in astheir own thought patterns are not under scrutiny.
Role modeling is an activity which nurses frequently engage in whenentering a new clinical field. For example buddy shifts and peermentoring are often steps in a newnurse orientation program and are ex-amples of how new nurses model their behavior to demonstrate key unitvalues, and unit process and assimilate to work place culture (Perry,2009).
Using role modeling in a lecture setting has not been as readilyadopted (Felstead, 2013). There are several reasons as to why a nurseeducator might feel that role modeling is not an appropriate teachingstrategy. These reasons can range from the content not being suited tothe activity to time constraints (Felstead, 2013). However, engaging ina short but purposeful role modeling activity can greatly improve learn-er engagement (Brookfield, 2012; Felstead, 2013). When learners enteran undergraduate nursing program they do so with the end goal of be-coming a practicing nurse. Throughout the course of their education,learners will disengage in courses where they perceive the contentand instructor as not being relevant to the clinical field (Felstead,2013). Felstead (2013) explored rolemodeling in the context of nursingeducation and found it to be a very effective way to provide clarity andto make the connection between theory and practice. When instructorsclearly explain the objectives of a role modeling exercise and engage inthat activity, learners not only gain understanding of the cognitivethought process required to practice competently, they also start toview the instructor as a clinically competent individual and the coursecontent as relevant and important (Brookfield, 2012; Felstead, 2013).The result was that learners would start to model their own behaviorsand attitudes similar to what was demonstrated by the instructor(Felstead, 2013).
Although rolemodeling is not a new strategy in nursing education, itsusage as a valuable strategy to engage learners in critical thinking activi-ties in both the lecture and clinical areas has been validated byDr. Brookfield's publication as well as a study done by Felstead (2013).By providing learners with a demonstration on how critical thinking isutilized within a discipline, role modeling has the ability to offer clarityto learners who all have differing definitions of the term (Brookfield,2012).
Conclusion
In his book Teaching for Critical Thinking, Dr. Stephen Brookfield ex-plores two valuable insights which can impact on nursing education.The first is that critical thinking is an ambiguous termwhichwill alwaysbe subject to individual interpretation. The second is that role modelingis the process in which an educator demonstrates to learners the pro-cess of hunting and checking assumptions. By demonstrating the pro-cess of hunting and checking assumptions, learners are provided withclear expectations and build confidence in educators (Brookfield,2012; Felstead, 2013).
As nursing educators continue to strive to foster critical thinkingskills in learners, providing clarity in expectations needs to become apriority. It is no longer acceptable for a nursing instructor to tell learnersto critically think without first providing a detailed explanation and
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demonstrating the process of hunting and checking assumptions whichthey expect learners tomodel. By dismissing the assumption that every-one views critical thinking froma similar perspective, nursing educationhas an opportunity to truly begin to understand the meaning of criticalthinking in the context of nursing.
References
Brookfield, S., 2012. Teaching for Critical Thinking: Tools and Techniques: To HelpStudents Question Their Assumption. Jossey-Bass and Willey, San Francisco.
Chan, Z., 2013. A systematic review of critical thinking in nursing education. Nurse Educ.Today 33 (3), 236–240.
Felstead, I., 2013. Role modeling and students' professional development. Br. J. Nurs. 22(4), 223–227.
Gaberson, K.B., Oermann, M.H., 2010. Clinical Teaching Strategies in Nursing, 3rd ed.Springer Publishing Company, New York.
Nouri, J.M., Ebadi, A., Alhani, F., Rejeh, N., Ahmadizadeh, M.J., 2013. Qualitative study ofhumanization-based nursing education focused on role modeling by instructors.Nurs. Health Sci. 15 (2), 137–143.
Perry, B., 2009. Role modeling excellence in clinical nursing practice. Nurse Educ. Pract. 9(1), 36–44.
Raterink, G., 2008. A descriptive inquiry of the definitions of critical thinking and enhancersand barriers reported by nurses working in long-term care facilities. J. Contin. Educ.Nurs. 39 (9), 407–412. http://dx.doi.org/10.3928/00220124-20080901-07#_blank.
Riddell, T., 2007. Critical assumptions: thinking critically about critical thinking. J. Nurs.Educ. 46 (3), 121–126.
Tanner, C.A., 2005. What have we learned about critical thinking in nursing. J. Nurs. Educ.44 (2), 47–48.